Organization Behaviour 2

Module Notes - Organisational Theory & Behaviour

UNIVERSITE LAIQUE ADVESTIST DE KIGALI

(UNILAK)

LECTURE NOTES

FOR

Organisational Theory & Behaviour (OB)

Prepared by

NDIYO Johnson

2008

©Compiled by Ndiyo Johnson MBA-Project Management Page 1 of 79


Table of Content

Module 1: Introduction to Organisational Theory & Behaviour (OTB)

Module 2: Individual Values, Perceptions, Attitudes and Attribution

Module 3: Motivation and Job Design

Module 4: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB), Work holism and Escalation

Module 5: Humour in Organisations. Rumour and Gossip in Organisations

Module 6: Romance in Organisations

Module 7: Groups and Work Teams

Module 8: Identity in Organisations

Module 9: Workplace Bullying and Violence

Module 10: Conflict and Stress in Organisations

Module 11: Power and Politics



Introduction to Organisational Theory & Behaviour (OTB)

Welcome to Module 1.

How to work through a module:

Read the Focus Questions to give you an idea of what you will need to learn. Work through the Module Notes to develop an understanding of the key concepts for the module. Access any other Additional Resources suggested by the Unit Controller. Attend the Weekly video presentation so you get input from your Unit Controller. Make notes and write down questions that you may want to ask your Facilitator. Review the Learning Activities before you attend your tutorial. Attend the Weekly Tutorial to review your learning and get feedback from your Facilitator. After your class, review the Focus Questions again to make sure you understand them fully.

Good luck!

Learning Outcomes

In completing this module, you should be able to:

Define organisational behaviour and its importance for the management of people and work. Identify the different disciplines that contribute to the study of organisational behaviour. Identify and explain contemporary forms of organisation and their management. Identify and explain the challenges facing contemporary management. Describe workforce diversity and ethics and discuss their implications for studying organisational

behaviour. Explain what is meant by critical thinking and its application to the study of management and

organisational behaviour. Explain the contribution of postmodernism to the study of organisational behaviour and discuss whose

interests are being served by the disciplines of management and organisational behaviour.

Introduction

Welcome to Organisational Behaviour 200. During the unit, you will be introduced to theoretical and practical aspects of the understanding and management of organisational behaviour. In this module you will learn some of the central concepts around which you can build your understanding of organisations and management. Completion of this module will give you:

knowledge and understanding of organisational behaviour the central theories and concepts that underpin the subject ‘organisational behaviour’ introduce you to some of the issues and challenges facing contemporary managers.

This is a large module, but an important one, as it establishes the framework which underpins the course. This module also introduces you to some of the current trends within the field of organisational behaviour. Many writers and researchers have embraced the idea of the post-modern organisation and begun to question traditional assumptions underpinning research into organisations and behaviour. Writers and researchers have begun to ask pertinent questions about contemporary organisations. Such questions include, "Whose interests are served by organisational behaviour?" Others have called for us to take a more critical approach to our study and research.



Organisational Behaviour embraces the call to be more critical in our thinking and to challenge accepted/traditional assumptions. Accordingly, you, as students are challenged to think ‘critically’. This module will guide you in this process. It is interesting to note that universities see critical thinking as an important defining characteristic of university graduates. Critical thinking has been identified by Curtin University as a key professional skill to be developed in students and your assignments will encourage you to think critically. What we mean by critical thinking is discussed in the module.

Focus Questions

1. What is organisational behaviour and how is it important for the management of people at work? 2. What are the foundations of organisational behaviour? 3. What are the challenges facing contemporary managers? 4. What is diversity and what are the implications for managing people? 5. Why are ethics and social responsibility an important topic in studying organisational behaviour? 6. What does critical thinking entail?

Module Notes

What is Organisational behaviour?In order to fully understand the subject Organisational Behaviour (OB) you will need to draw upon your learning and experience from principles of Management. Organisational behaviour and management go together, hand-in-hand.

There a number of definitions of OB. These include: ‘The study of individuals and groups in organisations.’ ‘An interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work.’ ‘The study of structure, functioning and performance of organisations, and the behaviour of individuals

within them.’ ‘The study of what people think, feel and do in organisations.’

From these definitions it is apparent that OB is a field of study. When studying OB we tend to look at three different levels and perspectives.

Individuals. Groups. Organisation.

The individual The group The organisation



You can group the various topics and modules studied in OB200 under these three levels and you will notice that the unit moves from the individual level of analysing OB to groups and then the organisational level. Many OB text books tend to adopt this level of analysis.

Contributing disciplines to the OB fieldOrganisational behaviour is an interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary applied behavioural science that draws upon a number of different disciplines including:

Psychology and social psychology. Sociology. Anthropology. Political science.

Why study OB? Studying OB enables us to:

Understand organisational events. Influence organisational events (come up with ideas and recommendations for organisational action). Predict organisational events.

Special Characteristics of OBClosely related to the above reasons are the inherent (essential) characteristics of OB as an academic and applied discipline.

OB is applied in focus (answers practical questions). Contingency orientation (no ‘one best way’ to manage. Behaviour varies between people and across

different situations. The contingency approach encourages managers to view organisational behaviour within a situational context. This means that managers should select tools and techniques that are appropriate to the situation facing them.

Emphasis on scientific enquiry (makes use of scientific method and enquiry. Research focused).

Historical Roots of OBOB emerged as an academic discipline during the 1940s and draws upon a number of traditions:

1. Human Relations MovementThe Human Relations Movement is a school of thought which emphasises the importance of social processes at work. The human relations approach to management argues that work should be source of social relationships for individuals and should meet their need for belonging and group membership. Key studies and writers with the Human Relations Movement include The Hawthorne studies and McGregor’s Theory Y.

2. Total Quality Management (TQM):"An organisational culture dedicated to training, continuous improvement, and customer satisfaction." TQM is based upon the work of W Edwards Deming

3. Contingency Approach to ManagementThe Contingency approach to management argues that there is no "one best way" to management. Instead, the contingency approach encourages managers to view organisational behaviour within a situational context.

Challenges and Opportunities for OBManaging the behaviour of employees is an important task of today’s managers and understanding organisational behaviour has never been more important for managers.

The ‘new workplace’ has thrown up a number of challenges for mangers. These are outlined in detail by Wood et al, Chapter 1: Organisational Behaviour: Managing the new workplace in Module 1 of your AVU Unit Reader.

A number of these challenges include: Managing the globalisation of work. Managing human rights in the workplace. Managing knowledge and information technology.



Managing new organisational forms. o virtual corporations and the virtual workplace.

Two important challenges for managers are managing workforce diversity and managing ethics and social responsibility (see Wood et al, pp 21-26 of your AVU Unit Reader).

If managers are to competently face these challenges and opportunities, then managers must change too (see Table 1.1, p 30 in your AVU Unit Reader for the, ‘The emerging senior manager profile’.)

Managers and organisational behaviourWood et al (2004, p. 32) argue;

"...the field of organisational behaviour helps managers both deal with and learn from their workplace experiences. Managers who understand organisational behaviour are better prepared to know what to look for in work situations, to understand what they find and to take (or help others to take) the required action".

It seems that the future of effective contemporary management involves sound understanding of organisational behaviour.

Reassessing OB: Postmodernism and critical thinkingThe academic disciplines of management and organisational behaviour are increasingly being influenced by what is known as "postmodernism". Postmodernism represents a fundamental challenge to the ways in which we think about organisations, and about organisational behaviour. Postmodernism is a confusing issue and one that is hard to define clearly.

There are two common uses of term ‘postmodern’. The first use concerns a period of time. The second use of the term concerns ways of thinking about and theorising society and organisations. We often use a hyphen (the punctuation mark (-) used between the parts of a compound word or name) to distinguish between the two different meanings and usage of the term.

post-modern a period in time. A type of organisation design appropriate for contemporary environmental conditions.

postmodern a philosophy. A way of looking at, of thinking about, of developing theories, or criticising organisations.

Postmodernism examines the way in which language is used to construct or portray a particular set of assumptions as ‘truth’ and ‘reality’ and exposes whose interests are being served by claims of truth.

Questions and challenges raised by postmodernism Whose interests are served by management and organisational behaviour? Truth is socially constructed (this means text books, readings etc are socially constructed) and that we

need to explore the assumptions behind all claims to truth. In what ways does language construct reality and whose interests are being served by what we read

and study? Take nothing for granted! Challenge your own and others assumptions. Postmodernism asks how different readers interpret texts. What does it mean to them? There is no one

‘correct’ interpretation of what an author has created. This unit challenges us to adopt the issues raised by postmodernism. As students you are asked to consider:

"Who constructed the various OB theories and concepts that we learn?" "Whose interests are being served by these theories and concepts?" "What are the alternatives, and what are the assumptions behind these?" "Are the models/theories/concepts presented in your readings the ‘truth’?" "In what ways are they socially constructed?" "Are there alternative meanings and interpretations?"



These issues are explored in more detail in the unit readings assigned for this module.

Critical thinkingCritical thinking is often seen as the defining characteristic of a university graduate. Within the university environment, critical thinking involves ‘students’ abilities to identify issues and assumptions, recognise important relationships, make correct inferences, evaluate evidence, and deduce conclusions’ (Tapper, 2004: 201)

OB 200 aims to encourage and to enhance your critical thinking skills. Here, we will briefly outline what it means to think critically. As you will see, it is closely related to, and shares a number of the assumptions underpinning postmodernism.

Critical thinking is a skill that involves your ability to reflect upon, to question effectively, and to suspend your judgement or belief in relevant knowledge (Phillips and Bond, 2004),

What does critical thinking involve? Evaluation. Reflecting upon and questioning the assumptions and underpinnings of the area under investigation

(concepts/models/theories). Examining power relationships (whose interest is being served here).

Another way of looking at critical thinking is to see it as a ‘reflection’. This means that when we approach an issue/theory/concept we:

‘Weigh it up’ (evaluate, for example, Compare x in relation to y, positive and negative). ‘Look at from all the angles’ (look at a situation from as many different points of view as you can). ‘Look back on’ (look back and reflect upon and see it differently to how you originally saw it). ‘Look beyond what is there’ (looking beyond the surface, examining the underpinning assumptions)

(Phillips and Bond, 2004).

A number of academics writing in the field of organisational behaviour have called for a more critical approach to the field and to incorporate a postmodern analysis of the concepts/theories and assumptions underpinning the discipline. This course encourages such an approach and you will be expected to demonstrate critical thinking in your learning and your assessments.

Summaries (to be completed in your own time)

It is recommended that you summarise the following reader chapters if you think this will help you to understand the concepts that are covered in this module. They are to be completed in your own time and preferably before the seminar session.

1. Read and summarise Chapter 1, ‘Organisational behaviour: Managing the new workplace’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

2. Read and summarise ‘Postmodernism: fresh perspectives on Organisational Behaviour’ from your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 1.1 – Ethical Behaviour (Individual activity)

Complete the Individual Activity ‘Ethical Behaviour’ at the end of Chapter 1: Organisational behaviour: Managing the new workplace, p 40. When you have completed this activity, discuss with the class the question at the end of the activity.



Learning Activity 1.2 – Small Group Discussion (Individual activity)

Answer the following questions individually at first. Then arrange yourselves into groups of 3 or 4 to discuss your answers.

1. “What is organisational behaviour and why is it important?” 2. “Whose interest does organisational behaviour serve?” Consider this from the perspective of both

managers and employees. 3. “What does it mean to think critically?” “What are the implications for the study of organisational

behaviour?” 4. “What is diversity?” “What does diversity mean in an African context?” Identify the characteristics of the

African workforce. “What challenges does a diversity issue raise for African managers?”

Select one person from each group is to report back to the entire class their group’s answer to each question. Add any additional information to your original answers.



Module 2: Individual Values, Perceptions, Attitudes and Attribution


Learning Outcomes


Identify and critically evaluate the concepts and factors that make up individual differences. Describe the relationship between attitudes and beliefs and values, and explain the influence of

attitudes upon behaviour. Identify and explain cognitive dissonance. Define perception and apply the social information model of perception. Identify and describe some of the organisational situations which are affected by differences in

perception. Discuss attribution theory and its implications for management.

Introduction

This module examines those things that make you who you are. We consider what characteristics you share with others and what ones set you apart. We want to examine what some of these differences are and the potential implications for how people behave within organisations. This module highlights that people are different and the problems associated with a ‘one size fits all’ (everyone is the same) approach to the management of behaviour.

Each of us is an individual person, with a unique set of attributes making us different from everyone else. That does not mean you are different from every other person in every single way - there are many ways in which we are similar to everyone else, and others in which we are very like some people. However, people have different ways, needs, personalities, gifts, abilities, strengths and weaknesses . . . this means that managing them demands an understanding of them as individuals. We also need a good understanding of our own personal distinctiveness in order to function at our best in the organisation for which we work.

This module attempts to apply some framework and to our thinking about individual differences, making use of our knowledge, opinions and beliefs (cognitions). Individual differences make the job of managing people in organisations challenging. This is even more evident in today’s diverse organisations.

Perception and behaviourAnother key component of this module is that of perception. Individuals use five senses to experience the environment: sight, touch, hearing, taste and smell. Organising information from the environment so that it makes sense is called perception.

It is often said that perception is reality. This means that, what an employee perceives to be real is, in fact for that employee, reality. Since behaviour is influenced by our own interpretations of reality, it is easy to understand why our perceptual processes influence behaviour. Human behaviour is a function of the way in which we perceive the world around us, and how we perceive other people and events in that world. To understand each other’s behaviour, we need to be able to understand each other’s perceptions. For these



reasons, perception is a major topic of interest and study and one that underpins all of the topics studied in this course.

Perception involves receiving stimuli, organising them and translating or interpreting the organised stimuli to influence behaviour and form attitudes. In this module we consider social perception, which focuses on people rather than object perception. Perception is best understood as a process.

Hint: This module involves a number of definitions. You are encouraged to think and learn beyond the definition and to answer the ‘so what question’. What are the implications of the conceptual elements of individual differences for managing people? This means that you need to apply the concepts! You are also encouraged to apply the critical framework and the postmodern perspective outlined in the previous module.

The module notes below are only a broad summary of a number of complex and related issues. Individual values, perceptions, attitudes are attributes (often known collectively as ‘Individual Differences’) is a large topic in the study of OB and one which underpins all the modules studied in OB200. The notes below must be supplemented by careful reading of the chapter in the AVU Unit Reader.

Focus Questions

1. What are the factors and dimensions that make us different from and similar to other people? 2. Why is an understanding of individual differences important for the management of people within

organisations? 3. What is the relationship between attitudes and cognitive dissonance? 4. What is perception? 5. What are some of the organisational situations affected by differences in perception? What are the

implications for managers? 6. What is attribution theory and what are the implications for managers?

Module Notes

Individual Differences

Some of the important dimensions of individual differences are:

Self-concept - (how you appear to yourself - self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-monitoring). The, ‘I and me’, in OB, that is, the way you see yourself as a physical, social and spiritual being.

Self concept is usually considered from three perspectives.



1. Self-esteem. A belief about one’s own worth based on self evaluation. It is now felt that people need a good level of self-esteem, but too much can lead to negative consequences. It is also viewed differently in different cultural contexts.Organisation-based self-esteem is perhaps of more importance in the workplace, being how people value themselves as members of the organisation.

2. Self-efficacy. Belief about onešs own ability to succeed in particular tasks. This is based upon previous experience, models of other people successfuhly11doing the task, persuasion and encouragement from oThers, and physical/emotional factors which may influence yoU at the time.

3. Self-monitoring. The extent to which a person observes their own behaviour and adapts it to fit the situation’s demands.

Personality - (how you appear to others). Personality is:

The combi.ation of relatively stable physical and mental chapacteristics that give an individuAl11his or her own identity.

Your own unique way of thinking, feeling and acting. Characteristics and traits (including how you look, thiNk, feel and act) resultijg from a combination od

genetic (inherited from your parents) and environmental influences (for example, the people you mix with or experiences that you have had).

There are many ways of considering, measuring and thinking about personality, including the five personality dimensions of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. These dimensions can be correlated against job performance.

Where does your personality come from? It develops from a range of sources including hereditary forces, cultural forces, family relationship forces and social and other groups to which you have belonged.

Personal conceptionsPersonal conceptions are how we think about our social and physical environment, and our beliefs and perspectives on issues.

Personal conception is considered through the concept of locus of control. People with an internal locus of control feel they control the events and consequences that affect their lives. They take responsibility for their actions, both good and bad. People with an external locus of control feel they have not immediate control over the events and consequences of their lives, and that something or someone else is always responsible.

Managing people at work is affected by their locus of control. See pages 102-103 of your reading for Module 2 in the AVU Unit reader.

Emotions - (when you react spontaneously rather than through a conscious effort. Emotions are complex human reactions to personally achievements and setbacks. The study of emotions is important since emotions influence behaviour, particularly when involving other people.

A hot topic in OB at the moment is Emotional Intelligence (EI). EI - ‘the ability to manage oneself and interact with others in mature and constructive ways’.

Attitudes - (complex mental state involving beliefs, feelings and values that cause you to act in a certain way). Attitudes, values and beliefs all shape behaviour in organisations and can be managed. See pages 107-117 of the Module 2 reading in AVU Unit Reader.

1. Values are beliefs that guide actions and judgements 2. Attitudes - learned predisposition to respond in a consistently or favourable or unfavourable way to a

given object. Attitudes are reasonable stable, but not totally fixed.

What’s the difference between values and attitudes? Attitudes relate to behaviour towards specific objects, person or situations while values are global beliefs that influence behaviour in all situations.



Attitudes are linked to what is known as cognitive consistency; that is, the consistency between a person’s expressed attitudes and their actual behaviour. If there is a state of inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour, the resulting state is one of cognitive dissonance. See pages 112-113 of your Module 2 reading in the AVU Unit Reader.

