1. CHEMISTRY THE CENTRAL SCIENCE 2. ELEVENTH EDITION CHEMISTRY THE CENTRAL SCIENCE Theodore L. Brown Univenityot Illinois at Urbana-Champaign H. Eugene LeMay, Jr. UnivenityofNevada, Reno Bruce E. Bursten UnlvenilyofTennenee Catherine J. Murphy UnivHsityofSouthCarolina With Contribution! from Patrick Woodward The Ohio State University Upper S.tddle River, NJ 07458 3. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chemistry: the central science.-llth ed. I Theodore L. Brown .. [et al.]. p.cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-13-600617-6 1. Chemistry-Textbooks. I. Brown, Theodore L. QD31.3.C43145 2009 540-dc22 Editor in Chief, Science: Nicole Folchetti Acquisitions Editor: Andrew Gilfillan Associate Editor: Jennifer Hart Project Manager: Donna Young Editor in Chief, Development: Ray Mullaney Development Editor: Karen Nein Marketing Manager: Elizabeth Averbeck Senior Operations Supervisor: Alan Fischer Art Director: Maureen Eide Assistant Art Director: Suzanne Behnke Interior Design: John Christiana Cover Design: Maureen Eide, John Christiana Composition: Prepare, Inc. 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Brief Contents vi Preface xxiv About the Authors XXXIII 1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 36 3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 78 4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 118 5 Thermochemistry 164 6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 210 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 254 8 Basic Concepts ofChemical Bonding 296 9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 340 10 Gases 392 11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 436 12 Modern Materials 480 13 Properties of Solutions 526 14 Chemical Kinetics 572 15 Chemical Equilibrium 626 16 Acid-Base Equilibria 666 17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 718 18 Chemistry of the Environment 766 19 Chemical Thermodynamics 800 20 Electrochemistry 842 21 Nuclear Chemistry 892 22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 930 23 Metals and Metallurgy 980 24 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 1012 25 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry 1050 Appendices A Mathematical Operations 1104 B Properties of Water 1111 C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at298.15 K (25 C) 1112 D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1115 E Standard Reduction Potentials at25 oc 1117 Answers to Selected Exercises A-1 Answers to "Give It Some Thought" A-36 Glossary G-1 Photo/Art Credits P-1 Index l-1 6. Contents 1 Preface xxiv About the Authors xxxm Introduction: Matter and Measurement 1.1 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY 2 The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 2 Why Study Chemistry? 3 1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER 4 States of Matter 4 Pure Substances 5 Elements 6 Compounds 6 Mixtures 8 1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER 9 Physical and Chemical Changes 10 Separation of Mixtures 11 1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 13 1 51 Units 13 Length and Mass 1 4 Temperature 15 Derived 51 Units 1 6 Volume 1 6 Density 17 1.5 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT 2 0 Precision and Accuracy 20 Significant Figures 21 Significant Figures in Calculations 23 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 2 4 Using Two or More Conversion Factors 26 Conversions Involving Volume 27 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 29 KEY SKILLS 30 KEY EQUATIONS 30 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 30 EXERCISES 31 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 33 Chemistry Put to WOrk Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 4 A Closer wok The Scientific Method 13 Chemistry Put ro WOrk Chemistry in the News 18 Strategies in Chemistry Estimating Answers 26 Strategies in Chemistry The !mportance of Practice 28 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 36 2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER 38 2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 39 Cathode Rays and Electrons 39 Radioactivity 41 The Nuclear Atom 41 2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 43 Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes 44 2.4 ATOMIC WEIGHTS 46 The Atomic Mass Scale 46 Average Atomic Masses 47 2.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE 48 2.6 MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS 5 1 Molecules and Chemical Formulas 52 Molecular and Empirical Formulas 52 Picturing Molecules 53 2.7 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS 54 Predicting Ionic Charges 55 Ionic Compounds 56 2.8 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 59 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 59 Names and Formulas of Acids 64 Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 65 vii 7. viii Contents 3 4 2.9 SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 66 Alkanes 66 Some Derivatives of Alkanes 66 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 68 KEY SKILLS 69 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 69 EXERCISFS 70 ADDITIONAL EXERCISFS 75 A Clour Ltlolr Basic Forces 45 A Closer Ltlok The Mass Spectrometer 48 A Closer Ltlok Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium 51 Chemistry andLife Elements Required by Living Organisms 57 Strategies in Chemistry Pattern Recognition 58 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 78 3.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 80 Balancing Equations 80 Indicating the States of Reactants and Products 83 3.2 SOME SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY 84 Combination and Decomposition Reactions 84 Combustion in Air 86 3.3 FORMULA WEIGHTS 87 Formula and Molecular Weights 87 Percentage Composition from Formulas 88 3.4 AVOGADRO'S NUMBER AND THE MOLE 89 Molar Mass 91 lnterconverting Masses and Moles 93 lnterconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles 94 3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES 95 Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula 96 Combustion Analysis 97 3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS 98 3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS 102 Theoretical Yields 1 05 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 107 KEY SKILLS 108 KEY EQUATIONS 108 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 108 EXERCISFS 109 ADDITIONAL EXERCISFS ll5 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISFS 116 Strategies in Chemistry Problem Solving 89 Chemistry andLife Glucose Monitoring 102 Strategies in Chemistry How to Take a Test 106 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 118 4.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 120 Electrolytic Properties 1 20 Ionic Compounds in Water 1 20 Molecular Compounds in Water 1 22 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 1 22 4.2 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS 124 Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 1 24 Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions 1 26 Ionic Equations 1 27 4.3 ACID-BASE REACTIONS 128 Acids 1 29 Bases 1 29 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 1 30 Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 1 31 Neutralization Reactions and Salts 1 32 Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formation 1 34 4.4 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 135 Oxidation and Reduction 1 36 Oxidation Numbers 1 37 Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts 1 38 The Activity Series 1 40 8. 4.5 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS 1 42 Molarity 146 Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte 145 lnterconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume 145 Dilution 146 4.6 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 149 Titrations 150 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 154 KEY SKiLLS 155 KEY EQUATIONS 155 VISUALIZiNG CONCEPTS 156 EXERCISES 156 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 161 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 162 Chemistry Put to Vc>rk Antacids 135 A CkJSer Look The Aura of Gold 143 Strategies in Chemistry Analyzing Chemical Reactions 143 Chemistry andLife DrinkingToo MuchWater Can KillYou 147 5 Thermochemistry 164 5.1 THE NATURE OF ENERGY 166 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 166 Units of Energy 167 System and Surroundings 168 Transferring Energy: Work and Heat 168 5.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 170 Internal Energy 170 Relating llE to Heat and Work 171 Endothermic and Exothermic Processes 172 State Functions 1 72 5.3 ENTHALPY 1 74 5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION 177 5.5 CALORIMETRY 179 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 179 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 182 Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 183 5.6 HESS'S LAW 184 5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION 188 Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 190 5.8 FOODS AND FUELS 1 93 Foods 193 Fuels 195 Other Energy Sources 197 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 199 KEY SKiLLS 200 KEYEQUATIONS 201 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 201 EXERCISES 202 ADDITIONALEXERCISES 207 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 209 A CU.ser Look Energy, Enthalpy, and P-VW ork 176 Strategies in Chemistry Using Enthalpy as a Guide 180 Chemistry atldLife The Regulation of Human Body Temperature 185 01emistry Put to Vc>rk The Hybrid Car 196 6 Electronic Structure ofAtoms 6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 212 6.2 QUANTIZED ENERGY AND PHOTONS 215 2 10 Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy 215 The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 216 6.3 LINE SPECTRA AND THE BOHR MODEL 218 Line Spectra 2 18 Bohr's Model 2 19 The Energy States o f the Hydrogen Atom 220 Limitations of the Bohr Model 222 6.4 THE WAVE BEHAVIOR OF MATTER 222 The Uncertainty Principle 223 6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS 224 Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 226 Contents ix 9. x Contents 6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS 228 The s Orbitals 228 The p Orbitals 231 The d and f Orbitals 232 6.7 MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS 232 Orbitals and Their Energies 232 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 233 6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 234 Hund's Rule 235 Condensed Electron Configurations 237 Transition Metals 238 The Lanthanides and Actinides 239 6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 240 Anomalous Electron Configurations 243 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 244 KEYSKILLS 245 KEYEQUATIONS 246 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 246 EXERCISES 247 