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Cognitive Perspective

Discussants: Keren Grace A. NatadMaryfel S. Moreno

Cognitive Perspective in learning

1. Field Theory (Lewin)2. Insight Learning (Kohler)3. Information Processing Theory (Miller)4. Dual Coding Theory ( Paivio)5. Schema Theory

Cognitive Perspective of Learning

When you see, hear or touch something in your environment, how does your brain recognize what you are seeing, hearing or touching?

This lesson introduces the cognitive perspective in psychology, including the difference between sensation and perception. We'll also discuss the famous Gestalt principles of perception that you do automatically every day but didn't necessarily know there were names for what your brain was doing.

The cognitive perspective in psychology is an area of the field that studies how people acquire, perceive, remember and communicate information. It includes how we respond to images we see or sounds we hear, how our minds change these stimuli into meaningful ideas and how we remember these ideas later.

Introduction to the foundation of the cognitive perspective.

Sensation

Sensation

is the process of an environmental stimulus starting the chain of events from one of our five senses to our brain in order to be recognized.

In the process of sensation, those signals haven't been transformed yet into recognizable ideas. That's where the next step in the process begins.

Perception

After an electrical and chemical signal has gone all the way from a sensory neuron to the brain, perception occurs.

Perception is when your brain transforms sensory experiences into meaningful ideas that can be processed and understood.

Automaticity

When your mind does something so often that it occurs without your conscious thought process.

We have automaticity for certain well-practiced motions, like how to walk or even how to drive after years of practice. We also have automaticity for sensation and perception. However, this automaticity can lead to certain interesting mistakes, as well.

At first glance, your perception of it might be that you interpret it in one way. However, when you look at it more closely, you can realize that there's another way to see the same image.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

Gestalt can be translated as essence, or sometimes people refer to the Gestalt idea using the phrase, 'The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.'

Figure/ground - Probably the most famous of the Gestalt principles or rules. Refers to the automatic tendency we have when we see an image of trying to pick out the most important figure in the visual field and filter everything else into the background.

Similarity- when we automatically group images that are similar with each other. helps us in our daily lives by making our brains very efficient in sorting through all of the individual aspects of our visual field.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

• Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern.

• Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the bottom of the eagle symbol look similar to the shapes that form the sunburst.

Example:

Gestalt Principles of Organization• When similarity occurs, an object can be

emphasised if it is dissimilar to the others. This is called anomally.

• The figure on the far right becomes a focal point because it is dissimilar to the other shapes.

Gestalt Principles of OrganizationContinuation

• Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and continue to another object.

• Continuation occurs in the example above, because the viewer's eye will naturally follow a line or curve. The smooth flowing crossbar of the "H" leads the eye directly to the maple leaf.

Gestalt Principles of OrganizationClosure

• Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people percieve the whole by filling in the missing infomation.

• Although the panda above is not complete, enough is present for the eye to complete the shape. When the viewer's perception completes a shape, closure occurs.

Gestalt Principles of OrganizationProximity

• Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to be perceived as a group.

• The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are perceived as separate shapes.

Gestalt Principles of OrganizationWhen the squares are given close proximity,

unity occurs. While they continue to be separate shapes, they are now perceived as one group.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

The fifteen figures above form a unified whole (the shape of a tree) because of their proximity.

Gestalt Principles of OrganizationFigure

• The word above is clearly perceived as figure with the surrounding white space ground.

• In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye perceives the the form of a shade or the silhouette of a face.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

• This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change upon perceiving leaves, water and tree trunk.

Field Theory ( Lewin)

Kurt Lewin (Luh-veen) was considered by some as the father of

modern social psychology due to his act of breaking new ground in employing scientific methods and experimentation in the study of social behavior. His focus on fusing psychology with the philosophy of science resulted in an extensive number of empirical studies performed in the realms of child development, motivation and social behavior, particularly having to do with observational studies and experiments on children’s behavior.

He was one of the first psychologists to propose that the development of an individual was the product of the interaction between inborn predispositions (nature) and life experiences (nurture). This conception was presented by Lewin in the form of a mathematical equation known as Lewin’s Equation for behavior, stating that behavior is the function of the person interacting within his environment or B = f (P,E).

This psychological field is otherwise known as the life space which comprises the individual and his psychological or behavioral environment also known as facts that affect the behavior or thoughts of the individual at a certain point in time.

