School of Architecture, Building and DesignBachelor of Science(Hons) in Architecture

Building Construction I (BLD60303)Project 1: Experiencing Construction

SEOW KOJI TAKEHIRA 0320816ALISON TANG ING EE 0323705CHLOE TEH SHU-ERN 0324101CRYSLYN TAN ZHIA LYN 0324249DANA KAN JIA TORNG 0323648DANICA GAN JIA-EN 0323708DARREN TAN YONG TEE 0323398LIM XIU QING 0323214

No. Section Task Done by: Page No.

1.01.1

2.02.1

3.03.1

4.04.14.2

5.05.15.25.3

6.0

7.07.17.2

8.08.1

Introduction to Group Member and Detail Introduction to Site

Site and Safety Plants and Machinery

Preliminaries WorkSite Layout, Setting out and Earth Work etc.

FoundationFoundation type and construction process (from reference)Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)

Superstructure (from site visit and reference)Beam and ColumnSlabWall & Staircase

Doors and Windows

RoofRoof type and construction process (from site visit)Roof type and construction process (from reference)

SummaryReference

Danica Gan Jia-En

Dana Kan Jia Torng

Darren Tan Yong Tee

Cryslyn Tan Zhia LynSeow Koji TakehiraChloe Teh Shu-En

Lim Xiu Qing

Alison Tang Ing Ee

3

4 - 12

13 - 21

22 - 27

28 - 3233 - 3839 - 46

47 - 50

51 - 55

5657

Table of Content

1.0 Introduction

This is a group project,where our task is to decide an ongoing construction site which includes what we had learned in the syllabus. We had selected a site, which is located in Bangi south view city, under project name as Avens . This site is considered to be built with medium to low rise buildings, which are one of the projects by Mah Sing Group.

We were required identify different type of building elements and its construction process, details and materials. In addition, we were to study and record construction of different building elements as detailed as possible. Our group consists of 8 members where each of them are responsible for different construction process and its elements.

Group Members:

Seow Koji Takehira 0320816 Lim Xiu Qing 0323214 Cryslyn Tan Zhia Lyn 0324249 Chloe Teh Shu-Ern 0324101 Alison Tang Ing En 0323705 Danica Gan Jia-En 0323708 Darren Tan Yong Tee 0323398 Dana Kan Jia Torng 0323648

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SITE

In a building construction, the structure of the building is divided into two parts. The substructure and the super structure. Any part that transmit the load of the superstructure to the foundation soil is called sub-structure and the portion of the building which is above the substructure is called super structure. The weight of superstructure is affected by the foundation hence the foundation should be strong enough to sustain the load of the super structure.

1.1(a) Requirements of FoundationThe foundation of substructure distributes the load of the building evenly on the soil in such a way according to the maximum allowable bearing capacity of soil. This is to strengthen the building against lateral forces caused due to natural disasters such as tornado, earthquakes and tsunami. It provides strong surface for the construction of proposed structure, and to provide safety to the structure, preventing it from collapsing.

1.1 (b) Aim of Super StructureThe aim of providing super-structure is to provide support in the construction of building as designed by the Architect and the Engineer itself. Super-structure includes elements such columns, beams, stairs and walls. These are designed to provide strength for carrying the dead load and live load expected to come on different parts of the structure in a safe and well distributed manner.

1.1 (c) Aim of Site InspectionIn every construction project, inspection of site are required to analyse:

- Behaviour of soil near proposed wall and thickness of layers of soil deposits.- Changes in soil behaviour and in depth of water Table.- Direction of flow of water and its drainage- Movement in earth layer due to any reason if any.

SITE AND SAFETY

Danica Gan Jia-En0323708

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2.0 Site and Safety

2.0.1 IntroductionNearly 6.5 million people work at approximately 252,000 construction sites across the nation everyday. The fatal injury rate for the construction industry is higher than any other industries.Potential hazards for workers in construction include:

■ Falls (from heights);

■ Scaffold collapse;

■ Electric shock

■ Failure to use proper personal protective equipment; and

■ Repetitive motion injuries.