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 251 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 253 A Clo1er Look The Speed of Light 214 A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 225 A Closer Look Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions 230 A Closer Look Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 234 Chemistry andLife Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 236 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 254 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 256 7.2 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE 257 7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS 259 Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii 262 PeriodicTrends in Ionic Radii 263 7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY 264 Variations in Successive Ionization Energies 266 Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies 267 Electron Configurations of Ions 268 7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES 270 7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS 271 Metals 272 Nonmetals 274 Metalloids 276 7.7 GROUP TRENDS FOR THE ACTIVE METALS 276 Group 1A: The Alkali Metals 276 Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals 279 7.8 GROUP TRENDS FOR SELECTED NONMETALS 281 Hydrogen 281 Group 6A: The Oxygen Group 282 Group 7A: The Halogens 283 Group SA: The Noble Gases 284 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 286 KEY SKILLS 287 KEY EQUATIONS 287 VISUAliZING CONCEPTS 288 EXERCISES 289 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 292 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 294 A Closer Look Effective Nuclear Charge 260 Chemistry andLife Ionic Size Makes a Big Difference 265 Chemistry andLife The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 280 8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 8.1 CHEMICAL BONDS, LEWIS SYMBOLS, AND THE OCTET RULE 298 Lewis Symbols 298 The Octet Rule 299 8.2 IONIC BONDING 299 296 Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 301 Electron Configurations of Ions of the S and p-Biock Elements 302 Transition-Metal Ions 303 10. 9 8.3 COVALENT BONDING 305 Lewis Structures 30S Multiple Bonds 307 8.4 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY 307 Electronegativity 30B Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 308 Dipole Moments 310 Differentiating Ionic and Covalent Bonding 312 8.5 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES 314 Formal Charge 316 8.6 RESONANCE STRUCTURES 319 Resonance in Benzene 321 8.7 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE 322 Odd Number of Electrons 322 Less than an Octet of Valence Electrons 322 More than an Octet of Valence Electrons 323 8.8 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS 325 Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 326 Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length 329 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 331 KEYSKILLS 332 KEYEQUATIONS 332 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 332 EXERCISES 333 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 336 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 338 A ChuFr Loolr Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Bom-Haber Cycle 304 A GoserLook Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, andActual Partial Charges 318 GJtmJistry Put to Work Explosives and Alfred Nobel 328 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 340 9.1 MOLECULAR SHAPES 342 9.2 THE VSEPR MODEL 344 The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles 348 Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells 349 Shapes of Larger Molecules 352 9.3 MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY 353 9.4 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP 355 9.5 HYBRID ORBITALS 357 sp Hybrid Orbitals 357 sp 2 and sp 3 Hybrid Orbitals 358 Hybridization Involving dOrbitals 360 Hybrid Orbital Summary 360 9.6 MULTIPLE BONDS 362 Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and 7T Bonding 365 General Conclusions 368 9.7 MOLECULAR ORBITALS 368 The Hydrogen Molecule 368 Bond Order 370 9.8 SECOND-ROW DIATOMIC MOLECULES 371 Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 371 Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 372 Electron Configurations for B2 Through Ne2 375 Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 376 Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 379 SUMMA RY AND KEY TERMS 381 KEY SKILLS 383 KEY EQUATIONS 383 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 383 EXERCISES 384 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 388 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 390 Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision 367 A C/osFr Look Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals 373 Chemistry Put to Wrk Orbitals and Energy 380 Contents xi 11. xii Contents 1 Q Gases 392 11 10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES 394 10.2 PRESSURE 395 Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 395 10.3 THE GAS LAWS 398 The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law 399 The Temperature Volume Relationship: Charles's Law 400 The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro's Law 400 10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 402 Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 404 10.5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 406 Gas Densities and Molar Mass 406 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 408 10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES 410 Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 411 Collecting Gases over Water 412 10.7 KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY 41 4 Distributions of Molecular Speed 414 Application to the Gas Laws 41S 10.8 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION 417 Graham's Law of Effusion 418 Diffusion and Mean Free Path 419 10.9 REAL GASES: DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR 420 The van der Waals Equation 422 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 425 KEY SKILLS 426 KEYEQUATIONS 426 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 426 EXERCISES 427 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 432 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 434 Chemistry andLife Blood Pressure 398 Strategies in Chemistry Calculations Involving ManyVariables 404 ChemistryPut to Work Gas Pipelines 409 A Closer Look The Ideal-Gas Equation 416 Chemistry Put to Work Gas Separations 420 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 436 11.1 A MOLECULAR COMPARISON OF GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS 438 11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 439 ion-Dipole Forces 440 Dipole-Dipole Forces 440 London Dispersion Forces 441 Hydrogen Bonding 443 Comparing Intermolecular Forces 446 11.3 SOME PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 447 Viscosity 447 Surface Tension 448 11.4 PHASE CHANGES 449 Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes 449 Heating Curves 450 Critical Temperature and Pressure 452 11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE 453 Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level 454 Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 454 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 455 11.6 PHASE DIAGR AMS 456 The Phase Diagrams of H20 and C02 457 12. 11.7 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS 458 Unit Cells 460 The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride 461 Close Packing of Spheres 463 11.8 BONDING IN SOLIDS 464 Molecular Solids 464 Covalent-Network Solids 466 Ionic Solids 467 Metallic Solids 467 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 469 KEYSKILLS 470 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 471 EXERCISES 472 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 477 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 478 Chemistry Put to WOrk Supercritical Fluid Extraction 453 A Closer Look The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 456 A Gt>ser Look X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 465 A CloserLook TheThird Form of Carbon 468 12 Modern Materials 480 12.1 CLASSES OF MATERIALS 482 12.2 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS 482 12.3 SEMICONDUCTORS 484 Semiconductor Doping 488 The Silicon Chip 489 Solar Energy Conversion 489 Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes 492 12.4 CERAMICS 493 Applications of Ceramics 494 Making Ceramics 494 12.5 SUPERCONDUCTORS 495 Ceramic Superconductors 497 12.6 POLYMERS AND PLASTICS 499 Making Polymers 499 Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers 502 12.7 BIOMATERIALS 505 Characteristics of Biomaterials 507 Polymeric Biomaterials 507 Heart Repair 508 Vascular Grafts 509 Artificial Tissue 509 12.8 LIQUID CRYSTALS 510 Types of Liquid Crystalline Phases 51 1 12.9 NANOMATERIALS 513 Semiconductors on the Nanoscale 513 Metals on the Nanoscale 515 Carbon Nanotubes 515 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 517 KEYSKILLS 519 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 519 EXERCISES 520 ADDITIONALEXERCISES 524 INTEGRATIVEEXERCISES 525 A Clt>serLook TheTransistor 490 Chemistry Put to WOrk Cell Phone Tower Range 498 Chemistry Put to WOrk Recycling Plastics 501 Chemistry Put to Work Toward the Plastic Car 506 Chemistry Put to WOrk Liquid Crystal Displays 513 13 Properties of Solutions 13.1 THE SOLUTION PROCESS 528 526 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 528 Energy Changes and Solution Formation 529 Solution Formation, Spontaneity, and Entropy 531 Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions 533 13.2 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 534 13.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 535 Solute-Solvent Interactions 536 Pressure Effects 539 Temperature Effects 541 Contents xiii 13. xiv Contents 13.4 WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION 542 Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb 542 Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality 543 Conversion of Concentration Units 544 13.5 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 546 Lowering the Vapor Pressure 546 Boiling-Point Elevation 549 Freezing-Point Depression 550 Osmosis 551 Determination of Molar Mass 555 13.6 COLLOIDS 556 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 557 Removal of Colloidal Particles 560 SUMMARYAND KEY TERMS 561 KEY SKILLS 562 KEY EQUATIONS 563 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 563 EXERCISES 565 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 569 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 570 A Closer IAolt Hydrates 533 Chemistry andLife Fat- and Water-SolubleVitamins 538 Chemistry andLife Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 540 A Ooser IAok Ideal Solutions withTwo or MoreVolatile Components 548 A Ooser Look Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 554 Chemistry andLife Sickle-Cell Anemia 559 14 Chemical Kinetics 572 14.