Life space is most frequently determined by the physical and social environment that the individual finds himself in. It may include places where he goes, events that occur, feelings about places and people encountered, what he sees on TV or reads in books, his imagined thoughts and goals.

Learning and Memory Process of forming memories follows a 3-step model:

• Encoding • Storage• Retrieval

INSIGHT LEARNING (KOHLER)

• In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler was studying the behavior of apes. He designed some simple experiments that led to the development of one of the first cognitive theories of learning, which he called insight learning.

• Kohler was born on January 21, 1887 in Revel, Estonia. His family moved to Germany and settled in Wolfenbuttell when he was six years old

Definition of Insight Learning

Insight learning is the abrupt realization of a problem's solution. Insight learning is not the result of trial and error, responding to an environmental stimulus, or the result of observing someone else attempting the problem. It is a completely cognitive experience that requires the ability to visualize the problem and the solution internally - in the mind's eye, so to speak - before initiating a behavioral response.

Example of Insight Learning

• Insight learning happens regularly in each of our lives and all around us. Inventions and innovations alike are oftentimes the result of insight learning. We have all experienced the sensation of insight learning at one time or another. It is sometimes called a 'eureka' or 'aha' moment. Whatever you call it, insight learning is often at the root of creative, out of the box, thinking.

If you are like most people, when you were a kid you loved a good snow cone. While many think of snow cones as a summertime treat, kids don't care what season it is. So, imagine it's January, you live in Minnesota, and your son wants a snow cone. Unless you have a snow cone maker, you're probably telling your son, 'Maybe the next time we go out to eat we'll get one, okay?'

Kohler's Major Contributions

Kohler attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. His first experiments with dogs and cats involved food being placed on the other side of a barrier. The dogs and cats went right towards the food instead of moving away from the goal to circumvent the barrier like chimps who were presented with this situation

Kohler used four chimps in his experiments, Chica, Grande, Konsul, and Sultan.

1st ExperimentKohler placed bananas outside Sultan's cage

and two bamboo sticks inside his cage. Neither stick was long enough to reach the bananas so the only way to reach the bananas was to put the sticks together. Kohler demonstrated to Sultan the solution by putting his fingers into the end of one of the sticks (Hothersall, 1995). However, this did not help Sultan solve the problem. After some contemplation, Sultan put the two sticks together and created a stick long enough to reach the bananas outside his cage

2nd Experiment

Another study involved bananas suspended from the roof. The chimps first tried to knock them down by using a stick. Then, the chimps learned to stack boxes on top of one another to climb up to the bananas. Kohler described three properties of insight learning. First, insight-learning is based on the animal perceiving the solution to the problem. Second, insight-leaning is not dependent on rewards. Third, once a problem has been solved, it is easier to solve a similar problem (Hothersall, 1995).

Information Processing Theory (Miller)

George A. Miller was born February 3, 1920, in Charleston, West Virginia. In 1940 he received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Alabama and in 1946 he received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Harvard University. He taught at Harvard, Rockefeller, and Princeton universities. He is known for his work in cognitive psychology, particularly communication and psycholinguistics.

The information processing theory is a cognitive approach to understanding

how the human mind transforms sensory information. The model assumes that information that comes from the environment is subject to mental processes beyond a simple stimulus-response pattern. "Input" from the environment goes through the cognitive systems which is then measured by the "output". Information that is received can take several paths depending on attention, encoding, recognition, and storage.

The cognitive revolution in the late 1950's sparked the emergence of the theory. One major catalyst of the cognitive revolution was the invention of the computer.

A consensus model was refined by Atkinson and Shiffrin that is known as the modal model (1968). The concept simply encompasses the ideas of internal processes that were ignored by the predominate behaviorists. The model creates a basic structure for experimental research of these internal processes.

Development

• Over long spans of time individuals process information with greater efficiency. The model assumes that through the process of maturation one develops greater abilities to attend to stimulus, recognize patterns, encode, and retrieve information. Over the life span individuals experience more information, associations, and ways to categorize the input.

Methods

1. Quantitative methods - include recall or recognition tasks involving word or number lists. These tasks involve participants reading or being read a list of words or numbers that they will be tested on later.

Recall task - where the participants will

be asked to write or restate items that they remember from the original list.

Recognition task- where participants are shown another list of words or numbers that include items that were on the original list and some that were not. The number of items recalled or recognized would be the quantity that is measured.