3. Beliefs (ideas about something or someone) influence attitudes, which, in turn, influence behaviour.

Abilities - (the skills that you have that enable you to do something). Ability - broad and stable characteristic responsible for a person’s maximum physical or mental performance.

Skills - a specific capacity to perform a specific task or manipulate objects.

ConclusionIndividual differences have major implications for management and the management of behaviour in organisations. Individual differences can acts as determinants on:

Satisfaction. Commitment. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (where behaviour exceeds work-role requirements). Diversity issues and management. (there are others as well!).

Perceptions and AttributionPerception is a mental and cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings.

Important outcomes of perception are: Stereotyping (a oversimplified or conventional opinion or image of something) Attribution (a quality or characteristic that you relate to a particular person or thing)

The Perceptual Process - A model (Social Information Processing Model)Social information processing theory looks at how a person uses (selects, organises, interprets and retrieves) information and then how it affects their actions in social situations. The Perception Process is described below using the Social Information Processing Model.

Social Perception: Four-Stage Social Information Processing Sequence



Stage 1: selective attention/comprehension» we cannot fully grasp all stimuli from the environment» we selectively perceive some parts of the stimuli

attention - the process of becoming consciously aware of something/someone salient stimuli - those which stand out from the context - these are stimuli we tend to pay attention to

(for example, novel, extreme, dominant, personally relevant)

Stage 2: encoding and simplification » how the brain stores the information received

cognitive categories - grouping of perceived information into groups of objects considered equivalent (for example, dog, animal, male, female)



schema - a mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus (More than one schema is known as schemata.)

Stage 3: storage and retention» keeping the information in your long-term memory » long-term memory has three compartments containing related categories of information

event memory - specific and/or general events semantic memory - a mental dictionary of general concepts, such as names and facts person memory - information on individuals/groups

Stage 4: retrieval and response» judgments and decisions result from drawing on, interpreting and integrating specific information stored

Note: A number of factors influence the perceptual process (see page 118 of the reading for this module).

Organisational/managerial significance of perceptionOrganisational processes and managerial activities are affected by perception. Perception has important implications for...

Recruitment (hiring). Performance Appraisal. Leadership. Communication.

Barriers to accurate perception/common perceptual errors Stereotypes. Halo effects.



Selective perception. Projection.

AttributionAttribution theory is based on the premise that people attempt to infer (to conclude from evidence) causes for observed behaviours.

causal attributions - suspected or inferred causes of behaviour. People formulate causal attributions by considering events preceding an observed behaviour.

Attribution theoryStudy of how people attempt to:

Understand the causes of a certain event. Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the event. Evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved in the event.

Attribution theory attempts to explain the ‘why’ of behaviour. In applying attribution theory, we try to determine whether a person’s behaviour was internally or externally caused. Internal causes are believed to be under an individual’s control (for example, you believe Robert’s performance is poor because he is lazy). External causes are seen as being outside the person (for example, Miriam’s performance is poor because her computer is old).

Attributional tendencies distorting interpretation of behaviourThere are two attributional tendencies that distort one’s interpretation of observed behaviour.

1. Fundamental attribution bias other person's behaviour is attributed to personal characteristics in preference to situational factors this causes observers to ignore important environmental factors 2. Self-serving bias tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than failure successes are attributed to internal factors while failures are attributed to external factors

Management implications of attributions of behaviour can have important results on employee effort, satisfaction, motivation, performance, attitudes tendency to attribute behaviour to internal causes far too often could result in wrong judgments, promotions, assessments, actions.

Perceptions can be managed! (See page 123 of the Module 2 reading in the AVU Unit reader.)

ConclusionWe need to realise that we cannot bypass the perceptual process, but we should make every attempt to minimise perceptual biases and distortions. We can do this through knowing ourselves, avoiding labelling and putting people in boxes, (judging and categorising) recognising and embracing (including) diversity and empathising (express sympathy) with others.


It is recommended that you summarise the following reader chapter(s) if you think this will help you to understand the concepts that are covered in this module. They are to be completed in your own time and preferably before the seminar session.

1. Read and summarise Chapter 3, “Individual attributes and their effect on job performance.” in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 2.1 – Individual Values, Perceptions, Attitudes and Attribution (Individual Activity)




1. Define the terms ‘value’, ‘attitude’, ‘belief’, ‘perception’ and ‘personality’. What, if any, is the relationship between them?

2. Why do you think it is difficult to measure these attributes? 3. What constrains (restricts) the power of personality traits to precisely predict behaviour? 4. Why is perception an important topic in organisational analysis and behaviour? 5. What factors influence an individual’s perception? Use examples from your own workplace. 6. Outline the key argument of the theory of cognitive dissonance (use a relevant example to illustrate the

theory). What are the implications of the theory for individual attitudes?

Learning Activity 2.2 – ‘Individual Personality Characteristics’ (Group activity)

In pairs, use the framework presented in the reading for this module to classify some of the personality characteristics that you think you possess. Write these down and compare it to an analysis from your partner. How did you and this other person decide that you possessed these characteristics? How does your analysis fit with the discussion in the chapter?

Learning Activity 2.3 - ‘Attitudes’ and ‘Perceptions’ (Group activity)

A: In groups of four, show how the attitudinal model in figure 3.7 from your module reading may be used to explain one or more selected behaviours in your organisational behaviour class. Use different examples from those in the reading.

B: As a group discuss the perception process and apply it to a recent response by each of you. Discuss the common perceptual distortions and show how these applied to your use of the perceptual process.



Module 3: Motivation and Job Design


Learning Outcomes


Define motivation and explain the different ways of explaining behaviour relating to motivation: needs, cognitions and job characteristics.

Discuss how perceived inequity influences motivation and explain some of the practical implications of equity theory.

Discuss expectancy theories of motivation and explain managerial and organisational implications of expectancy theory.

Explain job characteristics and assess their usefulness for job design. Critically analyse ‘needs’ and ‘process’ theories of motivation and discuss their limitations and

shortcomings.

Introduction

We each have a different reason for getting out of bed in the morning. Our motives are major determinants of our behaviour. If we understand motives, we can influence behaviour. One of the keys to effective management lies in harnessing (bringing together) the motivation of staff in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. Motivation is therefore a key topic in the study of organisational behaviour.

This module focuses upon work motivation. Work motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect their direction, intensity and direction of voluntary behaviour in the workplace.

The job performance model of motivationThe job performance model of motivation is a broad conceptual model that explains how motivation influences job behaviour and performance. What the model demonstrates is that individual inputs and job context are the two key factors that influence motivation. Individual inputs are those factors that come from within us and job context relates to the work environment.

(Source: Krietner, R, Kinicki, A., 2004, Organisational Behaviour, (6th Ed.) p.259.)

Key factors to note about the model:



1. Motivation is different from behaviour. Motivation is a psychological process, whereas behaviour is the outcome of motivation.

2. Behaviour is influenced by more than just motivation (ability and personal goals are just as important). 3. Behaviour is different from performance. 4. Motivation is a necessary, but insufficient contributor to job performance. Motivated people are not

always good performers!

Motivation - this is a process of arousing and sustaining goal directed behaviour. There are two sources of motivation: external (forces outside the person) and internal (characteristics of the person). In an organisational setting motivation refers to people’s willingness to work hard to reach organisational goals in a way that also satisfies them personally.

Motivation can be understood in terms of: Fulfilling needs (a personal desire that makes a course of action seem attractive) Reinforcement - consequences of behaviour Cognition - the way people think about the world. Job characteristics (features unique to a particular job) Emotions - how people feel about their work.

When examining motivation we need to ask 3 questions1. What energises human behaviour? 2. What channels or directs that behaviour? 3. How can certain behaviours be sustained or maintained over time?

Hint: The aim of this module is to briefly review needs theories of motivation and to focus upon job design and process theories of motivation. Students who focus upon McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y in assessments and exams will be penalised.

Focus Questions

1. What is motivation and why is it important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What are some of the ways of explaining behaviour relating to motivation? 3. Why should managers redesign jobs? What is the link between motivation and job design? 4. How does equity theory explain motivation? 5. How does expectancy theory explain motivation? 6. What is the contribution of goal-setting theory to employee motivation and management? 7. What are the limitations and shortcomings of motivation theories? 8. Why are motivation theories considered to be ‘culture-bound’?

Module Notes

Motivation TheoriesMotivation theories can be classified into two types:

Needs (also called Content) theories. Process theories (also called Cognitive) theories.

Needs theories Focus on understanding the variety of needs that people have, and the way work is structured by

management to satisfy these needs in the workplace. Content theories are primarily concerned with what it is within individuals and their environment that energises and sustains behaviours.

Content theories are useful because they give insight into people’s needs and help managers understand what people will and will not value as work rewards or need satisfiers.

Content theories are linked with job satisfaction.



Process theories Offer a more dynamic alternative in that they aim to provide an understanding of the cognitive

processes that act to influence behaviour. Process theories are concerned with work effort and performance.

Needs theories of motivation

Maslow’s hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchy of needs theory identifies higher order needs (self-actualisation and esteem) and lower-order needs (social, safety and physiological requirements). What Maslow argues is that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. This means that physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated and so on.

Physiological needsPhysiological needs are the very basic needs, such as air, water, food and sleep. These needs are satisfied externally (outside of one’s self, they are physical needs). If these needs are not satisfied you may feel sickness, pain or discomfort. These feelings motivate you to alleviate them as soon as possible so that you feel better. When you are feeling better you can move on and concentrate on other things.

Safety needsWhen the physiological needs are largely taken care of, safety is the next concern, that is, the next need. Safety needs have to do with establishing stability, consistency and protection in your world.

Social needsWhen physiological and safety needs are generally met, the next need is social. You feel the need to belong to groups; community, family, work groups, and affectionate relationships; friends, children, a partner. You need to feel loved (sexual/nonsexual) by others, to be accepted by others. You also need to be needed.

Esteem needsEsteem needs include the desire for self-respect, self-esteem and the esteem of others. People at this level are striving to be involved with others in a group experience rather than as stand out as an individual.

Self-actualisation needs



The need for self-actualisation is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." Self-actualisation can take many forms, depending on the individual. You may be on a quest for knowledge, peace, different experiences and self-fulfilment. People who have everything can maximise their potential.

McClelland’s three needs theory

If you have the need for achievement, you have the drive to excel yourself and you strive to succeed. If you have the need for power, you need to make others behave in a way that they wouldn’t normally

behave. If you have the need for affiliation, you want friendly and close interpersonal relationships. You need

to feel part of a group.

Herzberg’s motivator/hygiene theoryThis theory (also known as the two-factor theory) distinguishes between sources of work dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) and satisfaction (motivators). Hygiene factors are associated with job context (factors relating to a person’s work setting, for example, company policy, administration and salary). Research shows that improving hygiene factors may prevent people from being dissatisfied with their work but will not make them satisfied.

Herzberg found that low salary and pay makes people dissatisfied, but that paying them more does not satisfy or motivate them.

To improve satisfaction, a manager must use motivator factors. These are related to job content (concerns factors relating to what people do in their work, for example, recognition, advancement, and, interesting and challenging work). Adding satisfiers or motivators to people’s jobs is Herzberg’s link to performance.

One of the big questions resulting from Herzberg’s work is the question: "Does money motivate work behaviour?" Herzberg says, "No!" If this is the case then why do most organisations use money to attract people?

Try this activity. Have a look at each factor listed below. In the table, categorise each one as either a Hygiene Factor or a Motivator Factor. When you have finished, check your answers with the ones at the end of Module 3.

Company policies Rate of pay Personal growth Responsibility Supervision quality Job securityRecognition Career advancement Interpersonal relationships



Achievement Working conditions

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Summary of needs (content) theoriesContent theorists argue that managers must:

Understand how individuals differ in what they need from their work. Know what can be offered to these individuals in response to their needs. Know how to create work settings that give people the opportunity to satisfy their need by contributing to

the task performance of the work unit and the organisation.

Criticisms of needs (content) theories: How many individual needs are there? Can one work outcome satisfy more than one need? Yes! For example, pay. Is there a hierarchy of needs? Not really. In reality it is more flexible. How important are the various needs? This depends upon personal frame of reference and culture. In

China for example, Maslow’s hierarchy makes no sense. In China, social and physiological needs are more important than self actualisation (to realise one’s potential).

Process theories of motivation Theories of motivation that focus on how we make choices with respect to desired goals are known as process theories. Unlike needs (or content) theories, process theories give the individual a cognitive decision-making role in selecting goals and the means by which to pursue them. Content theories emphasise the "what" aspects of motivation. Process theories emphasise the thought processes concerning why and how people choose one action over another.

Adam’s Equity TheoryAdam’s Equity Theory comes from the work of Stacey Adams and is based on the phenomenon of social comparison. Adams argued that when people gauge (measure) the fairness of their work outcomes compared with those of others, they felt inequity is a motivating state of mind. That is, when people perceive inequity in their work they will be aroused (stimulated) to restore a sense of equity to the situation.

Equity is based upon perception: Felt negative inequity: exists when individuals feel they have received relatively less than others have

in proportion to work inputs. Felt positive inequity: individuals feel they have received more than others.



Resolving inequities: Change work inputs (for example, do less). Change the outcomes received (ask for a pay increase). Change the comparison points (compare self with a different co-worker). Psychologically distort the comparisons (for example, rationalise that the inequity is only temporary and

will be resolved in the future). Act to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person (for example, get a co-worker to accept

more work).

Much research (although mainly in laboratory settings) tends to support Adam’s theory. Research indicates that people who feel over paid (feel positive inequity) have been found to increase the quantity or quality of their work; while those who are underpaid (feel negative inequity) decrease the quantity or quality of their work.

Managing equity is an important task for managers. It is incorrect to assume that all employees in a work unit will view their annual pay rise as fair. It is not how a manager feels about the allocation of rewards that counts; it is how the recipient perceives the reward that will determine motivational outcomes of the equity dynamic. Managing the equity dynamic is important.

Lessons for managers:

Managers need to pay attention to what employees see as fair and equitable. Managers need to make promotion and hiring decisions based on merit. Managers need to allow employees to participate in decision-making about work outcome.

Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryVroom’s Expectancy Theory is based on Victor Vroom’s book ‘Work and Motivation’. Vroom’s theory seeks to predict or explain the task-related effort expended by a person. The theory’s central question is: "What determines the willingness of an individual to exert personal effort to work at tasks that contribute to the performance of the organisation"? This theory is based on the logic that people will do what they can do when they want to.



According to Vroom, people are motivated according to their personal perceptions. The way they perceive the value of a particular reward (Valence), their expectancy (effort leads to performance) and the belief that performance leads to rewards (instrumentality).

Expectancy theory states that behaviour results from a conscious decision-making process based on expectations. In other words, work effort is directed towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. Through experience, we develop expectations about whether we can achieve various levels of job performance. We also develop expectations about whether job performance and work behaviours lead to particular outcomes. Finally, we direct our effort towards outcomes that help us to fulfil our needs. Expectancy theory helps to explain individual differences in motivation and behaviour.

Criticisms: This theory is difficult to accurately measure and test. It assumes that people will act in a rational manner and weigh up the various alternatives open to them. Research suggests that expectancy theory can predict performance and effort.

Goal settingGoal setting theory is seen as a process theory; however some argue that goal setting is more appropriately viewed as a motivational technique rather than a formal theory.

Goal: "What an individual is trying to accomplish". Goal setting has had an important influence in management particularly in a management technique called Managing By Objectives (MBO). MBO is a management system that incorporates participation in decision-making, goal setting and feedback.

Goal setting motivates through setting performance goals and rewarding people when they meet or exceed these goals. You are giving them positive reinforcement. A good thing to remember is, ‘you get the behaviour that you reward’.

Job Characteristics Model and Job DesignStudies of motivation have led to questions being asked about the link between jobs and motivation. In the 1960s researchers began to look at the role of individual differences in job design. These lead two researchers by the name of Hackman and Oldham to put forward a theory called the, Job Characteristics Theory (JCT). The Job Characteristics Theory and the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) identifies five core characteristics:

1. Variety. 2. Identity. 3. Significance. 4. Autonomy. 5. Feedback.

The idea of the theory is to structure work so that employees are intrinsically (or internally) motivated. Internal motivation occurs when employees are stimulated/interested in their work because of positive internal feelings rather than external factors (such as pay).

Unlike earlier needs (or content) theories, the JCM and JCT recognises that individual differences are important and that individuals will respond differently to changes in their jobs. This model draws upon Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theories.

Job Design: Changing the context and/or process of a specific job to increase job satisfaction and performance. Based on fitting people to jobs and fitting jobs to people.

Traditional approaches to job design: Scientific Management. Job enlargement. Job rotation.



Job enrichment.

Conclusion and a word of warning!

In studying and attempting to apply motivation theories we need to apply the critical framework that we were introduced to in module one. Motivation theories are culture-bound. All of the above theories of motivation were developed in the United States by Americans and about Americans. Many questions have been raised about the generalisability (relevance) and applicability of motivation theories outside of this context. For example, do all cultures have a high need for achievement (No!)?



1. Read and summarise Chapter 6, ‘Motivation Concepts’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 3.1 - Motivation (Individual Activity)


1. Identify three factors which you think exercise the greatest influence on the way a person behaves at work. Explain their effects.

2. Does motivation come from within a person or is it a result of a situation? 3. Should ‘fear’ be used by managers as a means of motivating employees? Why or why not? 4. Critically evaluate the expectancy theory of motivation as a basis for decision-making by managers who

wish to increase the motivation of their subordinates (those who work under the managers). 5. Explain how you would attempt to build loyalty and commitment in an organisation (some reference to

equity theory might be helpful). 6. Briefly outline some of the methods that organisations might adopt when it comes to job design. Are

there any potential problems associated with these methods? 7. Discuss the relevance of North American models of motivation for people living and working in Africa.

