Europe in the Middle Ages800-1450

HI 101

Political Developments

End of Carolingian Monarchy, 819-987 (Frankish Empire)•Charlemagne’s empire fell shortly after his death:

– It was a very diverse, ethnically and linguistically– Church leaders wanted independence from the state– Threatened by enemies on all frontiers:

• Muslims to the South• Slaves & Magyars to the east• Vikings and Norsemen to the North

– Frankish nobles stood up against his sons & thus undermined the power of the central government

– Empire split into 3 parts:• West (France)—ruled by Charles the Bald• East (Germany)—ruled by Louis the German• Central—ruled by Lothair—this kingdom was short-lived

Division of Charlemagne’s Empire

Political DevelopmentsInvasions and Migrations•1. Vikings were pagan Germanic peoples who sailed inland on rivers to assault various European populations. At first their method was to attack, loot, and leave, but later the Vikings settled and colonized conquered areas.•2. Magyars, located in the European steppe plains, moved westward, raiding and looting on horseback. Their invasions included northern Italy, Bavaria, and Saxony, the latter two of which were forced to pay tribute. Western European populations considered the Magyars to be Huns.•3. Spain was invaded by North African Muslims, who then crossed the mountains and attacked France.

Political Developments

9th & 10th centuries: Rise of Feudalism and Manorialism from the wreckage of the Carolingian Empire•Feudalism: a political institution—all political functions existed at the local level by a class of landed nobles or lords who were vassals to the king. Lords made feudal contracts establishing their relationship with local people (Peasants/serfs). The lords served the king and the serfs served the lord•Manorialism: socio-economic system—Land supported the noble lord, his family & his soldiers. Each landed estate was organized as a manor. Each manor was a self-sufficient economic unit. Lords provided the land and military protection. Serfs provided all of the labor

• Serfs: landless peasants who were bound to the soil, they passed to knew owners when the land changed hands– Lived a difficult life organized around agricultural

labor– Completely controlled by the lord of the manor

The Feudal System

Typical Medieval Manor

Political Developments

Restoration of Strong Centralized Government (Monarchies):

1. Anglo Saxon Kingdoms united under William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy who invaded England in 1066 (Battle of Hastings)– All lords were made vassals of the king– King coined money, supervised justice, built

castles– Local government depended upon the king

Political Developments• 2. Henry II (1154-1189)--William’s great-grandson,

Henry II of England, married Eleanor of Aquitaine and claimed lordship over provinces in southwestern France. Henry II’s rule wove England and France together during the Middle Ages.– Known as the “father of English Common Law” for he

established circuits for royal judges, began the Grand Jury (25 men who submitted the names of individuals suspected of criminal activity)

– Henry’s son John increased the tax burden on the population, causing great resentment. His military campaigns failed, and the people turned against him. He was forced to accept the Magna Carta (1215), which curbed the ruler’s power.

• Magna Carta, 1215– Asserted that the king was subject to the laws of

the realm – Accused person had the right to a trial by a jury o

his peers– Eventually extended to all Englishmen—and

became the origins of Parliamentary goverment

Magna Carta

Political Developments• 3. Philip II (1180-1223)—unified France, enlarged the territory

under French rule.• 4. Otto I developed an alliance with the church and was able to

increase his power in the Germanic states. A loose confederation developed that was later called the Holy Roman Empire, c. 1050

• 5. Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190) tried to unite the Holy Roman Empire by making alliances with both nobles and churchmen. His efforts failed in northern Italy, where cities formed a league against him in alliance with the pope.

Medieval Religious Life• Popes exercised great political power—

especially after a series of Papal Reforms (meaning by the pope): – 1. The Lateran Council (1215) decreed that the authority to

elect the pope belonged to the college of cardinals. The decision was made to stem the rising influence of secular rule over the church.

– 2. Papal power was increased under Pope Gregory VII, who ordered all priests to give up their wives and children or face dismissal. Gregory also placed nuns under strict control and removed officials who had purchased their offices.

– 3. European rulers — especially Henry IV, the ruler of Germany — protested the restriction of their power to appoint church officials. Nobles took advantage of Henry’s conflict with the pope to enhance their position, siding with the church to gain political power

Medieval Religious Life• Monastic Reforms: also contributed to the

political power of the Church/Pope• 1. Monasteries provided individuals with education and

chances for ecclesiastical careers. Convents were established for females. The majority of those who could partake in these opportunities were from well-established families, however.

• 2. The praying of monks and nuns was considered a vital service, on the same level as nobles’ military might and peasant labor. Prayers included requests for rain, security, and good harvests.

• 3. When populations in urban areas felt the church was not meeting their needs, they turned to views that the church considered to be heresy. In an effort to combat the variety of heresies, the church established the Dominican and Franciscan orders to preach and administer to the needs of the urban populations.