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES 574 14.2 REACTION RATES 575 Change of Rate with lime 577 Instantaneous Rate 577 Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 578 14.3 THE RATE LAW: THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON RATE 580 Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law 581 Units of Rate Constants 583 Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 584 14.4 THE CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION WITH TIME 585 First-Order Reactions 586 Second-Order Reactions 588 Half-life 589 14.5 TEMPERATURE AND RATE 591 The Collision Model 592 The Orientation Factor 592 Activation Energy 592 The Arrhenius Equation 594 Determining the Activation Energy 595 14.6 REACTION MECHANISMS 597 Elementary Reactions 597 Multistep Mechanisms 598 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions 599 The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism 600 Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step 601 Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 602 14.7 CATALYSIS 605 Homogeneous Catalysis 605 Heterogeneous Catalysis 606 Enzymes 608 SUMMARYAND KEY TERMS 613 KEY SKILLS 614 KEY EQUATIONS 614 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 615 EXERCISES 616 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 622 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 624 A Closer Look Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates 580 Chemistry Put to WOrk Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 590 G1emistry Put to WOrk Catalytic Converters 608 Chemistry andLife Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 610 14. 15 Chemical Equilibrium 626 15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM 628 15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 630 Evaluating Kc 632 Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp 633 Equilibrium Constants and Units 635 15.3 INTERPRETING AND WORKING WITH EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 635 The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 635 The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K 636 Relating Chemical Equations and Equilibrium Constants 637 15.4 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA 639 15.5 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 641 15.6 APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 644 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 644 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 645 15.7 LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE 648 Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations 649 Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 649 Effect of Temperature Changes 651 The Effect of Catalysts 654 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 657 KEYSKILLS 657 KEY EQUATIONS 658 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 658 EXERCISES 660 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 662 INTEGRAITVE EXERCISES 664 Chemistry Put to "WOrk Haber Process 631 Chemistry Put to "WOrk Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 656 16 Acid-Base Equilibria 666 16.1 ACIDS AND BASES: A BRIEF REVIEW 668 16.2 BR0NSTED-LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES 668 The W lon in Water 669 Proton-Transfer Reactions 669 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 670 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 672 16.3 THE AUTOIONIZATION OF WATER 673 The lon Product of Water 674 16.4 THE pH SCALE 675 pOH and Other "p" Scales 678 Measuring pH 678 16.5 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES 679 Strong Acids 679 Strong Bases 680 16.6 WEAK ACIDS 681 Calculating K0 from pH 682 Percent Ionization 683 Using K0 to Calculate pH 684 Polyprotic Acids 688 16.7 WEAK BASES 690 Types of WeakBases 692 16.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN K. AND Kb 693 16.9 ACID-BASE PROPERTIES OF SALT SOLUTIONS 695 An Anion's Ability to React with Water 696 A Cation's Ability to React with Water 696 Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution 697 16.10 ACID-BASE BEHAVIOR AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE 699 Factors That Affect Acid Strength 699 Binary Acids 699 Oxyacids 700 Carboxylic Acids 702 16.11 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES 704 Hydrolysis of Metalions 705 Contents xv 15. xvi Contents 17 SUMMARYAND KEYTERMS 707 KEY SKILlS 708 KEY EQUATIONS 708 VISUAliZING CONCEPTS 709 EXERCISES 710 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 715 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 716 Cbemistry Put to WOrk Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 694 Cbemistry andLife The Amphiprotic Behavior ofAmino Acids 703 Additional Aspects ofAqueous Equilibria 718 17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT 720 17.2 BUFFERED SOLUTIONS 723 Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 723 Calculating the pH of a Buffer 724 Buffer Capacity and pH Range 726 Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers 727 17.3 ACID-BASE TITRATION$ 730 Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations 730 Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations 733 Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 737 17.4 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 737 The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 738 Solubility and K'P 738 17.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY 741 Common-ion Effect 741 Solubility and pH 742 Formation of Complex Ions 745 Amphoterism 748 17.6 PRECIPITATION A ND SEPA RATION OF IONS 750 Selective Precipitation of Ions 751 17.7 QUALITATNE A NALYSIS FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS 753 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 756 KEY SKILlS 757 KEY EQUATIONS 757 VISUAliZING CONCEPTS 757 EXERCISES 759 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 763 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 764 Cbemistry andLife Blood as a BufferedSolution 729 A Closer LDDk Limitations ofSolubility Products 741 Chemistry andLife Sinkholes 744 Cbemistry andLife Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 747 18 Chemistry of the Environment 766 18.1 EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 768 Composition of the Atmosphere 769 18.2 OUTER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 770 Photodissociation 770 Photoionization 772 18.3 OZONE IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 772 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 774 18.4 CHEMISTRY OF THE TROPOSPHERE 775 Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 776 Carbon Monoxide 778 Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 779 Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 780 18.5 THE WORLD OCEAN 783 Seawater 783 Desalination 784 18.6 FRESHWATER 785 Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 786 Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 786 16. 18.7 GREEN CHEMISTRY 788 Solvents and Reagents 789 Other Processes 790 The Challenges of Water Purification 790 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 792 KEY SKILLS 793 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 794 EXERCISES 794 ADDI TIONAL EXERCISES 797 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 798 A CbJser 1-oolt Other Greenhouse Gases 782 A CbJser Look Water Softening 788 1 9 Chemical Thermodynamics 800 19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES 802 Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity 804 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 804 19.2 ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 806 Entropy Change 806 6.5 for Phase Changes 807 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 808 19.3 THE MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF ENTROPY 809 Molecular Motions and Energy 809 Boltzmann's Equation and Microstates 81 0 Making Qualitative Predictions About 6.5 813 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 816 19.4 ENTROPY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 817 Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 81 8 19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY 819 Standard Free-Energy of Formation 822 19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE 824 19.7 FREE ENERGY AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 826 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 832 KEY SKILLS 832 KEY EQUATIONS 833 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 833 EXERCISES 834 ADDI TIONAL EXERCISES 839 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 840 A Closer Look The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally 808 A Clos,.,-1-oolt Entropy and Probability 812 Chemistry andLife Entropy and Life 815 A Closer1-ooA What's"Free"about Free Energy? 822 Chemistry andLife Driving Nonspontaneous Reachons 830 2Q Electrochemistry 842 20.1 OXIDATION STATES AND OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 844 20.2 BALANCING OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUATIONS 846 Half-Reactions 846 Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 846 Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 849 20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS 851 A Molecular View of Electrode Processes 854 20.4 CELL EMF UNDER STANDARD CONDITIONS 855 Standard Reduction (Half-Cell) Potentials 856 Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 860 20.5 FREE ENERGY AND REDOX REACTIONS 862 EMF and 6.G 863 Contents xvii 17. xviii Contents 20.6 CELL EMF UNDER NONSTANDARD CONDITIONS 865 The Nernst Equation 865 Concentration Cells 867 20.7 BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 870 20.8 Lead-Acid Battery 871 Alkaline Battery 872 Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-ion Batteries 872 CORROSION 874 Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel Hydrogen Fuel Cells 873 Corrosion of Iron 874 Preventing the Corrosion of Iron 875 20.9 ELECTROLYSIS 876 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 878 Electrical Work 879 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 881 KEY SKILLS 882 KEY EQUATIONS 883 VISUAliZING CONCEPTS 883 EXERCISES 884 ADDITIONALEXERCISES 889 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 890 Chemistry andLife Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 868 Cbemistry Put to WOrk Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 874 21 Nuclear Chemistry 892 21.1 RADIOACTIVITY 894 Nuclear Equations 895 Types of Radioactive Decay 896 21.2 PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY 898 Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 898 Radioactive Series 900 Further Observations 901 21.3 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS 901 Accelerating Charged Particles 902 Using Neutrons 903 Transuranium Elements 903 21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 903 Radiometric Dating 905 Calculations Based on Half-life 905 21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVIT Y 908 Radiotracers 91 0 21.6 ENERG Y CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS 911 Nuclear Binding Energies 91 2 21.7 NUCLEAR POWER: FISSION 913 Nuclear Reactors 91 5 21.8 NUCLEAR POWER: FUSION 918 21.9 RADIATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIVING SYSTEMS 919 Radiation Doses 920 Radon 921 SUMMARYAND KEY TERMS 924 KEY SKILLS 925 KEY EQUATIONS 925 VISUAliZING CONCEPTS 925 EXERCISES 926 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 928 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 929 Chemistry andLife Medical Applications of Radiotracers 910 A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 915 Cbemistry Put to WOrk Environmental Applications of Radioisotopes 921 Cbemistry andLife Radiation Therapy 922 22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 22.