Learning Activity 3.2 – Motivation (Individual Activity)

For the following activities consider the exercises, case and questions from a critical perspective. Consider their relevance for an African context.

Complete the exercise ‘What do people want from their jobs?’ on page 193 of Chapter 6, ‘Motivation Concepts’ in your AVU Unit Reader. When you have completed by yourself, break into groups of 5 or 6 to finish the activity.

Learning Activity 3.3 - Motivation (Group Activity)



In groups of four, read the Case Study 6, ‘What drives employees at Microsoft?’, on page 194 of Chapter 6, ‘Motivation Concepts’ in your AVU Unit Reader and answer the associated questions.

Answers

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Hygiene Factors

Supervision quality Rate of pay Interpersonal relationships Job security Working conditions Company policies

Motivator Factors

Career advancement Recognition Personal growth Responsibility Achievement

Module 4: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB), Workaholism and Escalation




Learning Outcomes


Define Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and its implications for managing people within organisations.

Define workaholism and discuss its potential causes and consequences. Explain individual and workplace interventions for the management of workaholism. Explain escalation and critically analyse the concept. Identify and explain situations in which escalation of commitment can occur and describe strategies for

its avoidance.

Introduction

This module examines three different topics: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB), Workaholism and Escalation. Put simply, OCB and workaholism are concerned with an individual’s preoccupation with work and the organisation. Escalation refers to the escalation of decision-making in organisations and examines why managers (and employees) sometimes make bad decisions. All three concepts and topics studied in this module fall under the broad area of ‘commitment’.

All three topics underpin a number of other topics studied this semester. For example, OCB and workaholism are closely related to motivation, identity, stress, and power and politics. Both concepts also have important implications for job satisfaction and commitment. Escalation is closely related to topics on groups and teams, and power and politics.

For this module we examine the antecedents (presumptions about) of such behaviour, the dynamics (how behaviour manifests itself), the consequences and managerial action, if any.

Hint: OCB and escalation are sometimes examined in Organisational Behaviour and Management text books, while workaholism receives much less widespread discussion. Consequently, the most useful material is to be found in journal articles. For reading on this topic, refer to the journal articles in your AVU Unit Reader for Module 4.

Focus Questions

1. What is OCB, workaholism and escalation and why are they important for the study of organisational behaviour?

2. Why are some individuals more likely than others to engage in OCB, workaholism and escalation behaviours?

3. What are some of the consequences of OCB, workaholism and escalation in organisations? 4. Can OCB, workaholism and escalation be managed? If so, what steps can be taken by managers and

employees. 5. What are some of the links between this module and other modules studied? What do these suggest

about the nature of the study of behaviour within organisations?

Module Notes

Organisational Citizenship BehaviourOCB has been defined as" Behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system and that in



aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organisation ... the behaviour is not an enforceable requirement of the role or job description ... the behaviour is a matter of personal choice’ (Organ, 1988: 4).

In simple terms:OCB is going above and beyond the call of duty for no reward or punishment if you don’t exhibit it. In other words, it is extra-role behaviour or behaviour that extends beyond employees normal job duties. OCB is distinguished from in-role behaviours (see the reading by Coyle-Shapiro, J., Kessler, I., and Purcell, J. in your AVU Unit Reader.)

Examples of extra-role behaviour include: avoiding unnecessary conflict helping other people without selfish intent being involved in organisational activities helping supervisors when not asked volunteering for unrequired work.

OCB has its foundations in studies of personality and job attitudes (this relates to previous modules). The key to understanding OCB is to consider the relationship an individual has with their employing organisation.

OCB is a multi-dimensional construct and consists of five characteristics: Altruism (for example, helping out when a co-worker feels unwell). Conscientiousness (for example, staying late to finish a project). Civic Virtue (participation and involvement in the life of the organisation. For example, volunteering in a

community project to represent the organisation). Sportsmanship (willingness to tolerate less than ideal circumstances without complaining. For example,

sharing failure of a team project). Courtesy (preventing inter-personal problems through polite and considerate behaviour).

Why do employees engage in OCB?Research may suggest two possible reasons.

1. Reciprocation (doing something in return) is important. Some employees engage in OCB to reciprocate good and fair treatment from the organisation.

2. Some employees engage in OCB because they define those behaviours as part of their job (in-role behaviours).

Organisational advantages gained from employees exhibiting OCB? There is some evidence to suggest that organisations that have employees which exhibit OCB tend to

outperform those that don’t. Employees who exhibit OCB tend to be more satisfied in their jobs (and therefore tend to demonstrate

positive, organisationally-oriented attitudes). Employees who exhibit OCB tend to display higher levels of organisational commitment.

Hint: Consider the links between job satisfaction and performance and job satisfaction and commitment.

Critical Evaluation: Challenges and issuesSome researchers question whether it is appropriate to consider OCBs as ‘extras’, that is, over and above the job. Research has shown that many employees consider that the above five characteristics are indeed part of their job (in-role behaviour). Cultural differences are important in considering OCB. For example, courtesy and sportsmanship are expected to a greater extent in Japan and Hong Kong than in the United States and Australia. Some researchers question whether OCB can actually enhance organisational performance. It is thought (by some) that OCB simply distract people from doing their own jobs properly.

OCB is often confused with ingratiation. Ingratiation (to be in deliberate favour or good graces of another) is a political tactic employees use to further their own personal interests, often at the expense of the employing organisation.



When we consider the five characteristics of OCB motive is important. Why do people exhibit such behaviour(s)? Is it in fact underpinned by more political overtones? This is, ingratiating behaviour. For example, I go the extra mile (work extra hard and do extra activities) because I will be rewarded. This is possible. However, in such cases, this is technically not OCB and may, in fact, be ingratiation. OCB and ingratiation are similar, but differentiated by employee motive and other people’s perception of the behaviour.

Attribution is also important (See Module 2). If an individual’s behaviour is consistent then the behaviour is not attributed as ingratiation. On the other hand, if the behaviour is distinctive, then the behaviour may be labelled as ingratiation. The significance of this is that employees who undertake OCB may have such behaviour interpreted as ingratiation and may receive lesser rewards from managers and supervisors (see the Eastman article in your AVU Unit Reader).

Managing OCBHow do managers and organisations encourage their employees to go beyond minimal expectations?

Define jobs to include activities that go beyond minimal expectations (relates to Job Design). Establish a climate of trust, encouragement and support. Rewards and recognition may encourage OCB. A climate of fairness and justice are important. Employees feel a higher sense of obligation ‘to walk the

extra mile’ (do more work than perhaps is required) when organisations distribute rewards fairly and have a process in place to correct problems when employees feel unfairly treated (consider issues of procedural and interactional (influencing each other) justice).

Involve employees in decision-making (employee involvement in decision-making has implications for perceived fairness).

Leadership is important. A management style that encourages the development of leadership skills among employees has been found to encourage the expression of OCBs.

In other words, employees go the extra mile for organisations that go the extra mile for them!

WorkaholismClosely related to the topic of OCB, but different in other ways, is the concept of workaholism. The term workaholism is often widely used and misunderstood, but has only recently been the subject of detailed research. There is much confusion as its meaning and how it affects individuals and organisations. Often workaholism has negative connotations ("workaholism" has a negative association with alcoholism).

There are a variety of definitions concerning workaholism. Some researchers define workaholism in terms of hours worked, others see it as an attitude towards work rather than as the time spent at work. Others view workaholism as irrational commitment to excessive work and equate it with other additions. Those who view workaholism favourably usually encourage it, while those who oppose it tend to discourage it. A common definition defines workaholism in terms of work involvement, feelings of being compelled to work, and work enjoyment. Workaholics score high on work involvement and on feelings of being compelled to work and low on the compulsion to work. Recent research suggests that workaholism should be considered from a behavioural and cognitive investment in work.

Summary of the main views concerning workaholism1. Workaholism as a positive phenomenon:

Workaholism derived from the love of work. Workaholism as an intrinsic desire to work long and hard.

Writers view workaholism positively from an organisational perspective. These writers suggest that workaholics are satisfied and productive at work.

2. Workaholism as a negative phenomenon: o Workaholism as an irrational commitment to excessive work. o Workaholism as an addiction.



Writers view workaholics as unhappy, obsessives who are not performing their job well and create difficulties for their co-workers. Work has become so exaggerated that it may constitute a danger to their health, happiness and interpersonal relationships.

3. Different types of workaholics o Job involved workaholics (high work commitment, low obsession-compulsion). These

individuals perform well in jobs and are highly job-satisfied. They tend to have few interests outside of work.

o Workaholic, enthusiastic workaholic (a work enthusiast not regarded as a workaholic). o Compulsive workaholics (high work commitment, high obsession-compulsion). These

individuals can potentially be poor performers resulting from impatience and ritualised work habits). Obsessive compulsion is a persistent unwanted thought or impulse with senseless rituals performed either to prevent or bring about a future event.

Workaholics exist in all professions and jobs, but men, especially those working in managerial/professional positions in the private sector are more likely to be candidates for workaholism (see the Harpaz and Snir reading in your AVU Unit Reader).

Difficulties over definitions and measure of workaholism mean that estimates of the prevalence of workaholism vary considerable. One study has shown that 5% of the Unites States population are workaholics while another found that a number of Japanese managers are workaholics.

Antecedents (important events or occurrences in early life) of workaholism:What factors may lead to workaholism amongst individuals. Research has identified three antecedents:

1. Family of origin o Work addiction is seen as a response to dysfunctional family life and is passed on from

generation to generation. (A dysfunctional family is when problems and circumstances such as parental alcoholism, mental illness, child abuse, or extreme parental rigidity and control, interfere with family functioning. Children of such parents will themselves be dysfunctional.)

2. Personal beliefs and fears o Values and personal beliefs. Workaholism may emerge as work behaviours in response to low

self-esteem and insecurity. Self esteem relates to how a person feels about themselves -who they are, the way they act, and they look. Insecurity is when they fear they are not capable of doing or achieving something.)

3. Organisational values and culture o Some organisational cultures promote the view that long hours and sacrifice are important in

achieving success and advancement.

Managing workaholismResearch has shown two approaches to the management of workaholism: individual and family therapy and organisational and managerial interventions:

1. Individual counselling and family therapy: o In the United States for example, Workaholic Anonymous groups have been formed to reduce

levels of workaholism. o Self-help programs include identifying alternatives to work (for example, hobbies and interests

outside of work). o Family therapy concentrates upon the process of denial (in some way not wanting to face

reality) exhibited by workaholics and collusion of the family (an agreement between the workaholic and members of the family that it is okay in the maintenance of workaholism).

2. Workplace interventions: o Employers should not reward addictive behaviour. o Ensure employees take vacations. o Address contributing factors such as job insecurity, work overload and limited career

opportunities.



o Managers can help employees prioritise their work and help them to delegate their work and enforce breaks and leaving time.

o Develop workplace values that encourage work-life balance.

An important point to remember is that workaholics are a heterogenous (mixed) group; that is, not all are dysfunctional from an individual and organisational perspective.

Escalation BehaviourEscalation or entrapment is an irrational decision-making process whereby it can be seen as "throwing good money after a bad cause". (Progressively getting worse.) It often accounts for organisational disasters. Escalating commitment is "the tendency to continue with a previously chosen course of action even when feedback suggests that it is failing" (Wood et al, 2004, p558).

We often think of decision-making by managers as a rational (using reason) process. This is often not the case. Managers can be reluctant to reverse decisions and to admit that they made a mistake. The tendency to escalate commitments to previous chosen courses of action outweighs the willingness to disengage from them. This occurs as decision makers:

Rationalise negative feedback as simply a temporary conditions. Protect their egos (inflated feeling of pride in their superiority to others) and avoiding admitting the

original decision was a mistake. Use the decision as a way of managing the impressions of others (such as boss or peers). Are uncertain or closing costs. Even when a projects’ success is in doubt, decision-makers will still

persist because the cost of ending the project are high or unknown. Commit gamblers fallacy (the mistaken notion that the odds for something with a fixed probability

increase or decrease depending upon recent occurrences) by underestimating the risk and overestimating their probability of success.

View the negative results as a ‘learning experience’ that can be overcome with added future effort (this is sometimes known as perceptual blinders).

Escalation is a form of entrapment that leads people to do things that are not justified based on the facts of the situation.

Avoiding escalating commitmentsStrategies include:

Set limits on your commitment to a decision ahead of time and then stick to these limits. Do not look at what others are doing as a cue to what you should be doing. Stop periodically to assess exactly why you are continuing with a course of action. Stop occasionally to identify accurately what it will cost to continue with a course of action (ignore sunk

costs). Stay vigilant to avoid retreating to the previous chose courses of action.

This topic relates to the module on groups. Research suggests that groups make riskier decisions than individuals and more likely to become ‘trapped’ by their decisions and escalate their commitments. Escalation of commitment may be more common in societies which have a stronger emphasis on saving face than do others.



1. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Workaholism: its definition and nature’ in your AVU Unit Reader.



2. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Exploring organizationally direct citizenship behaviour: reciprocity or it’s my job’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 4.1 - OCB, Workaholism and Escalation (Individual Activity)


1. What is meant by the term ‘organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB)’ and why is it of interest to managers?

2. Is OCB different from ingratiating behaviour? If so, how can one determine whether some act is ‘genuine’ OCB?

3. How might our understanding of what constitutes OCB differ across different work contexts (for example, industry sectors, and occupation types)?

4. What are the symptoms of a workaholic and are these the same for all individuals? 5. To what extent is workaholism a function of the person, the situation or both? Is a workaholic the same

as a ‘high achiever’? 6. Why do you think many organisations escalate their decision-making? What factors are at play in such

‘irrational’ decisions? 7. How can managers avoid the problem of entrapment and escalation?

Learning Activity 4.2 - OCB, Workaholism and Escalation (Group Activity)

Arrange yourselves into groups of four and discuss ways in which managers can prevent employees (and themselves!) from becoming workaholics. Formulate a new policy on the prevention of workaholism. Include relevant principles and statements. Present the outline of your policy on a sheet or large paper and present to the rest of the class.

(Hint: you need to consider whether or not workaholism can actually be prevented. In this case, management of the consequences may be more realistic).

Learning Activity 4.3 - OCB, Workaholism and Escalation (Group Activity)

In the same group of four as the previous activity, discuss examples of escalation of decision-making in your own life. Consider the factors that lead you to ‘escalate’ your decision and how you resolved the potential traps of such escalation? What steps did you take? If time permits change groups, and discuss the same points with other members of the class.



Module 5: Humour in Organisations. Rumour and Gossip in Organisations


Learning Outcomes


Define humour and rumour/gossip in organisations and discuss their implications for organisational behaviour.

Explain managerial interest in the suppression and management of humour. Identify and discuss different perspectives on humour in organisations. Explain how rumour and gossip are examples of informal communication. Critically assess rumour/gossip and humour evaluate from a critical perspective.

Introduction

This module examines topics that, while current in organisational research, have tended to be ignored in most organisational behaviour university courses and textbooks. In this module we draw your attention to a topic of current interest and research within the field of organisational behaviour. Humour, rumour and gossip have received a lot of attention in popular management press and are currently the subject of a number of management fads. (A fashion that becomes popular in a culture (or subcultures) relatively quickly, remains popular, often for a rather brief period, then loses popularity dramatically.)

What has accounted for the interest in alternative topics of study within OB? According to two leading OB researchers, that accounts of "organisational behaviour expressed or implied in academic work did not give an accurate picture of what it was like" (Ackroyd and Thompson, 2003: p1). Instead, a number of academics have taken up the challenge to present a more realistic account of what actually happens within organisations.

What they have found is that organisations are characterised not so much by the sanitised accounts of behaviour that one finds inside text books, but more by what is termed misbehaviour. Rather than agreeing with the idea that all behaviour is ‘basically well-intentioned’ (Ackroyd and Thompson, 2003: p9), research has demonstrated that behaviour often falls short of management expectations and that management is itself a source or cause of misbehaviour in organisations.

MisbehaviourWe can broadly define misbehaviour as "anything you do at work you are not supposed to do" (Ackroyd and Thompson, 2003: p2). Examples include, joking, sabotage, theft, and sexual misconduct.

It is not the purpose of this module to outline and present a theory or explanations of organisational misbehaviour (for more detail see Ackroyd and Thompson in the reference list). Rather, the purpose of this module is to highlight and explore topics in OB which may be considered as examples of organisational misbehaviour. Here, we explore other contexts and images of organisations outside of the dominant managerial discourse. Related modules under the heading of misbehaviour are romance and sex in organisations, as are elements from topics on groups and power and politics.

Hint: The key to understanding both these topics is that they deal with informal communication and that they are purposeful and not simply trivial matters within organisations. Indeed, as the Collinson reading suggests, "humour is no laughing matter"!



Focus Questions

1. What is rumour/gossip and humour and why are they important for the study of organisational behaviour?

2. What are the functions of rumour and gossip? 3. What are some of the different perspectives that can be applied to humour? 4. What are some of the consequences of rumour/gossip and humour for organisatons? 5. Can rumour/gossip and humour be managed? If so, what steps can be taken by managers and

employees. 6. What role does gender play in rumour and gossip? 7. What are some of the links between this module and other module’s studied? What do these suggest


Module Notes

Humour in OrganisationsThe Collinson reading makes it clear that humour has much to reveal about power relations and managerial control within organisations.

Workplace humour:

"All forms of communication occurring in the work situation which create within people feelings of amusement and predisposition to express that emotion through laughter" (Watson, 1997: 301).

