EVERYTHING YOU EVER

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Animal Cells

Plant Cells

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Simple

Monosaccharides

Contain a single sugar unit

Disaccharides

Contain two sugar units

Complex

Polysaccharides

Contain many sugar units

Glucose, Fructose Sucrose, LactoseStarch, Glycogen & Cellulose

Types of Lipids

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

The nucleotide monomer

SUGAR

PHOSPHATE

Nucleic acids contain C, H & O in addition to N & P

Proteins

3 groups: Amino group, Carboxyl group & R-group

When joined together they form peptide bonds

Aside from the C, H, O & N in the base molecule, the R group may also contain S & P

Protein structure• Primary structure

• The linear sequence of amino acids

• Secondary structure• The type of peptide bond determines how sections of the protein fold

– spiral helix / pleated sheet / random coils• Shape reinforced by additional H bonds

• Tertiary structure• Eventual 3D shape formed by folding• Shape reinforced by additional H bonds

• Quanternary structure• When a protein is formed by the interaction of 2 or more polypeptide

chains

Summary

Biomacromolecule Type of bonding ElementsCarbohydrates Glycosidic bond C, H, OLipids Ester bond C, H, O (less H2O)Nucleic acids Phosphodiester

bondC,H,O,P,N

Proteins Peptide bond C,H,O,N P,S

Elements of a plasma membrane

cholesterol

glycoprotein

protein channelphospholipid bilayer

glycolipid

carbohydrate chains

How does it regulate molecular transport?

• Passive Transport– Diffusion– Osmosis– Facilitated diffusion (channel, receptor & carrier

mediated)• Active Transport– Primary (uses chemical energy)– Secondary (uses electrochemical gradient)

Endocytosis

Exocytosis

• Isotonic: (iso - same) surrounding fluid and cells internal fluid are of equal concentration

• Hypotonic: (hypo - lower) surrounding solution has a lower concentration than the cells.

• Water will diffuse through the membrane into the cells

• Hypertonic: (hyper - higher) surrounding solution has a higher concentration than the cells

• Produces chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through the process of cellular respiration

• Outer & inner membrane• The inner membrane contains many folds to provide a

larger surface area for energy production• ATP produced by reactions on inner membrane• Only in eukaryotes

• Energy supplying organelleMitochondrion

Chloroplasts

Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions

Enzyme Structure• Enzymes have an active site and a regulatory region• The active site (formed by folds in the protein) is where substrate binds to

the enzyme• The regulatory region is where cofactors coenzymes or enzyme inhibitors

can alter the function of an enzymeSubstrate

Active site

Regulatory region

Products

Enzyme inhibitor

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

pHTemperaturePressureEnzyme ConcentrationSubstrate concentrationCofactors / coenzymesInhibition

A simplified version of photosynthesis

Inputs Outputs

Water H2O ATP

Electron e- NADPH

NADP+

ADP + POxygen (“waste”)

Light Dependent

Reaction

Inputs Outputs

ATP ADP + P

NADPH NADP+

3C -> Glucose

Light Independent

Reaction

Light-dependent reaction

• Occurs in the grana• Light energy is used to split water in to two H+

ions and O2 gas

• The O2 is released as waste• With the power of the two free electrons– One H+ ion fuses ADP to Pi to form ATP– One H+ ion fuses to NADP to form NADPH

Light-independent stage• Occurs in Stroma• Does not need light, but NADPH and ATP

from previous stage• Needs CO2 and H+ ions • Sugar molecules are synthesised from CO2

CO2 = oxidised state (low E compound)

C(H2O)n = reduced state (high E compound)

• NADPH (carrier H+) is the reducing agent• ATP is the energy source

C3 PLANTS C4 PLANTS

Putting Photosynthesis together

2 x PGAL = fructose

fructose = glucose

fructose + glucose = sucrose

glucose x ∞ = starch

Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis

• Occurs in cytosol – uses enzymes and vitamins as coenzymes

• 1 glucose (6C) converted to 2 pyruvate (3C)

• Forms 2 ATP & 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle• Occurs in mitochondria• Pyruvate initially broken down in

to CO2 and Acetyl-coA• Joins with 4C molecule to form 6

C molecule• CO2 to form 5 C molecule, then

again to form 4 C molecule• Further oxidation takes place to

reform original 4C• Throughout cycle, constant

oxidation is fusing hydrogen to carrier molecules NAD → NADH and FAD → FADH2

Electron Transport• Occurs in inner membrane of

mitochondria• Produces 2-3 ATP per loaded

receptor• Electrons passed from one

cytochrome to next until accepted by O2- to form water

• Return of released protons through ATP synthase carrier provides energy to produce ATP from ADP & Pi (phosphorylation)

Anaerobic respiration (in humans)• Occurs in muscles where oxygen supply exceeds demand• The only stage that can occur is glycolysis• So 1 glucose produces 2 ATP• 2 NADH convert pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid)• Lactate build up causes pH to fall and pain & muscle fatigue• When activity returns to normal and oxygen becomes available,

lactate converted back to pyruvate to enter the Krebs Cycle.

Anaerobic respiration (in yeast)

• Anaerobic respiration in yeast is called fermentation

• Pyruvate is broken down in to CO2 and ethanol (alcohol)