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS: PERIODIC TRENDS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 932 Chemical Reactions 933 22.2 HYDROGEN 935 930 Isotopes of Hydrogen 935 Properties of Hydrogen 936 Preparation of Hydrogen 936 Uses of Hydrogen 937 Binary Hydrogen Compounds 937 18. 22.3 GROUP SA: THE NOBLE GASES 938 Noble-Gas Compounds 939 22.4 GROUP ?A: THE HALOGENS 940 Properties and Preparation of the Halogens 940 Uses of the Halogens 941 The Hydrogen Halides 942 lnterhalogen Compounds 943 Oxyacids and Oxyanions 943 22.5 OXYGEN 944 Properties of Oxygen 944 Preparation of Oxygen 944 Uses of Oxygen 945 Ozone 945 Oxides 946 Peroxides and Superoxides 948 22.6 THE OTHER GROUP 6A ELEMENTS: S, Se, Te, AND Po 948 General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 949 Occurrence and Preparation of S, Se, and Te 949 Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 949 Suides 950 Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur 950 22.7 NITROGEN 952 Properties of Nitrogen 952 Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen 952 Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 953 Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 954 22.8 THE OTHER GROUP 5A ELEMENTS: P, As, Sb, AND Bi 956 General Characteristics of the Group SA Elements 956 Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus 957 Phosphorus Halides 957 Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 958 22.9 CARBON 960 Elemental Forms of Carbon 961 Oxides of Carbon 962 Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 963 Carbides 964 Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon 965 22.10 THE OTHER GROUP 4A ELEMENTS: Si, Ge, Sn, AND Pb 965 General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 965 Preparation of Silicon 966 Silicates 966 Glass 968 22.11 BORON 969 SUMMARY AND KEYTERMS 971 KEY SKILLS 972 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 973 EXERCISES 974 Occurrence and Silicones 969 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 977 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 978 A Oosu Look The Hydrogen Economy 937 Chemistry andLife How Much Perchlorate Is Too Much? 944 Chemistry andLife Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease 956 Chemistry andLife Arsenic in DrinkingWater 960 Chemistry Put to Work Carbon Fibers and Composites 962 23 Metals and Metallurgy 980 23.1 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF METALS 982 Minerals 982 Metallurgy 983 23.2 PYROMETALLURGY 984 The Pyrometallurgy of Iron 985 Formation of Steel 986 23.3 HYDROMETALLURGY 987 Hydrometallurgy of Gold 987 Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum 988 23.4 ELECTROMETALLURGY 988 Electrometallurgy of Sodium 988 Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 989 Electrorefining of Copper 990 23.5 METALLIC BONDING 991 Physical Properties of Metals 992 Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding 992 Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals 994 23.6 ALLOYS 995 lnterrnetallic Compounds 997 Contents xix 19. xx Contents 24 25 23.7 TRANSITION METALS 998 Physical Properties 999 Electron Configurations and Oxidation States 1 000 Magnetism 1001 23.8 CHEMISTRY OF SELECTED TRANSITION METALS 1002 Chromium 1 002 Iron 1 003 Copper 1 004 SUMMARY ANDKEYTERMS 1006 KEYSKILLS 1007 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 1007 EXERCISES 1008 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 1010 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 1011 A Ooser l.Dok Charles M. Hall 990 A Closer Look Shape-Memory Alloys 998 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 1012 24.1 METAL COMPLEXES 1014 The Development o f Coordination Chemistry: Werner's Theory 1014 The Metal-Ligand Bond 1 01 6 Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries 1 01 6 24.2 LIGANDS WITH MORE THAN ONE DONOR ATOM 1 019 Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 1 021 24.3 NOMENCLATURE OF COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 1025 24.4 ISOMERISM 1026 Structural Isomerism 1 027 Stereoisomerism 1 027 24.5 COLOR AND MAGNETISM 1 031 Color 1 031 Magnetism 1 033 24.6 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY 1 033 Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 1 037 Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 1 038 SUMMARY ANDKEYTERMS 1042 KEYSKILLS 1043 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 1043 EXERCISES 1044 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 1046 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 1048 A Closer l.Dolr Entropy and the Chelate Effect 1021 Chemistry andLife The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 1024 A Closer Loolt Charge-Transfer Color 1040 The Chemisty of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry 25.1 SOME GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES 1052 1050 The Structures of Organic Molecules 1052 The Stabilities of Organic Substances 1 053 Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Substances 1 054 25.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS 1054 25.3 ALKANES, ALKENES, AND ALKYNES 1 055 Structures of Alkanes 1 056 Structural Isomers 1 057 Nomenclature of Alkanes 1 058 Cycloalkanes 1 060 Reactions of Alkanes 1 061 Alkenes 1062 Alkynes 1 064 Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes 1 065 Mechanism of Addition Reactions 1 066 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1 068 25.4 ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 1070 Alcohols 1 072 Ethers 1 073 Aldehydes and Ketones 1 073 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 1 074 Amines and Amides 1 077 20. 25.5 CHIRALITY IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1078 25.6 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY 1080 25.7 PROTEINS 1080 Amino Acids 1 080 Polypeptides and Proteins 1082 Protein Structure 1 084 25.8 CARBOHYDRATES 1086 Disaccharides 1 087 Polysaccharides 1 088 25.9 LIPIDS 1 089 25.10 NUCLEIC ACIDS 1090 SUMMARYANDKEYTERMS 1095 KEYSKILLS 1096 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 1096 EXERCISES 1097 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 1102 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 1103 Oumtistry Put to rk Gasoline 1061 Chemistry andLife Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1070 Chemistry Put to rk Portrait of an Organic Chemical 1076 Chemistry andLife The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems 1085 Strategies in Chemistry What Now? 1094 Appendices A Mathematical Operations II04 B Properties of Water IIII C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at298.15K (25C) 1112 D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1115 E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 oc 1117 Answers to Selected Exercises A-1 Answers to "Give It Some Thought" A-36 Glossary G-1 Photo/Art Credits P-1 Index 1-1 Contents xxi 21. Chemical A lications and Essa s Strate ies in Chemis Estimating Answers 26 The Importance of Practice 28 Pattern Recognition 58 Problem Solving 89 How to Take a Test 106 Analyzing Chemical Reactions 143 Using Enthalpy as a Guide 180 Calculations Involving ManyVariables 404 What Now? 1094 Chemistr and Li e Elements Required by Living Organisms 57 Glucose Monitoring 102 DrinkingToo Much Water Can KillYou 147 The Regulation of Human Body Temperature 185 Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 236 Ionic Size Makes a Big Difference 265 The Improbable Development ofLithium Drugs 280 The Chemistry ofVision 367 Blood Pressure 398 Fat- and Water-SolubleVitamins 538 Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 540 Sickle-Cell Anemia 559 Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 610 The Amphiprotic Behavior ofAminoAcids 703 Blood as a Buffered Solution 729 Sinkholes 744 Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 747 Entropyand Life 815 Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 830 Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 868 Medical Applications of Radiotracers 910 Radiation Therapy 922 How Much Perchlorate Is Too Much? 944 Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease 956 Arsenic in DrinkingWater 960 xxii The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 1024 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1070 The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems 1085 Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 4 Chemistryin the News 18 Antacids 135 The Hybrid Car 196 Explosives and Alfred Nobel 328 Orbitals and Energy 380 Gas Pipelines 409 Gas Separations 420 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 453 Cell Phone Tower Range 498 Recycling Plastics 501 Toward the Plastic Car 506 Liquid Crystal Displays 513 Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 590 Catalytic Converters 608 The Haber Process 631 Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 656 Amines andAmine Hydrochlorides 694 DirectMethanol Fuel Cells 874 Environmental Applications of Radioisotopes 921 Carbon Fibers and Composites 962 Gasoline 1061 Portrait of an Organic Chemical 1076 The Scientific Method 13 Basic Forces 45 The Mass Spectrometer 48 Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium 51 The Aura of Gold 143 Energy, Enthalpy, and P- V Work 176 22. The Speed of Light 214 Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 225 Probability Density and Radial ProbabilityFunctions 230 Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 234 Effective Nuclear Charge 260 Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born-Haber Cycle 304 Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges 318 Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals 373 The Ideal-Gas Equation 416 The Clausius-Oapeyron Equation 456 X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 465 TheThird Form of Carbon 468 The Transistor 490 Hydrates 533 Ideal Solutions with Two or MoreVolatile Components 548 Chemical Applications and Essays xxiii Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 554 Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates 580 Limitations of Solubility Products 741 Other Greenhouse Gases 782 Water Softening 788 The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally 808 Entropy and Probability 812 What's "Free" About Free Energy? 