Examples of workplace humour include: jokes, for example, telling a joke stories, for example, telling a funny story about someone maybe to embarrass them or show them up pranks, (a person or people does something foolish, funny or extreme for fun and amusement) for

example, to pull someone’s office chair away when they sit down so they fall on the floor) cursing (a person swears or uses rude words) for example, using bad language horseplay, when a person or people fool around, and behave badly, for example, hiding something from

someone

There are three main kinds of workplace humour: clowning, teasing and satire

1. Clowning is where people make a fool of themselves for the amusement of others. It involves the rejection of workplace norms and ordered behaviour. It wastes time, resources, breaks the rhythms of work and diverts people's concentration.

2. Teasing is systematic demoralisation of its targets. Such behaviour can be aggressive and destructive. Teasing works by the teaser drawing the audience’s attention to their own importance, by diminishing the standing of the teased.

3. Satire engages in mimicry (acting out by imitating) and mockery which is used to expose the foolishness and hypocrisy if its target.

Humour is a topic that is not formally part of organisational functioning and has therefore been regarded as something incidental to management. It is suggested that organisations are places of rationality and that humour has no place in them. Humour is generally considered a trivialising process and a signal that business is not being taken seriously. This is far from the truth! Humour is prevalent in all forms of organisations and is seen as a normal part of organisational functioning.

In recent years, humour has become a management "fad" and has been promoted by business and management consultants as a cure for various organisational ills. Management consultants promote the view of humour as something that contributes to a happy and positive workplace and argue that humour can effectively



be managed. Collinson (2002) argues that managers believe humour can be used to convey serious messages and can be used to motivate employees.

There are considerable links between humour, management and culture. Humour in the workplace is rarely neutral, trivial or random. It is deployed for the achievement of quite specific purposes to do with self-preservation, getting things done or getting one’s way (consider the links with the topic on power and politics).

According to one researcher (Barsoux, 1993) there are three main purposes of humour as used by managers.

1. Sword. The action aspect of humour. Humour can persuade people to particular points of view. It can allow individuals to say those things which could otherwise not be said without causing offence and damage to relationships.

2. Shield. The defensive aspect of humour. It can be used to make criticism more acceptable (by making a joke of it) and to enable individuals and groups to cope more easily with failure.

3. Values. This aspect provides the basis for conditioning individuals into a particular role and contributes to the reinforcement of organisational values. The use of practical jokes is the means by which groups can be formed and bound into cohesive units.

Problems with humour in the workplaceAlthough management and business consultants would have us believe the many promises and advantages of promoting humour in the workplace, there are a number of potential dangers. Issues to consider include:

Sexist and racist humour. Stereotypical humour. Humour may be construed as sexual harassment. Misunderstanding.

The important point to consider is the role played by context. Why do jokes backfire? More often than not the context is wrong. It is essential to distinguish between pure and applied humour. Pure humour is seen in jokes that are motivated simply by joyous delight in having fun. Applied humour makes certain points about situations, groups and classes of people and has definite effects in mind (making fun of someone). Applied humour is often serious commentary masquerading as joking. Most workplace joking and humour has applied characteristics.

Different perspectives for analysing humourThe literature on humour in the workplace falls between two different perspectives. There are those who believe that humour is a “tool” that can be used by management, and those who regard humour as a manifestation (resulting in) of complexity in social systems.

1. Humour as conformity Humour can be used to initiate people into their roles within groups and teams or the wider social fabric within organisations (for example, initiation rites).

2. Humour to alleviate work boredom Humour may provide a safety value in which individuals can let off steam (express when you are dissatisfied) without seriously threatening the organisation. The purpose of humour is to ‘humanise’ the workplace/organisation. Humour provides a ‘coping’ mechanism. (When we are faced with stressful situations we cannot handle, we use various methods to cope with this.)

3. Humour to cope with ambiguity, incongruity (when there is not agreement) and absurdity in organisational life Humour offers explanation and justification for the absurdities in organisational life. Joking and humour can reduce tension between groups, forges strong relationships and allows participants to cope with stress.

4. Humour to control anxiety in social relations Humour can help diffuse and control tensions in social relationships.

5. Humour as resistance Humour here is more subtle. Humour can serve as an effective means of expressing dissatisfaction, especially when more overt (obvious) forms of resistance might attract managerial reprisals.

6. Humour as control



Here, humour is viewed as a managerial tool as it can bring people into line and maintain existing authority relations. Jokes can masquerade as serious statements.

Can humour be managed? Critical evaluation and analysis This is a difficult question. For some writers, and management and business consultants, humour has a number of organisational benefits. Humour can diffuse tensions and motivate employees and customers. Humour can also act as important control function and reinforce power relationships. Some researchers have found that joking is often the prerogative (exclusive right) of those in authority. Interestingly, when in the presence of superiors, subordinates tend to either refrain from joking or to make their humour non-threatening.

The Collinson article demonstrates that management and employers have for many years (at least since medieval times!) have sought to suppress (hold in) humour. On the other hand, suppression of humour has always produced a counter-response. In attempting to control and suppress humour, the management of humour has tended to produce humour. The opposite of this also applies. Studies suggest that attempts by managers and management consultants (humour consultants) to cultivate humour can also be counter-productive. Employees can (and often do) reject the artificiality of managed humour and tend to see through and reject manufactured happiness. Humour can backfire (disappoint) and reinforce employee cynicism (bad feelings).

For those organisations that tolerate and encourage humour the danger is that humour frequently expresses aggression and hostility. For example, jokes and insults can be linked in very subtle ways. Male humour is often racist and sexist and men tend to construct workplace identities through hostile, intimidating and derogatory (offensive) jokes.

While humour is often seen as a source of social cohesion, humour can reflect and reinforce, articulate and highlight workplace divisions, tensions, conflicts and power asymmetries (irregularities) and inequalities. Collison argues that humour is a double-edged sword (may be both good and bad). Humour can be a positive and creative feature of organisational life, yet it can also be the medium through which conflict and unhappiness are reproduced.

Rumour/Gossip in OrganisationsRumour and gossip are part of the informal communication network within organisations. Both are sometimes termed the ‘grapevine’ (office news or scandal spread from one person to another) in a number of textbooks. People often view rumour and gossip in negative terms, but doing so is to ignore one of the most important forms of communication within an organisation. Like humour, rumour and gossip are widely practiced but little understood in an organisational context. It is certainly worth understanding informal communication between individuals, within groups and organisations. For example, one survey found that 75% of employees hear about organisational matters through rumour and gossip (Robbins, Millet and Waters-Marsh, 2004: p314).

What is rumour and gossip?There are a number of problems in trying to distinguish between rumour and gossip.

Rumour is talk that is unsubstantiated by authority or evidence as to its authenticity or truth. (Has no proven truth.)

Gossip has the presumption of some basis in factuality. (Could be true.)

Let’s have a look at what distinguishes the two.

The nature of rumour and gossipRumours and gossip are both derivative, that is, they are both received third hand (not from the original source) and the source and origins are hard to locate. Rumour and gossip can be either positive or negative in terms of message content and the effect on those that hear it. Rumour and gossip have a number of functions including: influence, information and entertainment/fun. Gossip tends to have a moral element attached to it.

Comparing rumour and gossip



Refer to Table 1 (Overview of rumour and gossip: similarities and differences in the Michelson and Mouly reading).

Source: Michelson, G & Mouly, S, 2000, ‘Rumour and gossip in organisations: a conceptual study’, Management Decision 38(5), p341.

Michelson and Mouly argue that the terms ‘rumour’ and ‘gossip’ can be used interchangeably.

Types of rumour:Michelson and Mouly argue that there are four different categories (types) of rumour

1. Wish fulfilment (express the hopes of those who circulate them). 2. Anticipatory (precipitated by situations of anxiety). 3. Anxiety (driven by fear). 4. Aggressive (motivated by intention to harm others).

Is rumour/gossip beneficial or detrimental to organisations? Research on rumour and gossip suggests that both are an important source of information within an organisation. Interestingly, despite the popular misconception that rumours and gossip contain erroneous information, studies show that about 75% of what is carried by rumour or gossip is accurate.

The popular business literature treats rumour and gossip as something detrimental (damaging) to organisations and something that should be controlled, if not eliminated. This literature argues that rumours and gossip undermine productivity and (drain) morale (happiness/confidence). Such claims are simplistic and generally empirically untested (not proven). On the other hand, academic research has demonstrated the potential benefits of rumour and gossip.

Potential benefits



Rapid transmission of information to employees. Translation of formal communication into group’s own language and jargon. Ability to test or gauge employee reactions to new management initiatives (filter and feedback

mechanism). Reinforcing social bonds and formal work structures.

Rumour and gossip can be regarded as forms of political behaviour and power. The creating and spreading of rumours about someone with whom one is in conflict can represent effective ways of undermining their position and credibility.

The role of gender and individual differences

Research indicates that age, gender and occupational status and level within the organisation do not play a major role in rumour and gossip. The article by Michelson and Mouly charts the origins and use of the term ‘gossip’ and how historically it was an overtly feminine term.

By bringing this into the context of contemporary organisations, could this represent an attempt by men to try and maintain control of organisations/workplaces by labelling women as gossipers with its negative connotations on the moral sense? Michelson and Mouly certainly think so.

Research suggests that women do not engage in rumour and gossip anymore than men do nor are there any differences in the tone or content of gossip. However, there may be gender differences for why men and women engage in gossip in the first place. One suggestion is that women may be more likely to engage in gossip in order to establish solidarity and make social comparison. The literature on communication in organisations suggests that women use communication in the broadest sense to establish links with other people, while men use communication to further their own self-interests.

We need to be careful of assigning gender and individual characteristics to rumour and gossip. Some studies suggest that contextual factors are more important. Organisations characterised by anxiety, ambiguity, uncertainty and poor communication may find that their employees are more likely to engage in rumour and gossip. On the other hand, we should not completely disregard individual attributes as certain personality characteristics may influence the propensity to engage in rumour and gossip.

Management of rumour and gossip

Management cannot entirely eliminate rumours and gossip. However, management can limit their range and impact by undertaking actions and strategies to reduce their negative consequences. Such actions might include:

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions. 2. Explain decisions and behaviours that may appear inconsistent or secretive. 3. Emphasise the downside, (negatives) as well as the upside, (positives) of current decisions and future

plans. 4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities - it is almost never as anxiety-causing as the unspoken

imagination or fantasy.

Rumour and gossip has a life-cycle. Rumours will dissipate (disappear) once they become irrelevant or if the recipients become bored, frustrated or uninterested.





1. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Managing Humour’ from Module 5 in your AVU Unit Reader. 2. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Rumour and Gossip in organisations: a conceptual study’ from

Module 5 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 5.1 - Rumour and Gossip (Individual Activity)


1. “Workplace humour is more than just fun – it is a serious issue”. Critically evaluate this statement. 2. What different functions can humour play within organisations? 3. When can humour backfire in an organisational setting? Use examples to illustrate. 4. Is a happy worker a productive worker? 5. Why do you think people engage in rumour and gossip? Draw on your own experience. 6. “Statistics reveal that on average women utter more words in a day than do men. At face value, this

suggests that women are more likely to participate in gossip than men”. Do you agree or disagree with this statement and why?

7. To what extent are rumour and gossip harmful in organisational settings? How can these informal means of communication be managed?

Learning Activity 5.2 - Rumour and Gossip (Group Activity)

In groups of four, discuss examples of humour in your workplace (or at University). Who initiated the humour? How was it received? What were the consequences? What common themes do you notice? Share your findings with the class.

Learning Activity 5.3 - Rumour and Gossip (Group Activity)

In groups of four discuss examples of rumour/gossip in your workplace (or at University). How was the rumour/gossip received? What do you think its function was? Which of the four types list above did the rumour/gossip conform to? How long did it last? What common themes do you notice? Share you findings with the class.



Module 6: Romance in Organisations


Learning Outcomes


Define workplace romance and sex, and its implications for organisational behaviour. Explain managerial interest in the avoidance/suppression and management of workplace romance. Identify and discuss different antecedents of workplace romance. Identify and critically assess strategies and interventions for the management of workplace romances.

Introduction

This module draws and builds upon a number of other modules studied this semester. These include individual differences, perception and attribution, rumour and gossip, power and politics and organisational culture. Appreciation of the complexities of romance and sex at work requires an understanding of these topics. Like the previous module, this module examines topics, while current in organisational research, have tended to be ignored in most organisational behaviour university courses and textbooks. Workplace romance and sex also falls under the heading of organisational misbehaviour.

Why the current interest in workplace romance and sex? Once hidden and ignored, workplace romances and sexual relationships (WRs) have seen an explosion of interest in the popular press. There have been a range of responses from those who view relationships at work as a positive phenomenon to those see it as something to be avoided, if not prevented, in an effort to circumvent costly law suits and erosion of employee morale.

Workplace romance defined: "Mutually desired romantic relationships between two people at work in which some element of

sexuality or physical intimacy exists." (Foley and Powell, 1999) Also described as "mating manoeuvres on company time" (Roy, 1974: 44).

Statistics on WRs reveal that 40% of employees from the United States and other countries have dated a co-worker and 72% know of others who have dated a co-worker. Other surveys indicate that one-quarter of employees say they have had intimate relations with a co-worker.

Australian research by Geoff Carter demonstrates that 80% of employees report some kind of socio-sexual experience on the job and more than four out of every ten met a partner at the office. However, only one in ten stayed in the relationship for longer than 6 months. Other conservative Australian findings suggest at any one time, 11% of workers are in a sexual relationship at work. Such findings are commensurate with other overseas research suggesting that one-third of all romances originate in the workplace.

Of further interest are statistics relating to sexual harassment cases and claims arising from soured (when the romance does not work out) workplace romances. In the Unites States, for example, it is estimated that 50% of sexual harassment lawsuits arise out of consensual workplace romances. Research from Australia (New South Wales) indicates that 25% of workplace relationships ultimately end in sexual harassment cases. While the



chances of finding a partner at work are good, office romances can also destroy careers and impact negatively upon organisations. Such statistics means that workplace romance should be taken seriously by managers, employees and scholars. Also, workplace romances are viewed differently from other types of romance which do not impact upon behaviour at work.

Hint: The module notes below should be read carefully against the set reading for this module (Powell and Foley). This reading provides an excellent overview of the topic area.

Focus Questions

1. Why is the topic of romance and sex at work important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. Why has romance and sex been ignored by organisations until recent times? 3. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of workplace romances? 4. What are some of the different perspectives that can be applied to the analysis of workplace romance

and sex? 5. What are some of the consequences of workplace romance for organisations? 6. Can workplace romance and sex be managed? If so, what steps can be taken by managers and

employees. 7. What role does perception and gender play in workplace romances and sex? 8. What are some of the links between this module and other module’s studied? What do these suggest


Module Notes

The absence of sex in organisations and its rediscoveryThe issues of romance and sex have been ignored by managers and organisations and by academics who study organisations and organisational behaviour. There are several reasons for this. One reason is that romantic relationships are viewed by many people as extra-organisational. That is, romantic relationships are not sanctioned by the organisation and such relationships are not related to the pursuit and achievement of organisational goals. Many managers ignore and feel uncomfortable confronting issues of romance and sex directly and openly to be and, for some, such issues encroach upon the personal and private lives of employees.

Most people (academics included) have traditionally viewed organisations as sexless entities. Organisations are often portrayed as rational bureaucracies with identifiable rules and procedures peopled by employees who are not only without gender identity but also devoid of sexuality. One leading organisational scholar in this area has termed the exclusion of sex from organisations as "organisational de-sexualisation" (Burrell, 1984).

In recent times, academics have rediscovered sexuality. We have to examine this topic - sex does matter in organisations! As individuals we do not leave our sexuality and identity as sexual beings at home when we go to work. Many of the assumptions that underpin organisations (for example, power and control) are underpinned by sexuality.

Nature of workplace romances (See Powell and Foley article in your AVU Unit Reader for details). The antecedents and dynamics of WRs play an important role in how co-workers perceive and react to the relationship.

Antecedents (why romances form)The antecedents of Workplace romances are:

Interpersonal attraction. Proximity. Work cultures and design (certain cultures may influence people’s decisions whether or not to

participate in a WR).



Dynamics (different types of WRs and how they evolve over time) Motive is important (for example, job, ego, love). Dependencies (for example, power relationships). Reporting level of the relationship.

Perception is important here. Hierarchical relationships and utilitarian relationships seem to the most damaging in terms of group morale and organisational effectiveness.

Consequences (outcomes of WRs)Outcomes can be seen in the behaviour and attitudes of individual participants, the reactions of co-workers and other group members and the impact on the organisation as a whole.

Outcomes can be: Positive or negative (productive or less productive?)

Generally speaking, research shows that outcomes tend to be negative: Negative consequences for those in mentoring relationships. Rumour and Gossip. Impact upon co-workers. Can result in sexual harassment (see the statistics quoted in the introduction). Other forms of discrimination. Non-heterosexual relationships tend to be viewed as more threatening by management.

Organisational ResponseOrganisations and managers have tended to respond by ignoring the issues. An Australian (NSW) survey found that only 13% of corporations had a formal policy to deal with workplace relationships. An American survey from the early 1990s found that 92% of organisations had no policy regarding romance at work. One reason for this lack of policy is that a number of managers are themselves involved in a workplace relationship. Academics have argued over whether or not it is appropriate or even possible to regulate sexuality in organisations.

Range of responses: Some organisations ban relationships outright.

However, can we actually ‘manage’ workplace relationships? Interventions or banning workplace romances may drive them underground. Legal interventions and bans are difficult: "you can’t outlaw love".

Other organisations may encourage the use of: "Love contracts " (doubts over enforceability and cultural appropriateness outside of North America) Punitive action. Sacking or removal of one or more of the participants (most textbooks advocate

removing the most junior person in the relationship). Sex-at-work codes.