2. Qualitative methods - may be measuring verbal representations of memory. The development of word usage to measure mental representations is quite effective in studying changes in memory. A young child often uses very few words to describe a memory or anything for that matter. During human development researchers can measure meaningful changes through verbal representations.

The Dual Coding Theory

DUAL CODING THEORY (PAIVIO) Allan Paivio

Ph.D. McGill University Professor Emeritus at University of Western Ontario Allan Paivio earned three degrees from McGill University between 1949 and 1959. Paivio has a Ph.D. in Psychology, and has spent over forty years in research on imagery, memory, language, cognition, and other areas. He has published approximately two hundred articles and book chapters, and five books. His last book, Imagery and Text: A Dual Coding Theory of Reading and Writing, he wrote with Mark Sadoski.

DUAL CODING THEORY"Dual coding" implies that verbal and non-verbal systems are alternative internal representations of events. For example, one can think of a house by thinking of the word "house", or by forming a mental image of a house The verbal and image systems are connected and related, for one can think of the mental image of the house and then describe it in words, or read or listen to words and then form a mental image.

DUAL CODING THEORY• Verbal system units are called logogens; these

units contain information that underlie our use of the word.

• Non-Verbal system units are called imagens. Imagens contain information that generates mental images such as natural objects, holistic parts of objects, and natural grouping of objects.

The Quintessential of The Dual Coding Theory

• Analogue Codes are primarily used to store mental images of objects we've seen.

• Symbolic Codes are mental images of words.

The 3 Types of Mental Processing Based on The Dual Coding Theory

• Representational processingIt occurs when verbal or non-verbal representations are activated within our minds during the learning process.

• Referential processingIt occurs when our verbal processing systems are activated by our non-verbal processing systems (this can also happen the other way around).

• Associative processingIt occurs when we activate images or symbols that are contained within the verbal or non-verbal processing systems within our brain.

Applying The Dual Coding TheoryThe Dual Coding Theory can be applied in

instructional design by giving instructors an in depth look at just how the brain acquires new information. If instructional designers design lessons that involve the two different types of coding, they basically increase the likelihood of learners to retain the information, given that their mind will store it as a representation of both a verbal and non-verbal mental image that can be accessed at a later time.

The Schema Theory

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886–1969) was a British psychologist, the first professor of experimental psychology at the University of Cambridge and one of the precursors of cognitive psychology. The schema theory was one of the leading cognitivist learning theories and was introduced by Bartlett in 1932 and further developed in the ’70s by Richard Anderson.

• In order to categorize this class of memory errors, Bartlett suggested that human beings apparently possess generic knowledge in the form of unconscious mental structures (schemata) and that these structures produce schematized errors in recall when they interact with incoming information.

Thus, it is through schemata that old knowledge influences new information. So, basically, schemata (plural of schema) are psychological concepts that were proposed as a form of mental representation for selected chunks of complex knowledge, which are then stored in the long-term memory.

The 4 Key Elements of a Schema • An individual can memorize and use a schema

without even realizing of doing so.• Once a schema is developed, it tends to be

stable over a long period of time.• Human mind uses schemata to organize,

retrieve, and encode chunks of important information.

• Schemata are accumulated over time and through different experiences.

Schema theory emphasizes on the importance of generic knowledge that will help the formation of mental representations. In the educational process, the task of teachers would be to help students develop new schemata and establish connections between them –something that will eventually improve their memory. Of course, background information and prior knowledge are vitally important, as well.Schema theory can been applied in various areas, such as:

The practical aspect of Schema Theory

Mathematical problem solvingA research showed that 3rd graders taught

to use schemata to solve mathematical problems performed better than their peers who were taught to solve them in four steps (read – plan to solve – solve – check).

Motor learningDiscrete motor skills are performed in a short

period of time, and involve the use of our senses to understand what is happening and then of our bodies to take action. Since most movements are unique, our ability to perform a movement class is represented by three things, according to Richard A Schmidt (1974): – a generalized motor program that captures the basic

movement form– a recall schema that provides info about specific situations

and intentions– a recognition schema that allows us to realize a mistake we

have made

Reading comprehensionSchema theory is often used to assist the

learning of a second language, since it usually requires reading many texts in the target language. If we fail to create a sufficient number of schemata when reading a text, then reading comprehension and consequently mastering another language will become difficult.