822 The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 915 The Hydrogen Economy 937 Charles M. Hall 990 Shape-MemoryAlloys 998 Entropyand the Chelate Effect 1021 Charge-Transfer Color 1040 23. Preface xxiv TO THE INSTRUCTOR Philosophy This is the eleventh edition of a text that has enjoyed unprecedented success over its many editions. It is fair to ask why there needs to be yet another edi tion. The answer in part lies in thenature of chemistry itseU, a dynamic science in a process of continual discovery. New research leads to new applications of chemistry in other fields of science and in technology. In addition, environmen tal and economic concerns bring about changes in the place of chemistry in so ciety. We want our textbook to reflect that dynamic, changing character. We also want it to convey the excitement that scientists experience in making new dis coveries and contributing to our understanding of the physical world. In addition, new ideas about how to present chemistry are being offered by teachers of chemistry, and many of these new ideas are reflected in how the textbook is organized and the ways in which individual topics are presented. New technologies and new devices to assist students in learning lead to new ways of presenting learning materials: the Internet, computer-based classroom projection tools, and more effective means of testing, to name just a few. All of these factors impact on how the text and the accompanying supplementary ma terials are modified from one edition to the next. Our aim in revising the text has been to ensure that it remains a central, in dispensable learning tool for the student. It is the one device that can be carried everywhere and used at any time, and as such, it is a one-stop source of all the information that the student is likely to need for learning, skill development, reference, and test preparation. We believe that students are more enthusiastic about learning chemistry when they see its importance to their own goals and interests. With this in mind, we have highlighted many important applications of chemistry in every day life. At the same time, the text provides the background in modern chem istry that students need to serve their professional interests and, as appropriate, to prepare for more advanced chemistry courses. If the text is to support your role as teacher effectively, it must be addressed to the students. We have done our best to keep our writing clear and interesting and the book attractive and well-illustrated. Furthermore, we have provided nu merous in-text study aids for students, including carefully placed descriptions of problem-solving strategies. Together, we have logged many years of teaching experience. We hope this is evident in our pacing and choice of examples. A textbook is only as useful to students as the instructor permits it to be. This book is loaded with many features that can help students learn and that can guide them as they acquire both conceptual understanding and problem solving skills. But the text and all the supplementary materials provided to sup port its use must work in concert with the instructor. There is a great deal for the students to use here, too much for all of it to be absorbed by any one student. You, the instructor, are the guide to a proper use of the book. Only with your ac tive help will the students be able to fully utilize all that the text and its supple ments offer. Students care about grades, of course, but with encouragement, they can also care about learning just because the subject matter is interesting. Please consider emphasizing features of the book that can materially enhance student appreciation of chemistry, such as the Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and Life boxes that show how chemistry impacts modem life and its relationship to health and life processes. Learn to use, and urge students to use, 24. the rich Internet resources available. Emphasize conceptual understanding, and place less emphasis on simple manipulative, algorithmic problem solving. Spending less time on solving a variety of gas law problems, for example, can open up opportunities to talk about chemistry and the environment. Organization and Contents The first five chapters give a largely macroscopic, phenomenological view of chemistry. The basic concepts introduced-such as nomenclature, stoichiome try, and thermochemistry-provide necessary background for many of the lab oratory experiments usually performed in general chemistry. We believe that an early introduction to thermochemistry is desirable because so much of our understanding of chemical processes is based on considerations of energy change. Thermochemistry is also important when we come to a discussion of bond enthalpies. We believe we have produced an effective, balanced approach to teaching thermodynamics in general chemistry. It is no easy matter to walk the narrow pathway between-on the one hand-trying to teach too much at too high a level and-on the other-resorting to oversimplifications. As with the book as a whole, the emphasis has been on imparting conceptual under standing, as opposed to presenting equations into which students are supposed to plug numbers. The next four chapters (Chapters 6-9) deal with electronic structure and bonding. We have largely retained our presentation of atomic orbitals. For more advanced students, Closer Look boxes deal with radial probability functions and the nature of antibonding orbitals. In Chapter 7 we have improved our discus sion of atomic and ionic radii. The focus of the text then changes to the next level of the organization of matter: the states of matter (Chapters 10 and 11) and solutions (Chapter 13). Also included in this section is an applications chapter on the chemistry of modern materials (Chapter 12), which builds on the stu dent's understanding of chemical bonding and intermolecular interactions. This chapter has again received substantial revision, in keeping with the rapid pace of change in technology. It has been reorganized to emphasize a classifica tion of materials based on their electronic bonding characteristics. This chapter provides an opportunity to show how the sometimes abstract concept of chem ical bonding impacts real world applications. The modular organization of the chapter allows you to tailor your coverage to focus on those materials (semi conductors, polymers, biomaterials, nanotechnology, etc.) that are most rele vant to your students. The next several chapters examine the factors that determine the speed and extent of chemical reactions: kinetics (Chapter 14), equilibria (Chapters 15-17), thermodynamics (Chapter 19), and electrochemistry (Chapter 20). Also in this section is a chapter on environmental chemistry (Chapter 18), in which the con cepts developed in preceding chapters are applied to a discussion of the atmos phere and hydrosphere. After a discussion of nuclear chemistry (Chapter 21), the final chapters sur vey the chemistry of nonmetals, metals, organic chemistry, and biochemistry (Chapters 22-25). Chapter 22 has been shortened slightly. Chapter 23 now con tains a modern treatment of band structure and bonding in metals. A brief dis cussion of lipids has been added to Chapter 25. These final chapters are developed in a parallel fashion and can be treated in any order. Our chapter sequence provides a fairly standard organization, but we recog nize that not everyone teaches all the topics in exactly the order we have chosen. We have therefore made sure that instructors can make common changes in teaching sequence with no loss in student comprehension. In particular, many instructors prefer to introduce gases (Chapter 10) after stoichiometry or after thermochemistry rather than with states of matter. The chapter on gases has been written to permit this change with no disruption in the flow of material. It is also possible to treat the balancing of redox equations (Sections 20.1 and 20.2) Preface xxv 25. xxvi Preface earlier, after the introduction of redox reactions in Section 4.4. Finally, some instructors like to cover organic chemistry (Chapter 25) right after bonding (Chapter 9). This, too, is a largely seamless move. We have introduced students to descriptive organic and inorganic chem istry by integrating examples throughout the text. You will find pertinent and relevant examples of "real" chemistry woven into all the chapters as a means to illustrate principles and applications. Some chapters, of course, more directly address the properties of elements and their compounds, especially Chapters 4, 7, 12, 18, and 22-25. We also incorporate descriptive organic and inorganic chemistry in the end-of-chapter exercises. Changes in This Edition Some of the changes in the eleventh edition made in individual chapters have already been mentioned. More broadly, we have introduced a number of new features that are general throughout the text. Chemistry: The Central Science has traditionally been valued for its clarity of writing, its scientific accuracy and currency, its strong end-of-chapter exercises, and its consistency in level of cov erage. In making changes, we have made sure not to compromise these charac teristics. At the same time, we have responded to feedback received from the faculty and students who used previous editions. To make the text easier for students to use, we have continued to employ an open, clean design in the lay out of the book. Illustrations that lend themselves to a more schematic, bolder presentation of the underlyingprincipleshave been introduced or revised from earlier versions. The art program in general has been strengthened, to better convey the beauty, excitement, and concepts of chemistry to students. The chapter-opening photos have been integrated into the introduction to each chapter, and thus made more relevant to the chapter's contents. We have continued to use the What's Ahead overview at the opening of each chapter, introduced in the ninth edition, but we have changed the format to make the materials more useful to students. Concept links (=) continue to provide easy-to-see cross-references to pertinent material covered earlier in the text. The essays titled Strategies in Chemistry, which provide advice to students on problem solving and "thinking like a chemist," continue to be an important feature. The Give It Some Thought exercises that we introduced in the tenth edi tion have proven to be very popular, and we have increased their number. These are informal, rather sharply focused questions that give students oppor tunities to test whether they are actually "getting it" as they read along. We have continued to emphasize conceptual exercises in the end-of-chapter exer cise materials. The Visualizing Concepts category of exercise has been continued in this edition. These exercises are designed to facilitate concept understanding through use of models, graphs, and other visual materials. They precede the regular end-of-chapter exercises and are identified in each case with the rele vant chapter section number. We continue to use multi-focus graphics to depict topics in macroscopic, microscopic, symbolic, and conceptual representation so students learn to see chemistry the way scientists do, from a variety of perspec tives. The Integrative Exercises, which give students the opportunity to solve more challenging problems that integrate concepts from the present chapter with those of previous chapters, have also been increased in number. New essays in our well-received Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and Life series emphasize world events, scientific discoveries, and medical break throughs that have occurred since publication of the tenth edition. We maintain our focus on the positive aspects of chemistry, withoutneglectingthe problems that can arise in an increasingly technological world. Our goal is to help stu dents appreciate the real-world perspective of chemistry and the ways in which chemistry affects their lives. A minor change that you will see throughout the text is the use of con densed structural formulas for simple carboxylic acids. For example, we now write CH3COOH for acetic acid instead of HC2H302. 