Organisational response and managerial intervention will depend upon the type of relationship. For example, romance between a manager and his or her direct subordinate will require a different response than a romance between a manager and a subordinate who does not directly report to the manager or romance between co-workers. Some organisations encourage a policy of openness and alerting co-workers and managers of the existence of the relationship. On the other hand, some researchers and commentators suggest that responsibility lies with those involved in the romance. This may include ensuring that work is really about work and avoiding favouritism.

From the available research on the topic, it is apparent that most organisations (and managers) tend to ignore workplace romance until it threatens individual, group or organisational effectiveness.





1. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Something to talk about: romantic relationships in organizational settings’ from Module 6 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 6.1 - Romance in Organisations (Individual Activity)


1. To what extent do you think ‘sex’ is a taboo topic in society in general and organisations in particular? 2. Why do romances in organisations occur? 3. “Managers and co-workers have no right to interfere in a workplace relationship”. Do you agree or

disagree? 4. To what extent do workplace romances affect a range of factors including job satisfaction, morale,

rumour/gossip and productivity? 5. What role does national/societal culture play in workplace romances? How are workplace romances

viewed across different cultural contexts. 6. “Women who become romantically involved at work are more likely to attract criticism than men who do

the same”. Do you think this is this an accurate statement? If so, what does it say about gender relations in organisations?

Learning Activity 6.2 – Romance in Organisations (Group Activity)

In groups of four complete the following activity.

You have been asked by your manager to put forward ideas on a new policy on workplace romances. In your opinion, what principles/statements should be included in such a policy?

When you have finished, select one person to present your group’s policy to the rest of the class.



Module 7: Groups and Work Teams


Learning Outcomes


Define groups and group dynamics and explain their implications for organisational behaviour. Define work teams and explain their implications for organisational behaviour. Explain managerial interest in the adoption of work teams in modern organisations Critically analyse and evaluate the concepts of work groups and work teams and their impact upon

organisations and behaviour.

Introduction

This module considers the roles of groups and teams within organisations. As you will recall, organisational behaviour is often studied according to three different levels:

1. Individuals. 2. Groups. 3. Organisations.

The Individual The Group The Organisation

This module establishes the framework for analysing group dynamics within organisations.

GroupsThe reality of modern organisational life is that we are expected to get along with and work effectively with others. Most jobs and task are simply too big to do alone and we rely upon others to complete tasks and to meet deadlines. Groups and teams have become inescapable (impossible to avoid) features of modern life.

Groups are a pervasive (spread throughout) part of modern life. All of us have been - and are - members of many different groups. There are many types of groups. For example, there are school groups, work groups, family groups and religious groups. There are small groups and there are large groups, permanent groups and



temporary groups, formal groups and informal groups. Some groups bring out the best in their members, while others may bring out the worst.

Groups: A definition"Collections of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve one or more common goals". There are 3 minimum requirements for a group to exist.

1. Size: (two or more individuals constitute a group. One person does not constitute a group). 2. There must be some form of communication and exchange between these individuals. That is, they

must interact with each other in some manner. 3. Groups must attempt to accomplish a common goal. If there is no common goal or purpose, there is no

group. A common goal is a goal toward which individual members are willing to work.

TeamsTeams and team working have captured the imagination of managers. Far from being just another management fad, teams offer a new avenue for progressive management. However, teams and team working have a number of hidden traps. For example, research shows that 70% of airline disasters are caused by failures in team working rather than by individual human errors or mechanical breakdown. On the other hand, studies into space travel have concluded that a smoothly functioning team contributes to mission success and survival in an emergency.

If poor team working does not kill you, it can seriously reduce your work motivation and raise your level of job stress. Yet team working has been found to increase productivity and increase job satisfaction, to the benefit of both the organisation and the employees. Managers want to know how they can obtain the benefits of team working without the costs.

82% of companies with 100 employees or more in the United States of America reported that they use teams. Since 1987 teams have increased between 20 and 40% in the United States of America. Research shows that 79% of top executives say that self-managed teams will increase productivity for United States companies and 84% believe that employees will have adopted a better team mind set in the past 6 years (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2004).

Hint: Some researchers question the distinction between ‘groups’ and ‘teams’ are argue that the difference is simply a matter of wording. It does seem that the term ‘teams’ has been given much credence (accept as true or valid) by management consultants and it could be that teams are just another management fad. It is up to you to decide for yourself, based your own reading.

Focus Questions

1. Why is the topic ‘work groups and teams’ important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of workgroups and teams? 3. What are the stages of group formation? 4. What are the key elements of work group characteristics and structure? 5. What is the difference between groups and teams? How does a group become a team? 6. Why have work teams become popular in modern organisations? 7. What are some of the threats to group effectiveness? 8. Why do teams sometimes fail?

Module Notes

Work GroupsThere are two types of groups: formal and informal groups (for purposes of this module, we focus upon formal groups).



Formal groups are those formed within an organisation to help accomplish its goals (for example, work group, team, committee, task force).

There are two types of formal groups: 1. Command groups - specified by an organisation chart and is made up of subordinates who report to a

supervisor. 2. Task groups - group of employees who work together to complete a particular task or project.

Informal groups are natural groupings of people and evolve naturally. They are formed when the main purpose is social (for example, sports teams).

The two main types of informal groups are: 1. Interest groups 2. Friendship groups

Why do people form groups?

Satisfaction – o Social needs – groups provide vehicle for people to interact with each other o Security needs – groups acts as a buffer between employees and the organisation o Esteem needs – may be meet by belonging to a high-status or prestige group

Proximity –Think back on the discussion of interpersonal proximity as discussed in the module on workplace romance and sex.

Attraction – Proximity and Attraction are both related. Factors include things like physical distance or attitudinal or performance similarity.

Goals –Some individuals are attracted to the goals and aims of a particular group or group of people. Economics – Individuals form groups because they believe they can derive greater economic benefits

from their jobs if they organise.

Formal groups fulfil a number of different organisational and individual functions (see your reading in the AVU Unit Reader for this module). The two main purposes of groups are:

1. improving organisational performance through collective member contributions 2. satisfying group members’ needs

Stages of group development Groups can be seen as living entities that evolve as groups go through development stages. Tuckman’s model of group development outlines five stages:

1. FormingForming is the first stage of group development. It is called the ‘ice breaking stage’ where everyone is getting to know one another. Group members get to know one another and learn about the function of the group.

2. StormingStorming is the second stage of group development where group roles and hierarchy are established. It is the stage where there is likely to be confrontation and conflict.

3. NormingNorming is the third stage of group development. In this stage, the group becomes a cohesive unit and members begin to understand their group roles. Also known as the initial integration stage.

4. Performing



Performing is the fourth stage of group development. (This is the final stage if the group is permanent, but the group may go through the stages again, starting at the storming stage.) In this stage, the group focuses on the tasks or project they were formed to complete. Also known as the total integration stage.

5. AdjourningAdjourning is the fifth and final stage of group development. At this stage, the group is at break-up stage after the project is completed (for temporary groups).

Group characteristics and structureAs groups evolve through their various stages of development they begin to exhibit certain characteristics. To understand group behaviour, you must be aware of their general characteristics. The characteristics and structure shape the behaviour of members and makes it possible to explain and predict individual behaviour with the group, as well as the performance of the group itself.

Characteristics Norms (standards of behaviour shared by group members). Conformity and obedience (aligning behaviour with group norms). Cohesiveness (degree to which group members are attracted to each other). Composition (demographic make up of group members). Communication and interaction (communication is the basis for all interactions the underlie group

processes). Structure

Roles (behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given social position within the group). Status (rank or position within the group). Group size. Leadership (management of the group. Can be formal or informal.).

Group size and genderThere is no consensus on the ideal group size. Some studies suggest an ideal number of 3-13 people and that odd-numbered groups are more effective than even-numbered groups.

Research demonstrates that smaller groups are quicker at completing tasks, while larger groups may be more effective in solving problems. Group gender composition may have a negative impact upon women. Mixed-gender groups may lead to discrimination and sexual harassment.

Threats to group effectiveness If not managed appropriately, groups can easily become dysfunctional. These threats are (see the reading for this module for more detail):

1. The Asch Effect - this refers to when a minority of group members give into a unanimous majority of wrong opposition. This is sometimes called the ‘tyranny of the majority’. Another way of thinking about the Asch effect is to see it as “peer pressure”.



2. Groupthink - refers to when the group norms do not allow the consideration of alternative ideas other than the one everyone thinks is the right one.

3. Social Loafing - this refers to when individual group members decrease their effort as the size of the group increases

Work TeamsTeams are small groups of people with complementary skills, who work together as a unit to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable.

Similarities between groups and teams Stages of group formation (Tuckman's model) apply to the development of teams. Teams start out as groups. Teams, like groups, have norms. Members of teams, like those of groups, have roles. Role ambiguity, role conflict and social loafing are also evident in groups. Cohesiveness is important for both groups and teams.

Although there may be many apparent similarities between gvoup and teams, it is important to remember that there are a number of differences. Many of these differences may appear to be quitu subtle. The main differences appear to be a long the lines of accountability and leadership. In teams, these shift from the individual to the group.

Why are grganisations taking the issue of teams seriously?There are a number of reasons for the increasdd usage of teams in organisations:

Enhanced producuivity. Flattened organisational structures. Need for flexibility and quick decision-making. Workforce diversity. Issues of quality and improved customer satisfaction.

Creating/building effective teamsA number of factors have been identified for creating or building effective teams. These include:

Organisational direction and purpose. Clarification of team members’ roles. Trust and cooperation (between managers and employees). Leadership. Team training as well as time and resources. Willingness to take risks and share information.



Some organisations undertake specific team-building approaches including formal retreats, continual improvement and outdoor experience approaches.

Types of Work Teams We can identify a number of different types of teams (see the reading for Module 7 in your AVU Unit Reader for more details.)

Problem-solving teams. Cross-functional teams. Virtual teams. Research and development teams. Self-managed teams.

This outline of work teams is a general typology only. We should realise that teams may be dynamic and changing. For example, some teams evolve from one type to another. Other teams may represent a combination of types. Teams are also differentiated by levels of specialisation and coordination.

Problems with teams/why work teams fail Teams are not always the answer!

1. Teamwork takes time, and often more resources than individual work. Teams have increased communication demands so conflicts have to be managed and meetings to be run so that the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs.

2. In a rush to enjoy the benefits of teams, some managers have introduced them into situations were the work is better done by individuals. Simple tasks that don’t require complex input are best left to individuals.

3. Age, gender, ethnicity all have implications for the management of teams. 4. Teams cannot replace traditional authority and accountability links. 5. Other management mistakes include unrealistic expectations and a lack of interpersonal skills among

team members.

This module demonstrates that groups and teams play an important role in organisational functioning and shaping and influencing the behaviour of group and team members. Some people say that our behaviour as individuals is shaped more by the groups to which we belong than any other factor. Although there is much evidence suggesting that organisations should adopt teams, there are a number of potential traps and dangers that managers should be aware of.



1. Read and summarise Chapter 8, ‘Group Behaviour and Work Teams’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 7.1 - Groups and Work Teams (Individual Activity)Answer the following questions individually at first. Then arrange yourselves into groups of 3 or 4 to discuss your answers.

1. Our behaviour as individuals is influenced more by the groups to which we belong than any other factor". Do you agree or disagree with this statement and why?

2. What ‘rules’ do groups employ to function (for example, norms and leadership) and why are they important? Use examples from your own work situation.

3. How might groups deal with those who violate or transgress group norms? Use examples.



4. What effect, if any, do you expect that workforce diversity has on a group’s performance and satisfaction?

5. Do you prefer to work alone (for example, write your own essay) or as part of a group (for example, group assignment) and why?

6. What benefits and costs does membership of a group confer on its members? 7. What is meant by the term ‘groupthink’? What steps can organisations take to avoid this problem? 8. What is the difference, if any, between groups and teams?

Learning Activity 7.2 - ‘Winter Survival Exercise’ (Group Activity)Your facilitator will allocate you to different sized group/team of 3-8 people. In your group read the case study ‘Winter Survival Exercise' and rank the items. Once you have completed this, join with your group members to come up with a group ranking for each of the items on the list. Your lecturer or tutor will guide you through the exercise. The aim of the exercise to compare individual answers to group decision-making responses. You may be surprised with the results. The exercise will take about 40 minutes to complete.



Module 8: Identity in Organisations


Learning Outcomes


Define and discuss the different ways that identity works for individuals, groups and organisations. Explain social identity theory and self-categorisation. Explain and analyse the idea of diverse and multiple individual, group and organisational identities. Critically analyse and evaluate the concepts of identity and its implication for organisations and

behaviour.

Introduction

This module examines identity and identity work within organisations. For the purpose of this module we focus upon three aspects of identity:

1. ‘self-identity’ (also known as ‘individual identity’ or ‘personal identity’) 2. ‘social identity’ 3. ‘organisational identity’.

In particular, we are interested in the process of identity within organisations and at work.

This module draws upon and contributes to a number of modules studied this semester. In particular, these are diversity and individual differences (especially self-concepts and personality), perception and attributions, groups and teams and organisational commitment.

Identity is concerned with the question "Who are we?" or "Who am I?" For simplicity, much of the research into identity has been divided into ‘me’s’ and ‘we’s’ or ‘individual’ or ‘collective’ identities. Individual ‘me’s’ are identifications of the self as a certain kind of person, using broad social categories to describe "’who I am.’ Collective-level ‘we’s’ are identifications of the self with a group as a whole, using broad social categories to describe ‘who we are’.

Self-identity:The conception which each of us as individuals develops of who and what we are.

Social identity: ‘That part of the self-concept which comes from our membership of groups; it contributes to our self-esteem’ (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004: 356).

Organisational identity: ‘A cognitive image held by a member of an organisation (Scott and Lane, 2000: 43).

‘A collectively held frame within which organisational participants make sense of their world.(Weick, 1995)

‘That which members believe to be central, enduring, and distinctive about their organisation. (Scott and Lane, 2000: 43).

Work Identity:



Work identity is closely related to organisational identity and draws upon self identity.

Work identity is: ‘The relevant work target with which the individual primarily identifies: the occupation or the employing organisation (Witt and Patti, 2002: 488).

Identity is not a new area of study within OB; however researchers have been exploring the topic again with renewed interest. As the environment becomes more complex, as hierarchies become more flattened and as teams and the empowered become more widespread, a sense of identity serves as a rudder for navigating difficult waters (something to help you get through difficult circumstances). Identity is important in the study of OB as research has demonstrated that differences in identities affect social relationships in organisations.

Hint: Identity is a complex and sometimes confusing topic of study. As individuals we do not have an ‘identity’ as such. Rather, individuals have multiple identities. Individuals are not just African, European, Korean, white, black, women, men, marketing managers, or operations managers. Identities intersect to create an amalgamated identity (combine into a unified or integrated whole).

When studying or researching identity, we need to understand it from four different levels of analysis:1. Individual. 2. Group/intergroup. 3. Organisational. 4. Societal.

Focus Questions

1. Why is the topic ‘identity’ important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What is meant by the term ‘identity’ 3. How can we understand identity in individuals, groups and organisations? 4. What is meant by term ‘multiple identity’ 5. What is ‘social identification theory’ and how does it contribute to our understanding of groups and

organisations? 6. How can identity be managed? 7. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of identity for groups and organisations? What

are some of the threats to group effectiveness? 8. What is work identity and how does this differ from organisational identity

Module Notes

IdentityWe begin this module by outlining a broad framework of identity before briefly examining individual identity and exploring in more detail social and organisational identity.

Much of what we study in OB refers to common and basic processes through which individuals develop identities. Through these processes, especially learning, perception and socialisation, an individual develops a distinctive personality and patterns of motivation. We are motivated to behave in ways that are consistent with our identity. For example, if our social identity is as a member of the marketing department is most salient (important), then we will be motivated to perform behaviours that support the value of marketing and our marketing colleagues. On the other hand, if our personal identity as an ambitious young manager is most salient, we are more likely to pursue behaviours that we see as being in our own interest.

Identity is a tool that we use to present ourselves as, and transform ourselves into, images appropriate to our social, cultural and work context. One researcher (Weigert et al, 1986: 31) argues that ‘identity is a definition that transforms a mere biological individual into a human person’.



A framework for understanding identity

Identity is socially and historically constructed and it is not stable or fixed. Research has demonstrated that identity is multifaceted, dynamic and influenced by multiple forces. Our identity orientation is associated by our primary motivations: the desire to enhance or own, our relationship partner’s, or our groups well-being. Each identity orientation is associated with a frame of reference by which individuals evaluate their own self-worth. People may compare themselves to other individuals, compare their own relationship role performance with their own or partners’ standards, or compare their group to another group.

Personal identity orientation: Individuals conceive of themselves primarily in terms of their individual traits and characteristics and use comparisons with other individuals as a frame of reference.

Relational orientation: Individuals are motivated to procure a benefit for the other. They conceive of themselves predominantly in terms of their roles in relation to significant others, and they evaluate themselves on the ability with which they perform interpersonal roles with those others. For example, Dimitria identifies strongly with her role as a colleague. Her primary motivation is to be a good co-worker, and she will evaluate herself in terms of her adequacy as a colleague.

Collective identity orientation: People are motivated to ensure the welfare of their group, often relative to other groups. They characterise themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong and determine their self-worth by evaluating how their group compares to other groups.

Identity has two components: a personal and a social component. Both are explored in more detail below.

Me’s - Individual and personal identityPersonal identity is based on our unique self-understandings and idiosyncratic characteristics (different features) such as personality and physical and intellectual traits. Individual identity refers to self-concepts in terms of broader social categories (for example, Jane Doe is from the south in the United States, a college graduate, physically handicapped)

There are two aspects of individual identity:1. A self-concept involving such matters as ‘self-efficacy, self-esteem and self-confidence’. 2. Social identity which includes ‘various attitudes, values, beliefs and commitments in relation to society

and social institutions’.

