His 102 chapter 20 from restoration to revolution

Chapter 20

From Restoration to Revolution 1815-1848

Introduction

» After Waterloo—Europe without revolution?

» Citizens and new political ideologies» Industrial change and social change» Romanticism

The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration

˃Central cast+ Russia: Alexander I (1777–1825, r. 1801–

1825)–Enlightened monarch and absolutist

monarch–Presented himself as the “liberator” of

Europe–Europe feared an all-powerful Russia as

it had feared an all-powerful France

Alexander I


˃Central cast+ France: Prince Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

(1754–1859)– Foreign minister to Louis XVIII

+ Austria: Klemens von Metternich (1773–1838)– The “architect of the peace”– Lifelong hatred of political change– The peace he created helped prevent a major

European war up until 1914

Clemens von Metternich

Maurice de Talleyrand


˃Goals of the Congress+ The restoration of order and legitimate authority+ The prevention of French expansion+ Germany and Poland– The Confederation of the Rhine– Independent kingdoms of Bavaria,

Württemburg, and Saxony– A nominally independent kingdom of Poland


˃Goals of the Congress+ British compensations–Received French territories in South

Africa and South America

The Congress of Vienna


˃The Concert of Europe+ Securing the peace and creating

permanent stability+ Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form

the Quadruple Alliance– In 1818, joined by France (the

Quintuple Alliance)


˃The Concert of Europe+ Alexander and the Holy Alliance+ Established a ruler’s legitimacy based on

international treaties and not divine right

Revolt against Restoration

˃Secret organization: the Carbonari+ Vowed to oppose the government in Vienna+ Spread through southern Europe and France in

the 1820s+ Aims– Some called for a constitution–Others sang the praises of Bonaparte

“Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley

I met a traveller from an antique landWho said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stoneStand in the desert. Near them, on the sand,Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,Tell that its sculptor well those passions readWhich yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed:And on the pedestal these words appear:"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!"Nothing beside remains. Round the decayOf that colossal wreck, boundless and bareThe lone and level sands stretch far away.

Troppau Memorandum (1820)

» Monarchs helping monarchs˃ Assistance from one another to suppress

revolt˃ Austria put down the Italian revolts˃ France sent 200,000 troops into Spain to

restore the King

Revolution in Latin America

» The unsteady foundations of colonial rule˃ Argentina declared independence in 1816˃ The liberation of Chile and Peru˃ Simon de Bolívar (1783–1830)

+ Led uprisings from Venezuela across to Bolivia


» Political revolts unleashed conflict and civil war+ Some elites sought liberation from Spain+ Radicals wanted land reforms and an end

to slavery» Metternich and the conservative

response—no revolutions in Latin America


˃The United States+ The Monroe Doctrine (1823)–Warned Europe that intervention in the New

World was an unfriendly act

˃Britain+ Recognized South American republics+ New trading partner

˃Brazil declared independence in 1822

Back to the Future: Restoring Order, 1815–1830

» Russia: the Decembrists˃ Death of Tsar Alexander I (1825)

+ Of Typhus in a small town outside St. Petersburg on 1 December 1826

+ Feodor Kuzmich, a monk who emerged in Siberia in 1836 and died in 1864 is claimed to have been Tsar Alexander I

˃ Succession controversy


Russia: the Decembrists

» Death of Tsar Alexander I (1825)˃ The Decembrists

+ Most came from noble families or were members of elite regiments

+ Saw Russia as the liberator of Europe+ Russia needed reform+ No political program

Decembrist Revolt by Vasily Timm, Oil on Canvas, The Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia


˃Nicholas I (1796–1855, r. 1825–1855)+ Crushed the Decembrist revolt+ The Third Section (secret police force)


Nicholas I


» Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality˃ Absolute loyalty to unlimited authority of the Tsar˃ The Russian Orthodox Church˃ The Motherland

» Nicholas I: Guardian of the State against revolution


˃Signs of change+ The bureaucracy became more centralized

and efficient+ Less dependence on the nobility for

political support+ The codification of the legal system (1832)+ Landowners reorganized their estates


» Southeastern Europe: Balkans (Greece and Serbia)˃ Local movements in Greece and Serbia began to demand autonomy˃ Greek war for independence (1821–1827)

+ European sympathy and European identity+ Christians cast the rebellion as a war between Christianity and