26. You'll also find that we've Revised or replaced some of the end-of-chapter Exercises, with particular focus on the black-numbered exercises (those not answered in the Appendix). Integrated more conceptual questions into the end-of-chapter material. For the convenience of instructors, these are identified by the CQ anno tation in the Annotated Instructor's Edition, but not in the student edition of the text. Carried the stepwise Analyze, Plan, Solve, Check problem-solving strategy into nearly all of the Sample Exercises of the book to provide additional guidance in problem solving. Expanded the use of dual-column problem-solving strategies in many Sample Exercises to more clearly outline the process underlying mathemat ical calculations, thereby helping students to better perform mathematical calculations. Added both Key Skills and Key Equations sections to the end of chapter material to help students focus their study. TO THE STUDENT Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition, has been written to introduce you to modem chemistry. As authors, we have, in effect, been engaged by your instructor to help you learn chemistry. Based on the comments of stu dents and instructors who have used this book in its previous editions, we be lieve thatwe have done thatjob well. Ofcourse, we expect the text to continue to evolve through future editions. We invite you to write to us to tell us what you like about the book so that we will know where we have helped you most. Also, we would like to learn of any shortcomings, so that we might further improve the book in subsequent editions. Our addresses are given at the end of the Preface. Advice for Learning and Studying Chemistry Learning chemistry requires both the assimilation of many new concepts and the development of analytical skills. Inthis text we have provided you withnu merous tools to help you succeed in both. If you are going to succeed in your course in chemistry, you will have to develop good study habits. Science cours es, and chemistry in particular, make different demands on your learning skills than other types of courses. We offer the following tips for success in your study of chemistry: Don't fall behind! As your chemistry course moves along, new topics will build on material already presented. If you don't keep up in your reading and problem solving, you will find it much harder to follow the lectures and discus sions on current topics. "Cramming" just before an exam has been shown to be an ineffective way to study any subject, chemistry included. Focus your study. The amount of information you will be expected to learn can sometimes seem overwhelming. It is essential to recognize those concepts and skills that are particularly important. Pay attention to what your instructor is emphasizing. As you work through the Sample Exercises and homework as signments, try to see what general principles and skills they deal with. Use the What's Ahead feature at the beginning of each chapter to help orient you to what is important in each chapter. A single reading of a chapter will simply not be enough for successful learning of chapter concepts and problem-solving skills. You will need to go over assigned materials more than once. Don't skip the Give It Some Thought features, Sample Exercises, and Practice Exercises. Preface xxvii 27. xxviii Preface ACKNOWLEDGMENTS They are your guides t o whether you are actually learning the material. The Key Skills and Key Equations at the end of each chapter should help you focus your study. Keep good lecture notes. Your lecture notes will provide you with a clear and concise record of what your instructor regards as the most important material to learn. Use your lecture notes in conjunction with this text; that's your best way to determine which material to study. Skim topics in the text before they are covered in lecture. Reviewing a topic be fore lecture will make it easier for you to take good notes. First read the intro duction and Summary, then quickly read through the chapter, skipping Sample Exercises and supplemental sections. Pay attention to the titles of sections and subsections, which give you a feeling for the scope of topics. Try to avoid think ing that you must learn and understand everything right away. After lecture, carefully read the topics covered in class. As you read, pay atten tion to the concepts presented and to the application of these concepts in the Sample Exercises. Once you think you understand a Sample Exercise, test your understanding by working the accompanying Practice Exercise. Learn the language ofchemistry. As you study chemistry, you will encounter many new words. It is important to pay attention to these words and to know their meanings or the entities to which they refer. Knowing how to identify chemical substances from their names is an important skill; it can help you avoid painful mistakes on examinations. For example, "chlorine" and "chlo ride" refer to very different things. Attempt the assigned end-of-chapter exercises. Working the exercises that have been selected by your instructor provides necessary practice in recalling and using the essential ideas of the chapter. You cannot learn merely by observing; you must be a participant. In particular, try to resist checking the Student Solutions Manual (if you have one) until you have made a sincere effort to solve the exercise yourself. If you really get stuck on an exercise, however, get help from your instructor, your teaching assistant, or another student. Spending more than 20 minutes on a single exercise is rarely effective unless you know that it is particularly challenging. Make use of the online resources. Some things are more easily learned by dis covery, and others are best shown in three dimensions. If your instructor has included Mastering Chemistry with your book, take advantage of the unique tools it provides to get the most out of your time in chemistry. The bottom line is to work hard, study effectively, and use the tools that are available to you, including this textbook. We want to help you learn more about the world of chemistry and why chemistry is the central science. If you learn chemistry well, you can be the life of the party, impress your friends and parents, and . . . well, also pass the course with a good grade. The production of a textbook is a team effort requiring the involvement of many people besides the authors. Many peo ple contributed hard work and talent to bring this edition to life. Although their names don't appear on the cover of the book, their creativity, time, and support has been instrumental in all stages of its development and production. Each of us has benefited greatly from discussions with colleagues and from correspondence with both instructors and students both here and abroad. Colleagues have also helped immensely by reviewing our materials, sharing their insights, and providing suggestions for improvements. On this edition we were particularly blessed with an exception al group of accuracy checkers who read through our materials looking for both technical inaccuracies and typographi cal errors. 28. Eleventh Edition Reviewers Patricia Amateis Todd L. Austell Melita Balch David L. Cedeflo Elzbieta Cook Enriqueta Cortez Stephen Drucker James M. farrar Gregory M. Ferrence Paul A. Flowers Cheryl B. Frech Kenneth A. French EricGoll Carl A. Hoeger Michael 0. Hurst Milton D. johnston, Jr. Robley ). 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Schneider Mark Schraf Gray Scrimgeour Paula Secondo David Shinn Estrella Mountain Community College University of Louisiana North Central College Saint joseph's College Highline Community College University of Minnesota University of Texas Eastern Washington University Blinn College Arkansas State University University of North Carolina University of Akron University of Cincinnati Oldahoma State University Miami Dade College University of Texas at Arlington Middlesex Community College Whitman College Rockland Community College University of Northern Iowa Miami University Portland Community College West Virginia University University of Toronto Western Connecticut State University University of Hawaii at Hilo Vince Sollimo Eugene Stevens James Symes Iwao Teraoka Kathy Thrush Edmund Tisko Richard S. Treptow Michael Tubergen Claudia Turro james Tyrell Philip Verhalen Ann Verner Edward Vidmer John Vincent Maria Vogt Tony Wallner Lichang Wang Karen Weichelman Laurence Werbelow Sarah West Linda M. Wilkes Darren L. Williams Thao Yang David Zax Preface xxxi Burlington Community College Binghamton University Cosumnes River College Polytechnic University Villanova University University of Nebraska at Omaha Chicago State University Kent State University The Ohio State University Southern Illinois University Panola College University of Toronto at Scarborough Gloucester County Community College Universityof Alabama Bloomfield College Barry University Southern Illinois University University of Louisiana-Lafayette New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology University of Notre Dame University at Southern Colorado West Texas A&M University University of Wisconsin Cornell University We would also like to express our gratitude to our many team members at Prentice Hall whose hard work, imagi nation, and commitment have contributed so greatly to the final form of this edition: Nicole Folchetti, our