We’s - Collective-level identitiesIdentity also has a social component derived from salient group memberships, such as sex, race, class, and nationality. The social component of identity involves processes of self-categorisation and attaching value to particular social categories, such that an individual’s knowledge of his or her membership of social groups together with the emotional significance of that knowledge constitute social identity. Put simply, social identity is our self-perception as members in various social groups.

We examine collective identity through the concepts lens of social identification theory and organisational/work identity.

Social (Group) Identity Theory Social (Group) Identity Theory is also known as Social Identification Theory.This topic has been covered in detail in the reading for this week (Asforth and Mael).

We partly identify ourselves in terms of our membership in social groups. Social Identity Theory (SIT) explains how we perceive others and ourselves. SIT was developed by Henri Tajfel to explain those aspects of our identity which derive from our group membership. Tajfel argued that group membership affects people’s sense of who they are. The groups or social categories to which we belong are an integral part of our self-concept and affects how we feel about ourselves and how we act within a group. This is because joining a group lowers our


http://64.106.243.70/10852/content/Module_8/module_8.htm#module_notes%23module_notes


self-awareness and raises our group awareness. The roles we play within different groups influence and shape our attitudes and behaviours. Which groups form our social identity? Usually we like to portray a positive self-image, so we identify with groups that support this positive image.

Social identity fulfils two functions. First it defines and evaluates a person (for example, ‘she’s a member of the design team’). Such definition and evaluation is done both by others and by the person themselves. Second, it prescribes appropriate behaviour for them. How this happens is through social comparison. In order to evaluate their own opinions and abilities, individuals not only compare themselves to other individuals with whom they interact, but also compare their own group with similar, but distinct out-groups. The dimensions that are used to make these comparisons are called social categorisations. Categorisation leads to assumptions of similarity among those categorised together.

We all see ourselves as members of various social groupings, which are different from other social groupings. The consequence is that by identifying with certain groupings, but not others, we come to see the world in terms of ‘us and them’.

Benefits of social categorisation? Our understanding of the world is enhanced by classifying people into groups with which we identify and

those with which we don’t. Our self-esteem can be maintained or enhanced. Membership of a high-status group can give us

prestige, which raises our self-esteem.

Implications for managementThere are a number of general consequences of group identification which are especially relevant to organisational behaviour:

individuals tend to choose activities and institutions which are congruent with their salient identities identification affects outcomes such as intra-group cohesion and cooperation identification reinforces attachment to the group and its values and increases competition with

outgroups.

Categorising people into groups and identifying some of these groups is a fundamental human characteristic. Because of these two basic needs for differentiating themselves from others and for belonging, individuals expose themselves to the control of others. Within the organisational context, we offer control to fellow group members who wish to direct our attitudes, thoughts and ideas inline with what the group considers appropriate; and also to managers who seek to both motivate and control us through team-working arrangements.

We also tend to assign more favourable features to our own groups and less favourable features to other groups. This perceptual process makes our world easier to understand. However, it also becomes the basis for stereotyping people in organisational settings. Social identity theory has direct relevance for the study and understanding of socio-demographic diversity within organisations. For example, gender may be a minority status in some organisations, therefore members of such groups are likely to be classified and perceived in terms of this status, and subject to stereotypical expectations and treatment from members of the dominant group.

Ethnic and gender identity are particularly important here. Women workers have been excluded from the predominantly male culture of organisations and feminine gender identity suppressed or marginalised. Female managers are often required to adapt to masculine models of management, or risk being viewed as exceptions to women in general. Sexual and racial discrimination is reinforced by stereotypical categorisations of women and black workers that portray them as naturally inferior in various abilities or only suited to certain types of work.

Organisational IdentityTheory and research suggests that members’ identities and organisational identity are closely linked. Individual identity asks ‘Who am I?’, while social (group) and organisational identity asks ‘Who are we?’ As explained



earlier, individuals may have multiple identities and the same applies to organisations. Researchers have argued one of the primary functions of managers is that of managing multiple organisational identities.

Identity is the way in which organisations define or describe themselves to customers, employees, suppliers and investors, and also the way customers, employees, and others develop an image of these organisations.

Why should managers be concerned with organisational identity?

Persons identified with their organisation are more likely to associate themselves with that collective and to act in the organisation’s best interests.

Organisational identification may result in making decisions that are aligned with the company beliefs. Identity can be motivational (organisations that have strong identities can provide managers and

employees with a sense of meaning, purpose and excitement, which can arouse commitment and passion).

Identity can provide employees (and external stakeholders) with meanings and an understanding of what it is that is central and distinctive about their organisation.

Identification with an organisation can lead to lower rates of in-group conflict, and labour turnover.

It therefore follows that most organisations will try to enhance organisational identification as opposed to identification to some competing target. However, organisational-based identity is under threat. With organisational restructuring, individual loyalty and identification may be directed more towards one’s career or occupation, and their team or group.

Origins of an organisation’s identity: Core beliefs and values (organisational culture). Products and services. Images and representations of the organisation.

Why do individuals identify with organisations? Safety needs (identity is a coping mechanism). Affiliation needs (need to belong). Self-enhancement needs. (Individuals seek to have a positive view of themselves. Identification can fill

this self-enhancement function.) Holistic needs (individuals identify with the organisation to find meaning or a sense of purpose in one’s

life).

Dangers and downside of organisational identification: Organisations with high degrees of identification may not be able to adapt to changes or environmental

demands. Can lead to conflict as identification with in-groups may lead to stereotyping. High levels of organisational identification can lead to unethical behaviour. Organisations with multiple identities can lead to role conflict and overload for managers and

employees. Organisations with multiple identities can become ineffective due to conflicting demands placed on

them. Organisations with too few identities may have difficulty in meeting the demands of all their members.

An important point to note is that not all employees identify with their organisation (disidentification). Such employees may develop counter or alternative forms of identification.

Identity WorkCritical research argues that organisations seek to transform individual identities at work. Rules and procedures at work and survival and coping strategies employed by individuals may transform themselves into an image that functions in a way that is useful for the organisation they work for. Identity is the basis of individual involvement in the organisation, and the basis for manipulation achieved through negotiated transactions



between organisational strategies of control and individual strategies for securing identity. We constantly represent ourselves to others in social environments. In the way we dress, speak and behave we present a changing image of who we are with whom we interact: our identity is negotiated and constructed.

Depending on whom we are dealing with at the time, we can present an image which is intended to appear appropriate to the situation and to appear consistent with the expectations of others. This is what is meant by the term ‘identity work’, where we shape our identity to fit the norms, roles and expectations of others and the organisation. The consequences of this are not always positive for organisations. Employees can and do create identities in opposition to that of the organisation.

Work Identity Identity with an occupation and identity with and commitment to an organisation are positively related. Underpinning research into this area has been the assumption that individuals who most closely identify themselves with their occupations may hold different attitudes from those who most closely identify themselves with their organisations. For many employees, their professional, and/or organisational identity may be more important than ascribed identities based on gender, age, ethnicity, race, or nationality.

Some researchers argue that identification with one’s occupation is on the increase and identification with the organisation is on the decline. This is because many employees currently see themselves as a commodity and realise that their futures will be with more than one organisation. Other factors include a change in organisational retention tactics, the growth of knowledge and specialisation at work and the emergence of ‘boundaryless’ careers. These challenges mean that organisational identity is an area worthy of management concern.

Research demonstrates that: Individuals who identify with their organisations tend to take greater care in selecting their organisation. Occupational identification is stronger when the work climate is unfavourable or undergoing change.

Some managers believe that hiring individuals who identify strongly with their occupations is a risk, as their loyalties could lie outside the organisation. On the other hand, professional and occupational identity is important for those organisations where retention of professional employees is a problem.

What are the lessons for management?A contingent approach is important. When organisations are undergoing change, managers interested in increasing organisational commitment might focus on increasing occupational identification. However, when the work environment is stable, the appropriate strategy might be to enhance workgroup, team or organisational identification. In such cases, the aim is to highlight people’s awareness of themselves as similar to an organisation and to other organisational members.

Conclusions

Much of the research on identity has been done as laboratory studies and there is little field research. In order to understand and manage identity we need to ask the following questions: how do group identities operate in practice? What factors determine the salience given to different group identities? What do people think of their group identities in organisations? How do people make sense of themselves in relation to their jobs and their identity(ies)? How do organisational policies and practices produce and reproduce diverse identities? The study of identity is especially difficult because it does not lend itself to easy measurement.

The issue of identity in organisations is a complex one. One thing is certain, individuals, groups and organisations are comprised of multiple and competing identities. The management of identity is not easy, but recognition of identity and the various forms in which it might take place, gives us better understanding of the complexity of organisations and the ways in which behaviour might be managed.





1. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Social identity theory and the organisation’ from Module 8 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 8.1 - Indentity in Organisations (Individual Activity)


1. What is meant by the term ‘identity’ and why is it of interest to managers? 2. What is meant by the term ‘identity work’? Use illustrations from your own organisations. 3. What factors determine our ‘identity’ (think of our identity as individuals, at work) 4. What is the difference between individual and organisational identity? 5. How does social identity theory explain group behaviours (for example, group roles, norms)? 6. How does the concept of ‘identity’ link to the topics already covered in OB 200? How does identity

theory help us to understand individual differences, perception, motivation, organisational citizenship? 7. Can identity be managed? What challenges do managers face in attempting to establish ‘organisational

identity’ amongst employees?



Module 9: Workplace Bullying and Violence


Learning Outcomes


Define workplace bullying and violence and discuss their implication for individuals, groups and organisations.

Identify and explain the antecedents of workplace bullying and violence. Critically analyse strategies for the prevention and management of workplace bullying and violence.

Introduction

This module examines the related topics of workplace bullying and violence. Bullying has often been regarded as something that happens in the schoolyard and it is only recently that organisations have begun to take these issues seriously. Both are costly for organisations. For example, it is estimated that workplace bullying costs between $6 billion and $13 billion per year when hidden and opportunity costs are considered. There are no accurate estimates of the considerable costs of workplace violence. Whatever the costs, there is good evidence that both have negative consequences for individuals and organisations. Workplace bullying and violence are linked and there is some blurring around the margins. European and Australian literature talks about bullying; the US literature discusses violence. This distinction reflects cultural differences.

The issues are so severe that Scandinavian countries, for example, have outlawed bullying. Other countries are taking bullying and violence at work seriously as well. Many governments have enacted legislation making employers responsible for providing a safe and healthy workplace.

Hint: This module draws upon and contributes to most of the module studied this semester. Students are invited to consider the role of individual differences, teams and group, workplace humour and rumour/gossip, conflict and stress, power and politics and organisational culture in the antecedents, dynamics, consequences and management of bullying and violence at work.

Focus Questions

1. Why are the topics ‘workplace bullying’ and ‘workplace violence’ important for the study of organisational behaviour?

2. Why are workplace bullying and violence difficult to define and measure? 3. What are some of the ways in which bullying and violence manifest themselves in the workplace? 4. What are the antecedents and consequences of workplace bullying and violence for individuals, groups

and managers? 5. What is meant by the term "unintentional bullying"? 6. How can workplace bullying and violence be managed?



Module Notes

BullyingThere is much debate over what bullying is and what constitutes bullying behaviour. Defining workplace bullying

"Offensive, intimidating or humiliating behaviour that degrades, ridicules or insults another person at work".

"Repeated and persistent negative acts towards one or more individuals which involve a perceived power imbalance and create a hostile work environment".

In Europe, bullying is sometimes known as "mobbing". Whatever term is used, bullying is defined as on-going behaviour (a "one-off" or once only incidence is not considered bullying behaviour).

Key points in understanding and defining workplace bullying: Consists of and encompasses a number of negative behaviours. Interpersonal in nature. Frequency and longevity (if it continues) are important in defining bullying behaviours. Bullying is usually targeted towards one or few selected victims, rather than being a form of more

generalised workplace incivility (disrespect). Bullying is seen as involving a power imbalance (many workplace bullies are managers!).

Bullying is hard to define and even harder to quantify. Many employees who are bullied are reluctant to report incidents or make formal complaints. In many cases, management tends to blame the victim rather than the bully. Bullies are often in positions of power over victims and present themselves in the role of "good manager" to higher management. There is often a general failure in higher management to distinguish between "strong/firm" management and bullying, which also favours the bully.

Various studies suggest the between 45-87 percent of workers in countries from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, the US and Australia have been subjected to workplace bullying.

Effect on organisations: Associated with higher turnover and absenteeism. Decreased commitment and productivity.

Effect on individuals: Lower levels of job satisfaction. Psychosomatic symptoms and physical illness.

The causes of bullying (antecedents of bullying)One influential study of bullying found that two main factors lead to workplace bullying:

The first was poorly organised production and/or working methods. The second was inadequate or uninterested managers.

Other causes of bullying at workResearch has focused upon personality traits of the perpetrators and victims and the role of the work environment. It is possible that the individual and the organisation may influence each other. For example an individual may acquire aggressive tendencies in a certain environment and that the work environment and work culture may be influenced by an aggressive individual.

Research suggests that childhood bullies become adult bullies. "abnormal" cultures (sometimes the culture of an organisation leads otherwise decent people into totally

unacceptable behaviour). Maliciousness (here the bully sets out on a deliberate and systematic campaign to make the person’s

life a misery or to seriously damage the person’s career).



Escalation of conflict (unchecked and unresolved conflict may lead to full-scale bullying). Dissatisfaction and frustration with the working situation and organisational climate. In some instances, people may be motivated to bully others (meaning the perpetrator feels that he or

she may actually benefit from such behaviour in terms of higher pay). Downsizing and organisational change/restructuring may precipitate bullying in organisations.

Unintentional bullyingIt is possible that people who have no malicious intent to do harm, and do wish to treat their employees with consideration and respect, can behave like bullies because of pressures beyond their control. For example, a manager may have to interrupt their staff’s normal workload and make unreasonable demands to get the job done. Other examples may be found when cost cutting means there are insufficient staff for the workload so the climate encourages things like people being forced to do overtime and being refused permission to take holidays when they want. As pressure on organisations grows, so does the experience of bullying.

Whatever the causes of bullying, the outcome is always the same - trauma and suffering for those on the receiving end.

Managing bullying in organisationsEmployers and organisations have a legal responsibility to provide a healthy and safe workplace. The legislative framework to prevent workplace violence also covers bullying behaviour (see ‘Managing Workplace violence, below). Most of the literature on the management of bullying focuses on the development of a relevant policy as the first port of call (first place to start). Literature also suggests that before developing anti-bullying policies, management should conduct anonymous surveys to assess the perceived degree of the problem within the organisation.

Expectations regarding acceptable behaviour are part of the first step in managing bullying behaviours. The key to ensuring the elimination of bullying behaviours at work is organisational and senior management support for policies and bullying management strategies. This also includes management acting as appropriate role-models. The consensus amongst most researchers is that the responsibility for dealing with bullying is with management.

Some researchers suggest that past behaviour is a good predictor of future behaviour, so organisations should screen applicants carefully in terms of past incidents during the recruitment process. Feedback is also important. On-going feedback lets employees know when their behaviour is out of line.

Other suggestions include providing adequate grievance, mediation or other conflict resolutions processes that employees trust when they become victims of workplace bullying.

Overall, the management of bullying is a three-step process combining prevention, intervention and rehabilitation.

Despite the functionalist approach to the management of bullying, critical questions can be raised over its management. The point here is that with so many manifestations of bullying how can you remedy behaviours that are covert in so many instances and therefore not entirely apparent.

Workplace ViolenceWorkplace violence has been receiving more attention in many countries and in the media than in the past. While it is questionable as to whether or not incidents of violence are increasing at work, it is clear that society’s toleration of violence is decreasing. Statistics on workplace violence are notoriously inaccurate (they tend to underreport instances of violence). This is because of non-reporting by victims and lack of centralised agencies for collection of data relating to workplace violence.

Workplace violence (also known as occupational violence) can be defined as the action (or attempted action) by a person or worker, which causes physical or psychological harm to another worker.



Occupational violence can include: threats physical violence homicide stalking sex harassment abusive communications (consider the role of new technology, for example email) bullying and (importantly!) behaviour that gives a worker reason to believe that he or she is at risk.

Fatal assaults (workplace homicide) have attracted the most media attention. Research from Australia suggests that 2 percent of all traumatic workplace deaths are occupational homicides. In the US, homicide represented the third most significant cause of workplace death, accounting for 17 percent of the nation’s total traumatic work-related fatalities during the mid 1990s.

While statistics are disturbing, they indicate, that despite media sensationalisation, homicides are not the only type of violence experienced by workers. Interestingly, most workplace homicides (in Australia and the United States) result from robbery, not the actions of disgruntled employees.

Non-Fatal Occupational violenceThe International Crime Victim Survey conducted in 1996 found that women, in general, faced a higher risk of being a victim of violence at work than their male counterparts. In Europe, the most common form of violence was intimidation and bullying, while in Australia one in two employees have been verbally abused by a member of the public during the course of their occupational duties. Of interest is that 46 percent suggested that the source of the abuse was a manager or co-worker.

Types of violence at workWhen considering and analysing the different types of violence at work, it is useful to adopt the variables outlined in the Mullen article. These are:

type of violence location of the violence potential victims and potential perpetrators the context in which the violence may occur.

Operationalising workplace violence:1. Internal (intra-organisational conflict): occurs between employees within the same organisation. 2. External (violence from the general public): perpetuated from someone outside the organisation. 3. Client-initiated violence: violence inflict on workers by their customers and clients.

Why does occupational violence occur?There are a range of reasons accounting for why violence may occur.