Islam– A crusade to preserve the classical heritage (Philhellenism)


» Southeastern Europe: Balkans (Greece and Serbia)˃ Greek war for independence (1821–1827)

+ Celebrating Greeks and demonizing Turks+ British, French, and Russian troops went in against the Turks in

1827˃ Serbia

+ Europe sided with the Serbs against the Ottomans+ Serbian semi-independence

The Massacre at Chios by Eugène Delacroix (1789–1863)


» Southeastern Europe: Balkans (Greece and Serbia)˃ Results

+ European opportunism+ Greece and Serbia did not break close ties with the Ottomans

Taking Sides: New Ideologies in Politics

» Principles of conservatism˃ The concept of legitimacy as a general antirevolutionary policy˃ The monarchy was a guarantee of political stability

+ The nobility as the rightful leaders of the nation˃ Change must be slow, incremental, and managed


» Principles of conservatism˃ Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821) and Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise Bonald

(1754–1840)+ Defended absolute monarchy+ The Catholic Church

˃ The monarchy, aristocracy, and Church as mainstays of the social and political order


» Principles of conservatism˃ The revival of religion

+ Expressed a popular reaction against revolution+ Emphasis on order, discipline, and tradition


» Liberalism˃ The commitment to individual liberties and rights˃ Most important function of government was to protect these rights˃ Components

+ Equality before the law+ Government rests on the consent of the governed+ Laissez-faire economic principles


» Liberalism˃ The roots of liberalism

+ John Locke+ American and French Revolutions+ Inalienable rights+ Written constitutions

˃ Advocated direct representation in government (for property owners)


» Liberalism˃ Economic liberalism

+ Adam Smith (1723–1790), Wealth of Nations (1776)– Attacked mercantilism in the name of free markets– The economy should be based on a “system of natural

liberty”+ Political economy

– Identified basic economic laws (supply and demand, balance of trade)


» Liberalism˃ Economic liberalism

+ Economic activity ought to be unconstrained– Labor contracted freely– Property unencumbered by feudal restrictions– Goods to circulate freely– An end to government-granted monopolies

+ The government should preserve order and protect property


» Liberalism˃ Liberty and freedom

+ Great Britain– Expanding the franchise– Laissez-faire economics and free trade– Creating a limited and efficient government

+ Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)– Human interests are not naturally harmonious– Utilitarianism—“the greatest happiness of the greatest

number”


» Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism˃ Republicans

+ Demanded constitutions and governments by the people+ An expanded franchise and democratic participation in politics


» Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism˃ Socialism

+ Raising the “social question” as an urgent political matter+ Socialism as a response to rapid industrialization

– The intensification of labor, miseries of the working classes, and social class


» Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism˃ Robert Owen (1771–1858)

+ Built a model workshop at New Lanark (Scotland)+ The principles of cooperation, not profitability+ Organized good housing, sanitation, free schooling, social security

Quadrille Dancing at Lanark, Robert Owen’s Model Community


» Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism˃ Charles Fourier (1772–1837)

+ The abolition of the wage system+ The division of labor based on natural inclinations+ Complete equality of the sexes


» Karl Marx (1818–1883) and socialism˃ Influenced by Hegel’s philosophy˃ Studied philosophy but became a journalist˃ Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820–1895)

+ Experience in the Manchester textile factories+ The Condition of the Working Classes in England (1844)


» Karl Marx (1818–1883) and socialism˃ In 1847, Marx and

Engels joined the League of the Just (later renamed the Communist League)

Karl Marx


» Karl Marx (1818–1883) and socialism˃ The Communist Manifesto (1848)

+ History and conflict+ Capitalism would “dig its own grave”+ With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would seize the state+ Communism


» Citizenship and community: nationalism˃ Nation, from the Latin nasci (to be born)˃ The French Revolution defined “nation” to mean the people, or the

sovereign people˃ Celebrating a new political community, not a territory or ethnicity˃ Nationalism in the early nineteenth century

+ Nation symbolized legal equality, constitutional government, and an end to feudal privilege


» Citizenship and community: nationalism˃ Nationalism and the liberals

+ Associated with political transformations+ The awakening of the common people+ But nationalism could undermine liberalism as well


» Citizenship and community: nationalism˃ National identity developed and changed historically˃ Nationalism and the state

+ Developing national feelings+ Educational systems taught a national language+ “Inventing” a national heritage