Editor in Chief, who has brought energy and imagination not only to this edition but to earlier ones as well; Andrew Gilfillan, our Chemistry Editor, for his enthusiasm and support; Jonathan Colon, Editorial Assistant, who coordinated all reviews and accuracy checking; Ray Mullaney, our Developmental Editor in Chief, who has been with us since the very first edition of this textbook, helping guide its evolution, infusing it with a sense of style and quality; Karen Nein, our Development Editor, whose diligence and careful attention to detail were invaluable to this revision; Marcia Youngman, our copy editor, for her keen eye; Maureen Eide, our Art Director, who managed the complex task of bringing our sketches into final form; Jennifer Hart, who coordinated all the supplements that accompany the text; Donna Young, our Production Editor, who always seemed to be available for questions any time of the day or night, and who man aged the complex responsibilities of bringing the design, photos, artwork, and writing together with efficiency and good cheer. The Prentice Hall team is a first-class operation. There are many others who also deserve special recognition including the following: Jerry Marshall (Truitt and Marshall), our photo researcher, who was so effective in finding photos to bring chemistry to life for students; Linda Brunauer (Santa Clara University) for her marvelous efforts in preparing the Annotated Instructor's Edition of the text; Roxy Wilson (University of illinois) for performing the difficult job of working out solutions to the end-of-chapter exercises. Finally, we wish to thank our families and friends for their love, support, encouragement, and patience as we brought this eleventhedition to completion. Theodore L. Brown School ofChemical Sciences University ofIllinois, Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL 61801 tlbrown@uiuc.edu H. Eugene LeMay,Jr. Department ofChemistry University ofNevada Reno, NV 89557 lemay@unr.edu Bruce E. Bursten College ofArts and Sciwces University ofTennessee Knoxville, TN 37996 bbursten@utk.edu Catherine ). Murphy Department ofCizemistry and Biochemistry University of South Carolina Columbia, SC 29208 murphy@mail.cltem.sc.edu Patrick M. Woodward Department ofChem istry T7te Ohio State University Columbus, OH 43210 woodward@chemistry. ohio-state.edu 31. List of Resources For Students MasteringChem istry: MasteringChemistry is the first adaptive-learning online homework system. It provides selected end-of-chapter problems from the text, as well as hundreds of tutorials with automatic grading, immediate answer-specific feedback, and simpler questions on request. Based on extensive research of precise concepts students struggle with, MasteringChernistry uniquely responds to your immediate learning needs, thereby optimizing your study time. Solutions to Red Exercises (0-13-600287-0) Prepared by Roxy Wilson of the University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign. Full solutions to all of the red-numbered exercises in the text are provided. (Short answers to red exercises are found in the appendix of the text). Solutions to Black Exercises (0-13-600324-9) Prepared by RoxyWilson of the University of illinois-Urbana Champaign. Full solutions to all of the black-numbered exercises in the text are provided. Student's Guide (0-13-600264-1) Prepared byJames C. Hill of California State University. This book assists students through the text material with chapter overviews, learning objectives, a review of key terms, as well as self tests with answers and explanations. This edition also features the addition of MCAT practice questions. Laboratory Experiments (0-13-600285-4) Prepared by John H. Nelson and Kenneth C. Kemp, both of the University of Nevada. This manual contains 43 finely tuned experiments chosen to introduce students to basic lab techniques and to illustrate core chemical principles. This new edition has been revised to correlate more tightlywith the text and now features a guide on how to keep a lab report notebook. You can also customize these labs through Catalyst, our custom database program. For more information, visit www.prenhall.com/catalyst. Virtual Chemlab: An easy to use simulation of five different general chemistry laboratories that can be used to supplement a wet lab, for pre-laboratory and post laboratory activities, for homework or quiz assignments, or forclassroom demonstrations. xxxii For Instructors Annotated Instructor's Edition (0-13-601250-7) Prepared by Linda Brunauer of Santa Clara University. Provides marginal notes and information for instructors andTAs, including transparency icons, suggested lecture demonstrations, teaching tips, and background references from the chemical education literature. Full Solutions Manual (0-13-600325-7) Prepared by RoxyWilson of the University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign.This manual contains all end-of-chapter exercises in the text.With an instructor's permission, this manual may be made available to students. Instructor's Resource Center on CD-DVD (0-13- 600281-1)This resource provides an integrated collection of resources to help you make efficient and effective use of your time. This CD/DVD features most art from the text, including figures and tables in PDF format for high-resolution prin ting, as well as four pre-built PowerPointTM presentations. Thefirst presentation contains the images embedded within PowerPoint slides. The second includes a complete lecture outline that is modifiable by the user. The final two presentations contain worked "in chapter"sample exercises and questions to be used with Classroom Response Systems. This CD/DVD also contains movies, animations, and electronic files of the Instructor's Resource Manual. Test Item File (0-13-601251-5) Prepared by Joseph P. Laurino and Donald Cannon, both of the University of Tampa. The Test Item File now provides a selection of more than 4000 test questions. Instructor's Resource Manual (0-13-600237-4) Prepared by Linda Brunauer of Santa Clara University and Elizabeth Cook of the Universityof Louisiana. Organized by chapter, this manual offers detailed lecture outlines and complete descriptions of all available lecture demonstra tions, the interactive media assets, common student misconceptions, and more. Transparencies (0-13-601256-6) Approximately 300 full color transparencies put principles into visual perspective and save you time when preparing lectures. Annotated Instructor's Edition to Laboratory Experiments (0-13-6002862) Prepared byJohn H. Nelson and Kenneth C. Kemp, both of the University of Nevada. This AlE combines the full student lab manual with appendices covering the proper disposal of chemical waste, safetyinstructions for the lab, descriptions of standard lab equipment, answers to questions, and more. BlackBoard and WebCT: Practice and assessment materials are available upon request in these course management platforms. 32. About the Authors THEODORE L. BROWN received his Ph.D. from Michigan State University in 1956. Since then, he has been a member of the faculty of the University of Jllinois, Urbana-Champaign, where he is now Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus. He served as Vice Chancellor for Research, and Dean, The Graduate College, from 1980 to 1986, and as Founding Director of the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology from 1987 to 1993. Professor Brown has been an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow and has been awarded a Guggen heim Fellowship. In 1972 he was awarded the American Chemical SocietyAward for Research in Inorganic Chem istry, and received the American Chemical Society Award for Distinguished Service in the Advancement of Inorganic Chemistry in 1993. He has been elected a Fellow ofboth the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. H. EUGENE LEMAY, JR., received his B.S. degree in Chemistry from Pacific Lutheran University (Washington) and his Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1966 from the University of Illinois (Urbana). He then joined the faculty of the Univer sity of Nevada, Reno, where he is currently Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus. He has enjoyed Visiting Professor ships at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, at the University College of Wales in Great Britain, and at theUniversity of California, Los Angeles. Professor LeMay is a popular and effective teacher, who has taught thou sands of students during more than 35 years of university teaching. Known for the clarity of his lectures and his sense of humor, he has received severalteaching awards, including the University Distinguished Teacher ofthe Year Award (1991) and the firstRegents' Teaching Award givenby the State of Nevada Board of Regents (1997). BRUCE E. BURSTEN received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin in 1978. After two years as a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow at Texas A&M University, he joined the faculty of The Ohio State University, where he rose to the rank of Distinguished University Professor. In 2005, he moved to his present position at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville as Distinguished Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Professor Bursten has been a Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation Teacher-Scholar and an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation ResearchFellow, and he has been elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. At Ohio State he has received the University Distinguished Teaching Award in 1982 and 1996, the Arts and Sciences Student Council Outstanding Teaching Award in 1984, and the University Distinguished ScholarAward in 1990. He receivedthe Spiers Memorial Prize and Medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2003, and the Morley Medal of the Cleveland Section of theAmerican Chemical Society in 2005. He was elected President of the American Chemical Society for 2008. In addition to his teaching and service activities, Professor Bursten's re search program focuses on compounds of the transition-metal and actinide elements. CATHERINE J. MURPHY received two B.S. degrees, one in Chemistry and one in Biochemistry, from the Uni versity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in 1986. She received her Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Wiscon sin in 1990. She was a National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health Postdoctoral Fellow at the California Institute of Technology from 1990 to 1993. In 1993, she joined the faculty of the University of South Car olina, Columbia, where she is currently the Guy F. Lipscomb Professor of Chemistry. Professor Murphy has been honored for both research and teaching as a Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar, an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Re search Fellow, a Cottrell Scholar of the Research Corporation, a