Occupational violence for gain: this refers to acts committed in order to gain money, food, drugs. Opportunistic violence: this may a form of entertainment for the offender or pursued as an outlet for their

frustration. For example, vandalism, assault and violence towards particular cultures and races. Indirect violence: this refers to a person witnessing an act of violence, such as seeing a shooting or a

robbery.

Organisational factors may also be important. For example, studies of workplace homicide in the US argued that management style, job stress and job insecurity were key factors in the precipitation of such violence.

Societal factors may include high unemployment and marginalisation of groups of people as well as economic restructuring which have contributed to both.

Workplace violence and stress



Employees who experience violence usually have symptoms of severe stress after the traumatic event. Workplace violence is also a stressor to those who observe the violence.

In which types of jobs does violence commonly occur? Health workers (doctors, nurses, hospital workers). Guards and security officers. Police. Workers in the wholesale and retail trade sectors and in service industries.

In Western Australia, for example, prison officers, security officers, taxi drivers, pizza delivery drivers, employees in service stations, chemists and video outlets faced higher levels of workplace violence than other groups of workers.

Non-physical violence such as verbal abuse, intimidation and threatening behaviour is often faced by employees in service industries and government agencies.

Managing Workplace ViolenceThe management of workplace violence has tended to be one of reaction or ignoring the issues. In many cases, management policies or managers themselves have been the perpetuators of workplace violence. In other cases, the victims of workplace violence have been blamed. In recent years, unions, employer organisations and government have begun to take issues of workplace violence seriously.

The cost of workplace violence includes financial costs of absenteeism, lost productivity, higher workers' compensation insurance premiums and medical expenses, and also personal costs of emotional trauma suffered by victims and their families.

Even the risk of violence, threats or abuse in a workplace can cause stress and emotional suffering. Both employers and employees benefit from reducing the risk of violence at work.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of Western Australia, for example, has duties requiring employers and persons in control of workplaces to provide safe and healthy workplaces so employees and others at the workplace are not exposed to hazards. Employers must consult and cooperate with safety and health representatives and employees about safety and health in the workplace. These laws mean employers must take all practicable measures to reduce the risks of violence at work, as for any other hazard. Employees also have a duty under the Act to take reasonable care of the safety and health of themselves and others, cooperate with their employers and comply with safety and health instructions. This includes reporting the potential for violence so the employer can provide a safe system of work.

The sensationalisation of workplace violence, has in some cases, lead to over management of the issue. In a bid to prevent violence, some organisations have undertaken extraordinary measures to identify and remove employees who may be potential assailants. Authoritarian control systems and overzealous recruitment and selection procedures may exacerbate the problem and lead to discrimination.

The management of workplace violence is not a simple issue. Managerial strategy will depend upon the type of violence. For example, installation of protective barriers and alarms may provide a solution for the prevention of client-initiated or external violence but does nothing to address intra-organisational violence. What ever managerial strategy is adopted, prevention must be the aim.





1. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Ways of explaining workplace bullying: a review of enabling, motivating and precipitating structures and processes in the work environment’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

2. Read and summarise the journal article, ‘Workplace violence: cause for concern or the construction of a new category of fear?’ in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 9.1 - Workplace Bullying and Violence (Individual Activity)

Answer the following questions individually at first. Then arrange yourselves into groups of 3 or 4 to discuss your answers. If you have never been in the workforce, apply your answers to your experience at university.

1. What actions are potentially deemed as ‘bullying’ in organisations? For example, can workplace jokes/humour be used to bully others? What does this list suggest about trying to understand and manage this topic area?

2. Why do you think bullying and violence have attracted much interest and attention in recent years? 3. Why do people bully others in the workplace? Are these reasons specific to the person, the situation or

both? 4. Are some work situations more prone to cases of bullying and violence? If so, what are the key

characteristics or features of such situations? 5. Bullying is often about power or more specifically, the abuse/misuse of power by a manager over a

subordinate. How might the role of computer technology change this power dynamic? 6. In your experience, how extensive do you think workplace violence is? What have you seen and

experienced. How does this experience fit with Mullen’s description? 7. How would you deal with cases of bullying and violence in organisations?

Learning Activity 9.2 - Workplace Bullying and Violence (Group Activity)

In groups of 4-5, prepare a policy on workplace bullying and violence. What principles/statements should be included in such a policy? How do you propose to prevent and manage incidents of bullying and violence in the workplace or at university? Present your policy to the class.



Module 10: Conflict and Stress in Organisations


Learning Outcomes


Define and identify conflict and discuss their implication for individuals, groups and organisations. Explain the different perspectives on conflict. Identity and explain the antecedents of conflict and stress. Critically analyse strategies for the management of conflict and stress within organisations.

Introduction

Conflict is an unavoidable aspect of modern life and is prevalent (widespread) in organisations. Interestingly, conflict also seems to conjure up (bring up) negative connotations amongst members of the public, yet conflict often plays a vital role within organisations. Conflict has both positive and negative outcomes. Organisations can have too little conflict. On the other hand there can be too much. The question is how to strike a balance between the two.

Ironically, there has been disagreement and conflict over the role of conflict in groups and organisations. Traditionally, conflict has been viewed as dysfunctional and resulting from poor communication, a lack of openness and trust between people and poor management. Others believe that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. In contrast to traditionalists and those that believe conflict is natural, are those who believe that conflict should be encouraged and is necessary for a group to perform at its best. These people believe that low levels of managed conflict keep groups viable and creative.

In analysing conflict, we need to do so from the three levels of analysis within OB. The three levels are: The individual (conflict between individuals). The group (conflict between and within groups). The organisation (conflict within and between organisations).

Work-related stress is becoming more prevalent in the workplace. Nearly two-thirds of Australian employees claim that they are under stress (McShane and Travaglione, 2003). Stress is a part of life and we cannot totally avoid it (the only absence of stress is death!). This module focuses upon occupational stress. We will examine what stress is and why managers need to understand the causes and consequences of stress.

We should realise that stress and its consequences are manageable. One of the problems associated with the management of stress is that stress means different things to different people. What is stressful to me is not necessarily stressful to you. This means that we need to consider the role of perception and individual differences in stress.

Hint: You are encouraged to see the link between the two topics examined in this module. A key point to remember is that some conflict and stress are OK in organisations. It is the extreme points (too little or too much) that are problematic for individuals, groups and organisations.

Focus Questions

1. Why are the topics ‘conflict’ and ‘stress’ important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What is functional and dysfunctional conflict?



3. What are some of the perspectives that can be applied to conflict? 4. What are the causes of conflict and stress? 5. What are the outcomes of stress? 6. What factors might moderate the outcomes of stress for different individuals? 7. How can conflict and stress be managed within an organisation?

Module Notes

Workplace conflict

Defining conflict "Occurs when two or more people disagree over issues of organisational substance and/or experience

some emotional antagonism with one another" (Wood etal 2004: 597) "A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about

to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about" (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2004: 791). "One party perceives its interests are being opposed or set back by another party" (McKenna, 2000:

407)

The key word is the word perceived (be aware of). The sources of conflict can be real or imagined, but the resulting conflict is the same. Conflict is a state of mind - it has to be perceived by the parties involved. If two or parties are not aware of conflict, then no conflict exists.

Put simply, conflict frequently arises when the differences between two or more groups or individuals become apparent.

Managers are known to spend up to 20% of their time dealing with conflict, including conflicts in which managers are themselves directly involved.

Levels of conflictConflict may be encountered on four levels:

1. intrapersonal (conflict within the individual) 2. interpersonal (individual to individual conflict) 3. intergroup conflict 4. interorganisational conflict.

Different perspectives on conflictThere are a number of perspectives on conflict. These are briefly outlined below.

1. Unitarist: Sees organisations as harmonious and any conflict as bad and as something to be avoided. Human Resource Management as a discipline adopts a unitarist perspective on conflict.

2. Pluralist: Sees organisations as a collection of groups, each with their own interests. Conflict is inevitable within organisations and compromise is possible and conflict is manageable.

3. Radical: Also known as the Marxist perspective. See conflict as an inevitable outcome of capitalism. Conflict is unavoidable and desirable as it assists in the breakdown of capitalism

Although OB has much in common with Human Resource Management, the issue of conflict is one in which the two disciplines differ. OB is more consistent with the pluralist approach and recognises that: conflict is inevitable within organisations, is desirable and can be managed. Human Resource Management sees conflict in a unitarist way.

Constructive (functional) and Destructive (dysfunctional) Conflict1. Functional - serves organisational interest and can improve performance. This form of conflict is

constructive as it can help organisations to be more innovative. Innovation occurs when different ideas, perceptions and ways of processing and judging information collide.



2. Dysfunctional - threatens organisational interests and can impede performance. Often this form of conflict deals with personality rather than issues.

When conflict arises most people’s first reaction is to become angry or distressed, and to seek to eliminate the problem. However, managers need to realise that if they can understand the issues that are causing the disagreement they will be in a better position to minimise the anger and distress and to use the conflict to the organisations advantage. Successful managers are good at stimulating functional conflict.

What differentiates functional from dysfunctional conflict? Researchers argue that you need to consider the type of conflict. Three types:

1. Task conflict relates to goals and content of the work. 2. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. 3. Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.

Studies show that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional (tend to increase personality clashes). Low levels of task and process conflict are functional.

Conflict and organisational performanceConflict may have either a positive or negative impact on organisational performance, depending on the nature of the conflict or how it is managed. For every organisation, an optimal level of conflict exists that can be considered highly functional: it helps generate positive performance. On the other hand, when the conflict level is too low, performance can suffer.

Sources of conflict Incompatible personalities or value systems. Overlapping or unclear job boundaries. Competition for limited resources. Interdepartment/intergroup competition. Inadequate communication. Interdependent tasks. Organisational complexity. Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules. Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure. Collective design making. Decision making by consensus. Unmet expectations. Unresolved or suppressed conflicts. Communication (lack of effective communication).

Managing ConflictThe aim of conflict management is to maximise the benefits and minimise the dysfunctional consequences of conflict.

Interpersonal conflict handling stylesResearchers have categorised five interpersonal styles of approaching the other party in a conflict situation. Each approach can be placed in a two-dimensional grid reflecting the person’s motivation to satisfy their own interests and to satisfy the other person’s interests.

Conflict handling styles (see the reading for this module for explanation of each style). Collaborating (also known as integrating and problem solving). Avoiding. Competing (also known as forcing). Accommodating (also known as obliging or smoothing). Compromising.



Conflict handling styles are contingent (depend upon conditions or occurrences). The most satisfying outcome of conflict is a win-win orientation or result. However, personal orientation and situational factors determine the best conflict management style. Gender and culture also impact upon conflict management style.

Structural approaches to conflict managementConflict management also involves altering the underlying structural causes of potential conflict. This can be achieved by:

Emphasising superordinate goals (appealing to common ground or to common objectives held by conflicting parties that is more important than their conflicting department or individual goals).

Reducing differentiation (reduce differences that cause conflict. Can be achieved through team rotation.)

Improving communication and understanding (communication is critical to effective conflict management).

Reducing task interdependence (dividing resources so that each party has exclusive part of it. For example, employees sharing same parts of a job. Instead of one employee serving customers and the other operating the cash register, both employees can handle the activities).

Increasing resources (however, problems over costs). Hierarchical referral (using the chain of command for conflict resolution. Problems are referred to more

senior managers to reconcile). Clarifying rules and procedures (remove ambiguous rules regarding the allocation of scarce resources).

Managing Conflict: stimulating functional conflictThe real challenge for managers and organisations is to promote and manage functional conflict. There are two main ways of stimulating functional conflict:

Devil’s Advocate - Assigning someone the role of critic. The Dialectic Method - Fostering a debate of opposing viewpoints to better understand an issue.

Studies show using a devil’s advocate as being more effective.

Conclusion (Conflict)

Conflict within organisations is often misunderstood or seen as something to be avoided at all costs. Despite the recognition that some levels of functional conflict are essential for organisational performance, managers tend to avoid or suppress conflict. Reward and promotion systems have favoured those who avoid conflict. One report suggests that seven out of ten people in business hush up when their opinions are at odds with those of their supervisors, allowing bosses to make mistakes when they know better. If, as a number of business consultants argue, organisations are to survive in a competitive environment, they need to create and promote a culture that encourages functional levels of dissent and conflict. For many managers this will mean learning to accept dissent and conflicting opinions different to their own.

Workplace StressStress - is a set of behavioural, physical and/or psychological responses to the environment. Others definitions of stress explain it as a state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary demands, constraints or opportunities. Stress is commonly seen as an adaptive response to situations that are perceived as challenging or threatening to an individual’s well-being.

Those factors in the environment that cause stress are called stressors: Individual - job demands, interpersonal relationships, over-work. Group - behaviour of managers, intragroup conflict. Organisational - culture, technology, change. Extra (outside) organisational - family, commuting time, noise.



The outcomes stress can be positive or negative:

Eustress (or constructive stress) -stress which leads to positive outcomes (for example, increased productivity, increased job satisfaction). People need some stress to be able to work well.

Negative outcomes (distress) - too much stress can produce negative outcomes such as absenteeism, accidents and burnout. In the long run this leads to lower productivity and exposes the business to litigation, costly compensation claims and a poor public image. Distress is dysfunctional for organisations and individuals.

Consequences of stress (more accurately: consequences of distress)Stress has consequences for both the employee and the organisation. This results in a variety of physiological, psychological and behavioural consequences. See the reading for this module for a full explanation of possible consequences.

Individual consequencesPhysiological (physical health)

Cardiovascular disease. Muscle pains. Psychological (psychological consequences) Job burnout.

Emotional fatigue. Job dissatisfaction. Moodiness. Behavioural Bullying and workplace violence.

Some textbooks also include cognitive consequences (for example, poor decision-making) as a consequence of stress.

Organisational consequencesThe physiological, psychological, behaviour and cognitive outcomes that are individually linked also have organisational consequences. While organisational consequences of stress are many and varied, they share one



common feature: Stress costs organisations money.

Other organisational consequences: Increased job turnover and absenteeism. Reduced job performance, quality and productivity. 60 - 80 percent of worksite accidents are the result of stress.

Stressful occupationsSome studies have attempted to identify which jobs have more stressors than others. However, listing jobs into those that are more stressful than others has some problems. Task characteristics and job environments differ considerably for the same job in different organisations and societies.

Low stress occupations - Accountant, artist, car mechanic. Medium-stress occupations - Hospital manager, doctor, school principal. High-stress occupations - Police officer, call centre workers, waiter/waitress, prime minister/president.

Stress moderatorsWhy is it, that some things may cause stress to some people, but not to others? Some factors affect the nature of the stress. These are called stress moderators. Stress moderators are individual characteristics that moderate the extent to which different people experience stress or exhibit a specific outcome in a given situation.

Moderators include: Personality (for example, locus of control, self-esteem). Type A behaviour. Social support.

Stress prevention and management Employees and managers have joint responsibility for removing stress. Organisations and managers can choose to prevent stress or to cope with the consequences of stress (address the symptoms).

Prevention:Some writers argue that the only way to manage stress is to remove stressors (McShane and Travaglione, 2003). The key is to identify stress and the best way to eliminate stress is to empower employees so that they have more control over their work and work environment.

Other prevention factors: job redesign - creating enriched and interesting jobs goal setting - realistic performance goals communication work-life balance.

Addressing the symptoms/managing the consequences:Other writers suggest that eliminating stressors may be unrealistic. Instead, they argue for strategies to cope with the consequences of stress.

These include: Relaxation - training staff how to make a conscious effort to relieve muscle tension. Biofeedback - training staff to recognise the symptoms of stress (for example, raised blood pressure,

muscle tension) so they can take action to relieve the stress. Meditation - training staff to relax by redirecting their thoughts away from themselves. Cognitive re-structuring - training people to change their beliefs about stressful situations. For example, to

think differently about failure. Rather than believing they are losers, failure is seen as a natural process towards success. "If you’ve never failed, you’ve never tried"

Wellness programs that encourage a healthy life style including diet and exercise. These programs focus on the employee’s physical and mental health.

Employee assistance programs and stress management programs.



Social support is also important.

Diet and exercise are recognised as important factors in stress management.

Stress: a critical assessment and evaluationStress is a topic (and a word) that has generated a large amount of research and media interest. Yet not everyone agrees that the term is entirely helpful. Not all definitions of stress are all the same and it is difficult to know what is exactly being referred to. When we ask "what is stress?" we have no answer because there is no one thing that is "stress". One of the consequences of this is that stress tends to refer to almost anything unpleasant that happens. Most of the literature seems to present stress as entirely negative. Yet in some circumstances it is possible for stress to be positive. Indeed, some level of stress is necessary in order for more positive things to happen.

Conceptual difficulties aside, we have explained that different things cause stress for different people. This means that stress management and targeting solutions will not be easy. One of the recommended stress prevention and management strategies is that of job re-design. However, job-re-design might both reduce stress for some (for example, increased feedback, autonomy and responsibility) but increase it for others. Not everyone wants these things! Thus, what might be a solution on one hand might be a cause on the other. The lesson for managers is that applying one model to manage stress ("one size fits all") is not likely to work.

Many attempts to manage stress focus on what the individual experiencing it can do to help him or herself. This conveniently avoids the question of whether employing organisations are doing all they should to prevent stress-inducing conditions arising in the first place.



1. Read and summarise Chapter 12 ‘Stress and Conflict’ by Luthans, from Module 10 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 10.1 - Conflict and Stress in Organisations (Individual Activity)


1. "Departments and units within an organisation will always have divergent goals. Therefore, all organisations will be characterised by conflict". Do you agree or disagree and why?