Cultural Revolt: Romanticism

» General observations˃ A diverse intellectual and cultural movement˃ A reaction against the Classicism of the eighteenth century˃ The individual, individuality, and the subjective experience˃ Intuition, emotion, and feelings as the guides to truth


» British Romantic poetry˃ George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788–1824)

+ Poetry was the “lava of imagination”+ His Romanticism was inseparable from his liberal politics

˃ Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822)+ Defined romantic heroism and the cult of individual audacity

Newton by William Blake, 1795


» Women writers, gender, and Romanticism˃ Mary Godwin Shelley (1797–1851)

+ Daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft+ Fascination with contemporary scientific developments+ Frankenstein, or, the Modern Prometheus (1818)

– A twisted creation myth– Individual genius gone wrong


» Women writers, gender, and Romanticism˃ Madame de Staël (1766–1817)

+ Popularized German Romanticism in France+ De l’Allemagne (Germany, 1810)+ Suggested that men could be emotional and that men and

women shared a common human nature


» Romantic painting˃ France

+ Eugene Delacroix (1798–1863)˃ New ways of visualizing the world˃ Pointed to early-twentieth-century modernism

John Constable, Weymouth Bay, 1816

J. M. W. Turner, Rain, Steam,

Speed—The GreatWestern Railway, 1844

John Martin, The Bard, 1817


» Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation˃ Victor Hugo (1802–1885)

+ Dealt sympathetically with the experience of the common people˃ François de Chateaubriand (1768–1848)

+ Religious experiences of the national past are woven into the present

+ Accent on religious emotion, feeling, and subjectivity


» Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation˃ The Romantic uniqueness of cultures

+ Johann von Herder (1744–1803)– Civilization arises out of the Volk (common people), not elites– The Volkgeist—spirit or genius of the people

˃ Brothers Grimm+ Collected German folktales


» Orientalism˃ Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt (1798)

+ Brought back the Rosetta stone+ Establishment of the Egyptian Institute

˃ Defined Europe by looking at the Orient˃ A fascination with ethnography and new regions


» Orientalism˃ Looking for the roots of Christianity˃ Fascination with medieval history and religion (especially the

Crusades)

Women of Algiers by Eugène Delacroix


» Goethe and Beethoven˃ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)

+ The Passions of Young Werther (1774)– Yearnings and restless love

+ Faust (1790)– Faust sells his soul to the devil in return for eternal youth and

universal knowledge


» Goethe and Beethoven˃ Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827)

+ A Classicist and Romantic+ The poetry of instrumental music+ Completely deaf by 1819+ Later work expressed alienation from society and heroic creativity

˃ Goethe and Beethoven as transitional figures

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xfnuyf_nagano-1998-opening-ceremony-ode-to-joy-world-chorus_music




Reform and Revolution

» The 1830 Revolution in France˃ Louis XVIII succeeded by Charles X (1757–1836, r. 1824–1830)

+ Determined to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and Napoleon

+ Appeased the ultraroyalists by compensating nobility whose land had been confiscated during the Revolution

+ Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place+ Provoked widespread discontent


» The 1830 Revolution in France˃ Charles called new elections, then tried to overthrow the

parliamentary regime˃ The July Ordinances (1830)

+ Dissolved the newly elected chamber before it had even met+ Imposed strict censorship of the press+ Further restricted suffrage to exclude all non-nobles+ Called for new elections


» The 1830 Revolution in France˃ Revolution

+ Paris took to the streets for three days of battles+ The abdication of Charles

Charles X of FranceFrancois Pascal SimonGerard, MoMA


» The 1830 Revolution in France˃ Louis-Philippe (1773–1850, r. 1830–1848)

+ Promoted as a constitutional monarch+ The July Monarchy

– Doubled the number of eligible voters– Voting remained a privilege

˃ Major winners—the propertied classes

Louis Pilippe of France; Palace ofVersailles

Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix


» Belgium and Poland in 1830˃ Belgium

+ Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland+ Never popular in Belgium+ News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition+ Brussels rebelled, and the great powers guaranteed Belgian

neutrality (in force until 1914)