National Science Foundation CAREER Award win ner, and a subsequent NSF Award for Special Creativity. She has also received a USC Mortar Board Excellence in Teaching Award, the USC Golden Key Faculty Award for Creative Integration of Research and Undergraduate Teaching, the USC Michael J. Mungo Undergraduate Teaching Award, and the USC Outstanding Undergraduate Research Mentor Award. Since 2006, ProfessorMurphy has served as a Senior Editor to thejournalofPlzysicalChem istry. Professor Murphy's researchprogram focuses on the synthesis and optical properties ofinorganic nanomate rials, and on the local structure and dynamics of the DNA double helix. Contributing Author PATRICK M. WOODWARD received B.S. degrees inboth Chemistry and Engineering from Idaho State Uni versity in 1991. He received a M.S. degreein MaterialsScienceand a Ph.D. in Chemistry from Oregon State Univer sity in 1996. He spent two years as a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1998, he joined the faculty of the Chemistry Department at The Ohio State University where he cur rently holds the rank ofAssociate Professor. He has enjoyed visitingprofessorships at the Universityof Bordeaux, in France, and the University of Sydney, in Australia. Professor Woodward has been anAlfredP. Sloan Foundation Re search Fellow and a National Science Foundation CAREERAwardwinner. He currently serves as an Associate Edi tor to thejournalofSolid State Chemistry and as the director of the Ohio REEL program, an NSF funded center that works to bring authentic research experiments into the laboratories of first and second year chemistry classes in 15 colleges and universities across the state of Ohio. Professor Woodward's research program focuses on understand ing the linksbetweenbonding, structure, and properties of solid state inorganic functional materials. xxxili 33. INTRODUCTION: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE IMAGE of the Crab Nebula, a 6-light-year-wide expanding remnant of a star's supernova explosion. The orange filaments are the tattered remains of the star and consist mostly of hydrogen, the simplest and most plentiful element in the un iverse. Hydrogen occurs as molecules in cool regions, as atoms in hotter regions, and as ions in the hottest regions. The processes that occur within stars are responsible for creating other chemical elements from hydrogen. 34. W H A T ' S A H E A D 1.1 The Study of Chemistry We beginby providing a briefperspective of what chemistry is about and why it is useful to learn chemistry. 1.2 Classifications of Matter Next, we examine some fundamental ways to classify materials, distinguishing between pure substances and mixtures and noting that there are two fundamentally different kinds of pure substances: elements and compounds. 1.3 Properties of Matter We then consider some ofthe different kinds of characteristics, orproperties,that we use to characterize,identify, and separate substances. 1.4 Units of Measurement We observe that manyproperties rely on quantitative measurements, involving both numbers and units. The units of measurement used throughout science are those of the metricsystem, a decimal system of measurement. 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement Wealso observe that the uncertainties inherent in all measured quantities areexpressed by the number of significantfigures used to report the number. Significant figures are also used to express the uncertainties associated with calculations involving measured quantities. 1.6 Dimensional Analysis We recognize thatunits as well as numbers are carried through calculations and that obtaining correct units for the resultof a calculation is an important way to check whether the calculation is correct. HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED why ice melts and water evaporates? Why do leaves turn colors in the fall, and how does a battery generate electricity? Why does keeping foods cold slow their spoilage, and how do our bodies use food to maintain life? Chemistry answers these questions and countless others like them. Chemistry is the study of materials and the changes that materials undergo. One of the joys of learning chemistry is seeing how chemical principles operate in all aspects of our lives, from everyday activities like lighting a match to more far-reaching matters like the development of drugs to cure cancer. Chemical principles also operate in the far reaches of our galaxy (chapter-opening photo) as well as within and around us. This first chapter lays a foundation for our study of chemistry by provid ing an overview of what chemistry is about and dealing with some fundamen tal concepts of matter and scientific measurements. The list above, entitled "What's Ahead," gives a brief overview of the organization of this chapter and some of the ideas that we will consider. As you study, keep in mind that the chemical facts and concepts you are asked to learn are not ends in themselves; they are tools to help you better understand the world around you. 35. 2 C HAPTER 1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement ,. Figure 1.1 Molecular models. The white, dark gray, and red spheres represent atomsof hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, respectively. (a) Oxygen 1 . 1 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY Before traveling to an unfamiliar city, you might look at a map to get some sense of where you are heading. Because chemistry may be unfamiliar to you, it's useful to get a general idea of what lies ahead before you embark on your journey. In fact, you might even ask why you are taking the trip. The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of matter. Matter is the physical material of the universe; it is anything that has mass and occupies space. A property is any characteristic that allows us to recognize a particular type of matter and to distinguish it from other types. This book, your body, the clothes you are wearing, and the air you are breathing are all samples of matter. Not all forms of matter are so common or so familiar. Countless experiments have shown that the tremendous variety of matter in our world is due to com binations of only about 100 very basic, or elementary, substances called elements. As we proceed throughthis text, we will seek to relate the properties of matter to its composition, that is, to the particular elements it contains. Chemistry also provides a background to understanding the properties of matter in terms of atoms, the almost infinitesimally small building blocks of matter. Each element is composed of a unique kind of atom. We will see that the properties of matter relate to both the kinds of atoms the matter contains (composition) and to the arrangements of these atoms (structure). Atoms can combine to form molecules in which two or more atoms are joined together in specific shapes. Throughout this text you will see molecules represented using colored spheres to show how their component atoms con nect to each other (Figure 1.1 T). The color provides a convenient and easy way to distinguish between the atoms of different elements. For examples, compare the molecules of ethanol and ethylene glycol in Figure 1.1. Notice that these molecules have different compositions and structures. Ethanol contains only one oxygen atom, which is depicted by one red sphere. In contrast, ethylene glycol has two atoms of oxygen. Even apparently minor differences in the composition or structure of mole cules can cause profound differences in their properties. Ethanol, also called grain alcohol, is the alcohol in beverages such as beer and wine. Ethylene gly col, on the other hand, is a viscous liquid used as automobile antifreeze. The properties of these two substances differ in many ways, including the tempera tures at which they freeze and boil. The biological activities of the two mole cules are also quite different. Ethanol is consumed throughout the world, but Ill ., , you should never consume ethylene glycol be cause it is highly toxic. One of the chal lenges that chemists undertake is to alter the composition or structure of molecules in a controlled way, creating new substances with different properties. (d) Ethanol .,, Every change in the observable world from boiling water to the changes that occur as our bodies combat (b) Water .. (c) Carbon dioxide (e) Ethylene glycol (f) Aspirin , invading viruses-has its basis in the world of atoms and molecules. Thus, as we pro ceed with our study of chemistry, we will find ourselves thinking in two realms: the macroscopic realm 36. of ordinary-sized objects (macro = large) and the submicroscopic realm of atoms and molecules. We make our observations in the macroscopic world-in the laboratory and in our everyday surroundings. To understand that world, however, we must visualize how atoms and molecules behave at the sub microscopic level. Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand the proper ties and behavior of matter by studying the properties and behavior of atoms and molecules. G I V E I T S O M E T H O U G H T (a) In round numbers, about how many elements are there? (b) What submicroscopic particles are the building blocks of matter? Why Study Chemistry? Chemistry provides important understanding of our world and how it works. It is an extremely practical science that greatly impacts our daily lives. Indeed, chemistry lies near the heart of many matters of public concern: improvement ofhealth care; conservation of natural resources; protection ofthe environment; and provision of our everyday needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Using chemistry, we have discovered pharmaceutical chemicals that enhance our health and prolong our lives. We have increased food production through the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and we have developed plastics and other ma terials that are used in almost every facet of our lives. Unfortunately, some chemicals also havethe potential to harm our health or the environment. As ed ucated citizens and consumers, it is in our best interest to understand the pro found effects, both positive and negative,thatchemicals have on our lives and to strike an informed balance about their uses. Most ofyou are studying chemistry, however,notmerely to satisfy your cu riosity or to become more informed consumers or citizens, but because it is an essential part of your curriculum. Your major might be biology, engineering, pharmacy, agriculture, geology, or some other field. Why do so many diverse subjects share an essential tie to chemistry? The answer is that chemistry, by its very nature, is the central science, central to a fundamental understanding of other sciences and technologies. For example, our interactions with the materi al world raise basic questions about the materials around us. What are their compositions and properties? How do they interact with us and our environ ment? How, why, and when do they undergo change? The