2. In what ways can conflict be beneficial in an organisation? 3. What styles of conflict management might be employed by managers? What wider lesson does this

reveal about the topic area? 4. Why has stress emerged as a ‘hot’ topic in organisational analysis and behaviour? 5. Is stress a function of the person, the situation or both? Draw on your own experience. 6. Are certain people and occupations more prone to stress? If so, describe their characteristics. 7. What can both individuals and organisations do to manage stress (if anything)?

Learning Activity 10.2 - Conflict and Stress in Organisations (Group Activity)

Arrange yourselves into groups of 4-5; prepare a policy on workplace conflict and stress. What



principles/statements should be included in such a policy? How do you propose to prevent and manage incidents of bullying and violence in the workplace? How will this policy link and relate to other policies in your organisation? Select one person to present your policy to the class.

Learning Activity 10.3 - Conflict and Stress in Organisations (Group Activity)

In groups of 3-4, answer the case studies on pages 427-428 of your reading for this module. Your facilitator will choose 1 case study (stress) from page 427 and one from page 428 (conflict) for your group to consider.

Module 11: Power and Politics


Learning Outcomes


Identify and explain the importance of understanding power and politics and discuss the implication for individuals, groups and organisations.

Explain the different perspectives on power and politics. Identity and explain power and political tactics used by individuals within organisations. Critically analyse strategies for the management of power and political behaviour within organisations.

Introduction

This module examines power and politics in organisations. Both are an unavoidable aspect of organisational life and behaviour involving the acquisition and application of power and the use of political behaviour. Both tend to be viewed in negative terms by members of the public. Power and politics are neither good nor bad in themselves; often it comes down to how we perceive the behaviour of the individual or the intent behind actions (attribution).

Organisations are characterised by a tension between self-interests on one hand and organisational interests on the other hand. Organisations are political! Power and politics can have both positive and negative outcomes for an organisation. When it comes to understanding and analysing power and politics we need to do so from the three levels of analysis within OB (individual, groups and the organisation).

Focus Questions

1. Why are the topics ‘power’ and ‘politics’ important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What is meant by the terms ‘power’ and ‘politics’? 3. What are some of the perspectives that can be applied to power and political behaviour in

organisations? 4. What are sources of power within organisations? 5. What are some of the causes of political behaviour? 6. What are the various power and political tactics used by individuals?


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7. How can power and politics be managed within an organisation?

Module Notes

PowerSimply defined, power is the ability to get someone else to do something you want done. Power has two dimensions: Socialised power and personalised power.

1. Socialised power - directed at helping others. 2. Personalised power - directed at helping oneself. It is this dimension that often gives power a negative

connotation.

The Buchanan and Huczynski reading defines power as:

"The capacity of individuals to overcome resistance on the part of others, to exert their will and to produce results consistent with their interests and objectives." (2004: 828)

These writers also argue that power can be considered from three different perspectives:1. Power as a property of individuals (exhibited through social and interpersonal skills). 2. Power as a property of relationships ("relational" view of power). 3. Power as an embedded property of structures (factors that give organisation departments, and not

individuals, power). There are five bases of power (French and Raven model)

1. Reward power. 2. Coercive power. 3. Legitimate power. 4. Expert power. 5. Referent power.

See Table 24.2 on page 830 of the reading of this module for full explanation.

Remember - you must use power responsibly or risk losing it (that is, use legitimate, expert and referent power). You can use power to create commitment among those you manage. This means they will need less supervision, have greater job satisfaction and be more productive.

Using power responsibly leads to empowerment of others - this is where employees are given the appropriate amount of power and autonomy to improve their work practices.

The following power bases are available to managers solely as a result of their position in the organisation: Reward power. Coercive power. Legitimate power.

All employees, including managers, may have "personal power" bases including: Expert power. Referent power.

Lessons from 5 power bases: Power is not vested solely with managers! There are other sources of power beside what the French and Raven model says. These include

structural forms (control of resources); decision-making authority (for example, security guards at night clubs); critical contingencies (for example, ability to cope with uncertainty. Air traffic controllers are an example).

There are other alternative views on power. The reading outlines two that you may be interested in. These are Lukes’ "faces of power" and Foucault’s idea of "disciplinary power". It is interesting to contrast these views with



the more widely accepted and promoted accounts of power. What these alternative views imply is that power is often contested and can mean different things to different people. All the explanations of power draw attention to the fact that power is not just related to individuals. Power can also be covert and institutionalised (embedded in organisational structures). Other interesting questions and controversies surrounding power relate to the amount of power that employees have to resist managerial control.

Power tactics and influence strategies:In order to get their own way, individuals can use power and influence tactics. Power tactics include (see Table 24.4 on page 840 of your reading.)

Image building. Selective information. Scapegoating (someone punished for the errors of others). Formal alliances. Networking. Compromise. Rule manipulation. "Dirty tricks" (secret, dishonest behaviour designed to discredit an opponent).

More subtle ways of getting people to do what you want involves the use of influence tactics (see Table 24.5 on page 841 of your reading). Such tactics often mean that individuals (influences) believe that they are acting in their own best interest. These tactics are more useful than adoption of power tactics which may cause conflict and resentment.

Influence tactics include: Reason. Friendliness. Coalition. Bargaining. Sanctions. Assertiveness. Higher authority.

There are also other political strategies and tactics that can be adopted by individuals within organisations. Impression management is one of these.

Impression managementThe process whereby people seek to control the image others have of them. Impression management refers to the behaviours individuals use to preserve and protect their self-image and/or influence the ways in which others perceive them. We can use impression management to manipulate the behaviour of others. We do this, for example, by giving the impression that we are submissive, apologetic, angry, defensive, confident, or intimidating. The more effectively we manage our impression, the greater the control we can achieve in social interaction, and the greater our power to pursue our preferred outcomes over others.

Methods include: What we do and how we do it (doing favours for others). What we say and how we say it (using flattery - complimenting all the time). Our physical appearance (for example, clothes and makeup). Non-verbal behaviours such as facial expressions (smiling, making eye contact).

PoliticsOrganisational politics is one of the most interesting OB topics. It is also one of the most controversial. Organisational politics is often seen as a huge time waster and can be quite destructive. On the other hand, organisational politics can be positive. Skilful and well-timed politics can help you get your point across, neutralise resistance or even gain you promotion.



Politics and political behaviour is intentional enhancement of self-interest. This can apply to groups as well as individuals. The key word is ‘self-interest’.

Power and politics are inextricably related - politics is power in action/the playing out of power and is a reality of organisational life. Managers face an endless challenge to achieve a balance between employees’ self-interest and organisational interests. Political behaviour becomes a negative force when self-interests erode or defeat organisational interests. Buchanan and Huczynski debate the idea of whether or not organisations are best viewed as rational or political (see page 844 of the reading). The current view is that organisations are political. This is because organisations are made up of groups that have separate goals, interests and values, and in which power and influence are needed to reach decisions. This contrasts with the rational view of organisations that sees them as logical and objective.

What causes political behaviour? Essentially it is triggered by uncertainty and competition over scarce resources. What causes uncertainty?

Unclear objectives. Vague performance outcomes. Ill-defined decision-making processes. Strong individual or group competition. Change.

Political tacticsJust as there is power and influence tactics that can be used by individuals, it is also possible to identify a number of political tactics. Some of these tactics are overt, while others are more subtle.

Attacking or blaming others. Using information as a political tool (think of the module on rumour/gossip). Creating a favourable image (impression management). Developing a base of support. Praising others (ingratiation). Forming power coalitions with strong allies. Associating with influential people (building networks both inside and outside the organisation). Creating obligations - reciprocity. "I will scratch your back if you scratch mine". (If you do something for

me I will do something for you.)

It is interesting to compare political tactics with power tactics listed above. What does this suggest about the link between the two topics?

Managing organisational politicsPolitical behaviour within organisations cannot be eliminated. Political behaviour can be destructive and ultimately fails in the long term. We tend to see through those people interested in self-serving ends and they lose their credibility and respect. However, some political behaviour and manoeuvring is expected of all employees within an organisation. Political behaviour is a matter of personal survival!

If we can’t eliminate organisational politics then we need to learn to deal with it.

Strategies for reducing organisational politicsReduce uncertainty:

Differentiate rewards between high and low achievers. Have everyone understand process of evaluation within the organisation.

Reduce competition: Minimise resource competition among managers. Replace resource competition with externally oriented goals and objectives.



Break up existing political fiefdoms (an organisation that is controlled by a dominant person or group): Break up groups. Removal of people from positions of influence or even from the organisation. Prevent future fiefdoms. Have an organisational culture that is apolitical and one that promotes the organisation’s objectives

ahead of personal power ends.

Power is a double-edged swordA survey on organisational politics sought to explore the effect upon managers and their organisations (Wood, et al, 2004).

Of those interviewed: 53% said organisational politics enhanced the achievement of organisational goals. However, 44% said it distracted individuals from organisational goals. 60% of respondents suggested that organisational politics was good for career advancement. However, 39% reported that it lead to a loss of power, position and credibility.

Organisational politics is neither good nor bad. It can serve a number of important functions: Overcome personal inadequacies (can be useful for getting the job done despite the inadequacies of

the skills or training of managers). Cope with change (ambitious, problem-solving managers can move into vacancies created by the

change process). Substitute for formal authority (managers can use political behaviour to maintain operations).

Questions over the ethics of power and politicsIt has been found that political behaviour can be unethical. All managers use power and politics to get their work done, but every manager also bears a responsibility to do so in an ethical and socially responsible way.



1. Read and summarise, ‘Chapter 24 ‘Power and Politics’ by Buchanan and Huczynski from Module 11 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 11.1 - Power and Politics (Individual Activity)


1. What is the difference between ‘power’ and ‘authority’? 2. "Power is meaningless unless it is exercised". Do you agree or disagree? 3. How is it possible for someone low in the organisation to obtain and exercise power? What are the

implications of this for the topic area? 4. Organisational politics tends to have a negative connotation. Is this view justified? 5. Is a ‘political’ model of organisations inevitable? 6. Why should every employee and manager take an interest in power and politics within their

organisation? 7. Discuss some of the political tactics that might be used by individuals in organisations? Do you think

some of these are more appropriate in different circumstances? 8. Why are some departments, units or group in organisations more powerful than others?



Learning Activity 11.2 - Power: Who has power? (Group Activity)

Arrange yourselves into groups of 4-6, individually complete exercise 2a: Power: Who has power? on page 861 of the reading for this module. Once you have completed this, compare your findings with the rest of your group. What trends did you observe? What does this exercise tell us about power? Select one person to present your (the group) answers to the rest of the class.

Learning Activity 11.3 - Politics: Playing the game (Group Activity)

In the same group of 4-6 complete exercise 2b: Politics: Playing the game. Select one person from the group to present your findings to the class.



Module 12: Organisational Culture


Learning Outcomes


Identify and explain the importance of understanding organisational culture and discuss the implications for individuals, groups and organisations.

Identify and explain different types of organisational cultures. Explain how culture is learnt through socialisation and mentoring.

Introduction

In this module we examine organisational culture. The topic of ‘culture’ underpins all the topics that we study in OB. Culture influences all aspects of organisations and is important for the understanding and management of behaviour within organisations. Culture affects the way in which people interact with each other, perform their work, and dress, to the types of decisions made in a firm, its organisational policies and procedures.

Culture, especially organisational culture is a hotly debated topic within OB. Debates rage over what culture is and how we define it. Other debates consider the issue of whether culture is something an organisation is (and whether or not it can be managed) or something an organisation has (it emerges spontaneously and can’t effectively be managed).

Focus Questions 1. What is culture and why is an understanding important for the study of organisational behaviour? 2. What are Schien’s three-levels of culture? 3. What are some of different types of culture that can be identified? 4. How is a culture embedded in an organisation? 5. What are some of the causes of political behaviour? 6. What is socialisation and mentoring? How are they important for learning an organisation’s culture? 7. How can managers change an organisation’s culture?

Module Notes

What is culture?Common definitions explain culture as "a pattern of basic assumptions". Culture is hard to understand as it is complex and multi-layered. Culture is a subtle but pervasive force: "you are your culture and your culture is you". Often, culture involves 'taken for granted' assumptions about how we should perceive, think, act and feel. We are often not aware of what we know about our own culture because we have learnt it gradually over a period of time.



Organisational Culture:Just as countries develop their own culture, so do organisations. We can define organisational culture as:

"the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its various environments" (Schein, 1996).

Organisational culture is unique to a particular organisation. It is concerned with the custom, traditions, and shared beliefs about organisational life. It is a powerful determinant of individual and group behaviour. Organisational culture affects virtually all aspects of organisational life from the ways in which people interact with each other, perform their work, and dress, to the types of decisions made in a firm, its organisational policies and procedures and strategy considerations.

An organisation’s culture is a reflection of an organisation’s personality. Organisational culture is powerful in shaping behaviour. The way you behave at work will largely be determined by the organisation’s culture.

We can think of culture in a number of different ways. Many people see culture as "custom". It is the social glue that holds an organisation together through traditional ways of carrying out organisational responsibilities, unique patterns of belief and expectations that emerge over time, and the resulting understanding of reality at given points of time.

Culture is collective in nature in that it evolves over time as people interact with each other. Through these interactions they develop and share common beliefs, values and uncertainties, and ways of coping with them. Culture is a way of making sense of organisational life.

Organisational culture influences our behaviour at work and is shaped by societal/national culture. Employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and language. Organisational culture, a by-product of societal culture, in turn affects the individual’s values, ethics, attitudes, assumptions, and expectations.

Organisational culture is both obvious/visible, and deep down/hidden: Obvious symptoms of organisational culture are artifacts - the physical ways in which culture shows

itself - for example, manner of dress, stories told about the organisation, mission statements, rituals and ceremonies.

Less obvious symptoms of organisational culture, which form its foundation, are the values and beliefs shared by the members of the organisation. These are at a deeper level and may not be readily visible.

Schein’s three-levels of organisational culture1. Observable Artifacts (physical manifestations of an organisation’s culture).2. Values (enduring belief in a mode of conduct or end-state).

Espoused Values (stated values and norms that are preferred by an organisation). Enacted Values (values and norms exhibited by employees).

3. Basic Assumptions (unobservable)-represent the core of organisational culture.

Four functions fulfilled by an organisation’s culture1. It gives members an identity. 2. It helps to give members a collective commitment. 3. It gives the system (and the organisation!) social stability. 4. It shapes the behaviour of members through the sharing of goals.

Embedding culture in an organisationHow is culture formed? How is it organised? How is it learnt? Where does it come from?

1. Formal statements of organisational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection and socialisation.



2. The design of physical space, work environments and buildings. 3. Slogans, language, acronyms, and sayings. 4. Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching and coaching by managers and supervisors. 5. Explicit rewards, status symbols (for example, titles), and promotion criteria. 6. Stories, legends, or myths about key people and events.

Types of culture (see page 36 of your reading for full details). There are a number of typologies for listing and understanding different types of culture. The types of culture listed below are ideals. The reality is that many organisational cultures are fluid and dynamic, often incorporating more than one type.

1. Bureaucratic culture. 2. Clan culture. 3. Entrepreneurial culture. 4. Market culture.

Other factors to consider! Many text books present organisiations as having "a culture". The reality is that while an organisation may have a culture, all organisations are comprised of cultures (plural). The ‘culture’ of an organisation consists of a multiplicity of cultures and these cultures may or may not share the same values, beliefs and assumptions of the dominant culture. The multiplicities of cultures within an organisation are referred to as subcultures.

Can cultures be changed? The answer is not clear. In some circumstances, managers can alter or change parts of a culture. In most cases, it is a difficult task. See pages 38-40 for discussion on management and culture change.

The dominant culture within an organisation is often referred to as "corporate culture" (this is the espoused culture) while subcultures are known as enacted cultures.

Learning Culture: Socialisation and MentoringCulture is learnt and embedded through socialisation:

‘Process by which employees learn an organisation’s values, norms, and required behaviours’. ‘Process by which organisations bring new employees into the culture’.

Socialisation takes an ‘outsider’ and turns them into an ‘insider’. Socialisation occurs in 3 phases:1. Anticipatory socialisation - socialisation that occurs before an individual joins an organisation. 2. Accommodation - employees learn what the organisation is really like. 3. Role management -employees become proficient in their jobs and adjust to work group values and

norms.

Mentoring

‘Process of forming and maintaining developmental relationships between a mentor and a junior person’.

A mentor is:

A friend, coach, advisor or sponsor who supports, encourages and helps a less experienced protégé (person who is being trained in some specialty by a mentor).

Mentoring is important for promoting organisational values and a sense of membership (that is, reinforces organisational culture). It is good for your career!





1. Read and summarise, ‘Chapter 2, Organisational Culture’ by Gibson, Ivancevich, Donnelly and Konopaske from Module 12 in your AVU Unit Reader.

Learning Activities

Learning Activity 12.1 - Organisational Culture (Individual Activity)


1. What is meant by the term ‘organisational culture’? 2. Describe the observable cultural elements - norms, myths, language, symbols - of your own

organisation. (Use your University or an organisation you may belong to if you don’t have a paid job). What purpose is served by these elements? (That is, what values and assumptions about the organisation do they reveal.)

3. Some writers who adopt a critical perspective believe that organisational culture is simply one means of exercising greater control over employees. Do you agree or disagree?

4. How is an organisation’s culture maintained? Use examples to illustrate your answer. 5. What is the manager’s role in developing an organisation’s culture? 6. Can an employee survive in an organisation if he or she rejects its core values? If so, how? 7. Is it possible to change an organisation’s culture? If so, how?

Learning Activity 12.2 - Organisational Culture (Group Activity)

In groups of 3-4, complete the following exercise. Using Schein’s three-layer organisation model, explore the culture of your university. Identify its Artifacts, Values and Basic Assumptions. Compare your findings with other groups. What do your findings suggest about the culture of your university?


Documents

Organization Behaviour 2