» Belgium and Poland in 1830˃ Poland

+ Not an independent state—under Russian governance+ Had its own parliament, a constitution, and guarantees of basic

liberties+ Ignored by Russian-imposed head of state, Constantine+ Moved toward revolt in 1830+ Drove Constantine out+ By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw+ Poland placed under Russian military rule+ Moved toward revolt in 1830+ Drove Constantine out+ By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw+ Poland placed under Russian military rule


» Reform in Great Britain˃ The end of the Napoleonic Wars

+ Agricultural depression, low wages, unemployment, and bad harvests

+ Social unrest˃ Peterloo (1819)

+ Demonstration against the Corn Laws+ Manchester Patriotic Union advocating for universal male suffrage+ Radical Orator Henry Hunt to speak+ Fearing unrest, local magistrates called on military to arrest Hunt+ Military fired on crowd—15 killed; 700+ wounded


» Reform in Great Britain˃ Parliament passed the Six Acts (1819)

+ Outlawed “seditious and blasphemous” literature+ Increased stamp tax+ Restricted the right of public meeting

˃ Tory reforms+ Refused to reform political representation in the House of

Commons


» Reform in Great Britain˃ Liberal reforms

+ Whigs, industrial middle classes, and radical artisans demand reform

+ The desire to enfranchise responsible citizens


» Reform in Great Britain˃ Reform Bill of 1832

+ Eliminated “rotten” boroughs– Old Sarum in in Witlshire (3 houses 7 voters)– Dunwish in Suffolk (44 houses 32 voters)

+ Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to the industrial north

+ Expanded the franchise

William Hogarth, Canvassing for Votes, 1754-1755. Oil on Canvass, Sir John Sloane’s Muesum, London.


» Reform in Great Britain˃ The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)

+ Corn Laws protected British landlords from foreign competition+ Kept the price of bread artificially high+ The Anti–Corn Law League

– Held large meetings throughout northern England– Lobbied members in Parliament– Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws


» British radicalism and the Chartist Movement˃ The six points of the “People’s Charter”

+ 1.universal male suffrage;+ 2.a secret ballot;+ 3.no property qualification for members of Parliament;+ 4.pay members of Parliament (so poor men could serve);+ 5.constituencies of equal size;+ 6.annual elections for Parliament.

˃ As economic conditions deteriorated, Chartism spread in the 1840s˃ Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals

+ William Lovett– Self-improvement– Education of artisans was the answer

Chartist Meeting of 1848 on Kensington Common


» British radicalism and the Chartist Movement˃ Chartists presented petitions to Parliament in 1839 and 1842—both

rejected˃ April 1848: Chartists planned a major demonstration and show of

force in London+ Twenty-five thousand workers marched to Parliament with a

petition of 6 million signatures demanding the six points+ The failure of Chartism

– Accusations of radicalism– Reforms enacted – Faded in times of prosperity


» The French Revolution of 1848˃ July Monarchy under Charles X seemed little different from that of

Louis XVIII˃ Political crises

+ Republican disillusionment+ Republican societies proliferate+ Rebellions in Lyons and Paris

Horace Vernet, Barricade rue Soufflot, Oil on Canvass. Paris.


» The French Revolution of 1848˃ Provisional government

+ A combination of liberals, republicans, and socialists+ A new constitution based on universal male suffrage+ Tensions between middle-class republicans and socialists


» The French Revolution of 1848˃ Popular politics

+ Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of speech and political activity

+ Women’s clubs and newspapers appeared˃ The end of the National Workshops

+ French assembly decided the Workshops were a financial drain˃ The June Days (June 23–26): Parisian workers barricade the streets


» The French Revolution of 1848˃ Repression˃ The government of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808–1873)

+ Spent most of his life in exile+ Used his position to consolidate his power+ Permitted Catholics to regain control of the schools+ Banned meetings, workers’ associations+ Asked the people to grant him the power to draw up a new

constitution (1851)


» The French Revolution of 1848˃ The Second Empire of Napoleon III (1852–1870)˃ Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France

+ Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere+ The pivotal role of the middle classes+ Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle+ Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply

differentiated

Conclusion

» Concert of Vienna was a reaction to the French Revolution of 1789

» Was the Congress of Vienna successful?» The French Revolution of 1848 as the opening

act of a larger drama˃ Broad revolutionary alliances were broken apart by class politics˃ Earlier forms of utopian socialism gave way to Marxism˃ Romanticism lost appeal and gave way to Realism˃ Nationalism contextualizes political attitudes of conservatism,

liberalism, and socialism