Medieval Christian Church• Popular Religion: • 1. The church became the center of community activities and an

important part of ordinary people’s daily lives. Mass became a break from the routine of work.

• 2. Church rituals were filled with symbolic expressions. Making the sign of the cross requested blessings, while sprinkling water on fields symbolized refreshment and life.

• 3. The calendar revolved around special religious anniversaries identified as holy days, which included Christmas and Easter. Individuals who had lived especially holy lives were honored on saints’ days. Saints were said to have the power to perform miracles or to present prayers to God.

• 4. A saint’s relics, such as his or her bones or pieces of clothing, would be enclosed in the church altar. Peasants would offer their prayers and loyalty in exchange for the saint’s healing power and other favors.

D.The Expansion of Christianity

1. European expansion

2. Reconquista

Medieval Christian ChurchThe Expansion of Christianity

•1. Christian influences began to spread throughout Europe. Scandinavia, Denmark, Bohemia, and Poland were some of the populations that became strong Christian enclaves.•2. In an effort to combat Muslim influences in Europe, the reconquista or crusade to take back territory lost to Islam began in Spain. Muslims and Jews living under Christian rule in Spain were increasingly discriminated against.

The Crusades 1095-1272

• Great example of the power of religion & of the papacy– Motived hundreds of thousands of people over 8

crusades to try to recover Holy Lands from Muslims.

– Also led to the expansion of Europe

Background of Crusades:1. Military victories of Muslim Turks were blocking Christian

access to the Holy Lands (Jerusalem)

2. Church supported centuries of wars between Christians and Muslims

3. Many Christians wanted wealth and trading privileges

4. The pope thought that a campaign against the Muslim presence in the Holy Land would reunite the Roman Catholic Church with the Eastern Orthodox Church.

5. The pope and church officials gained support for a war to defend Christianity. They promised that those who took up the fight would receive forgiveness of their sins without their having to do penance.

Course of the Crusades

1. As a result of the First Crusade, four Crusader states were established in the East. Jerusalem, Edessa, Tripoli, and Antioch included fortifications to defend against Muslim attacks.

2. Egypt and Syria were united under the leadership of Saladin, and under his guidance the Muslims retook Jerusalem.

3. When the Crusaders were not welcomed into the Byzantine Empire, they looted Constantinople, solidifying the divide

between the Greek and Latin churches.

Consequences of the Crusades1. Crusaders destroyed Jewish communities as they traveled to

the Holy Land, increasing tensions between Christians and Jews.

2. Jews throughout Europe experienced an increase in legal restrictions. Christians were not allowed to work for Jews; Jews could not hold public office; and Jews could not be seen in public on Christian holy days.

3. Relations between Christians and Muslims also were strained as a result of the Crusades.

4. they opened the old Middle East and Asia to the west, stimulating a demand for Asian luxuries and making great trade centers of Venice and Genoa.

5. they put Europeans into direct contact with the civilizations of the ancient world and with works of hitherto unknown classical authors, such as Aristotle.

Medieval Trade

1. Defeat of Muslim Raiders reopened the Mediterranean and revived long distance trade. Italian cities, Milan, Pisa, Venice, & Genoa took the leading commercial roles.

2. Europeans wanted silks, spices, and luxury items from the East

3. Trade routes developed between Flanders, England, and France

4. Expansion of trade led to creation of new forms of business organization & new banking systems—laid the foundation of the modern market economy/capitalism

5. Commercial activity stimulated growth of cities leading to more greater economic growth

Medieval Learning and CultureDevelopment of the University:1.Irnerius, an instructor at the University of Bologna, inspired interest in the study of Roman law and Justinian’s Code. Well-known instructors became a draw for students, increasing the size of the university.2.Medieval professors who discussed thinking and reasoning were called scholastics. Their focus was on thoroughly evaluating both sides of an argument.Cathedrals and a New Architectural Style1.A new architectural style identified as Gothic spread throughout Europe. The Gothic style included pointed arches, flying buttresses, and stained-glass windows cut into stone.2.The cathedral, generally the largest structure in the community, not only served religious purposes but also was used for secular functions such as political meetings and the staging of plays.

Medieval Learning and CultureUse of vernacular language in literature

--authors began to deviate from the traditional use of Latin and started writing in their local dialect. This use of everyday language in literature allowed literature to be far more accessible to the general masses.

Crises of the Later Middle Ages1. A period of colder and wetter weather called the “little ice

age” had a negative impact on food production. Famine occurred when food shortages increased.

2. An undernourished population was much more susceptible to illness. The Black Death (the plague, 1347) killed a large portion of the European population in the fourteenth century.

3. Most people at the time believed the plague was caused by “corrupted air” that carried the disease throughout the community. Others accused the Jews of poisoning the water wells. In the long term, the resulting population decline eased pressure on the land and led to an increase in wages for those who survived.

4. The Black Death killed ~20,000,000 people