2.0.2 Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)Eyes Hazards Chemical or metal splash, dust, projectiles, gas and vapour, radiation.Options Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, faceshields, visorsNote Make sure the eye protection chosen has the right combination for the task and fits the user properly.

Head and NeckHazards Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting tangled in machinery, chemical drips or splash, climate or temperature.OptionsIndustrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets and firefighters' helmetsNote

● Replace head protection if it is damaged● Don't forget neck protection, eg scarves for use during welding

EarsHazards

Noise

Options Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal caps

Note

● Provide the right hearing protectors for the type of work, and make sure workers know how to fit them

● Choose protectors that reduce noise to an acceptable level, while allowing for safety and communication

Hands and ArmsHazards Abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts and punctures, impact, chemicals, electric shock,

radiation, vibration, biological agents and prolonged immersion in water

Options Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and sleeving that covers part or all of the arm

Note

● Avoid gloves when operating machines such as bench drills where the gloves might get caught

● Use gloves of suitable materials

Feet and LegsHazards Wet, hot and cold conditions, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and punctures, falling

objects, heavy loads, metal and chemical splash, vehicles

Options Safety boots and shoes with protective toecaps and penetration-resistant, mid-sole

wellington boots and specific footwear, eg foundry boots and chainsaw boots

Note

● Footwear can have a variety of sole patterns and materials to help prevent slips in different conditions.

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LungsHazards

● Oxygen-deficient atmospheres, dusts, gases and vapours

Options – respiratory protective equipment (RPE)

● Some respirators rely on filtering contaminants from workplace air. These include simple filtering facepieces and respirators and power-assisted respirators

● There are also types of breathing apparatus which give an independent supply of breathable air.

Note

● The right type of respirator filter must be used as each is effective for only a limited range of substances

● Filters have only a limited life. Where there is a shortage of oxygen or any danger of losing consciousness due to exposure to high levels of harmful fumes, only use breathing apparatus – never use a filtering cartridge

● You will need to use breathing apparatus in a confined space or if there is a chance of an oxygen deficiency in the work area

● Make sure it fits properly.

Whole BodyHazards

Heat, chemical or metal splash, spray from pressure leaks or spray guns, contaminated

dust, impact or penetration, excessive wear or entanglement of own clothing

Options Conventional or disposable overalls, boiler suits, aprons, chemical suits

Note

● The choice of materials includes flame-retardant, anti-static, chain mail, chemically impermeable, and high-visibility

● Don't forget other protection, like safety harnesses or life jackets

2.0.3 Site SecurityHoardingA temporary board fence erected around a building site to prevent theft, vandalism, unauthorised entry, sound insulator and reduce dust

Safety Signs and SymbolsA board displaying warnings or reminders for workers and visitors of the hazards on site

Warning TapesBarricade tape is brightly colored tape (often incorporating a two-tone pattern of alternating yellow-black or red-white stripes or the words "Caution" or "Danger" in prominent lettering) that is used to warn or catch the attention of passersby of an area or situation containing a possible hazard.

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2.0.4 Site Welfare EquipmentsFirst Aid Kit A collection of supplies and equipment that is used to give medical treatment, and can be put together for the purpose by an individual or organization or purchased complete.

Fire ExtinguisherA portable device that discharges a jet of water, foam, gas, or other material to extinguish a fire

ToiletsToilets should be suitable and sufficient, ventilated, lit and kept in a clean and orderly condition.

Washing FacilitiesGeneral washing facilities must be suitable and sufficient, kept clean and orderly and with basins or sinks large enough for people to wash their face, hands and forearms.The facilities should include:

● clean hot and cold, or warm, running water;● soap or other suitable means of cleaning;● towels or other suitable means of drying; and● showers where the nature of work is particularly dirty or there is a need to

decontaminate.

Drinking WaterDrinking water must be provided or made available at readily accessible and suitable places.Cups are required unless the supply is in a jet from which people can drink easily.

Changing Rooms and LockersChanging rooms are needed where workers have to wear special clothing for the purposes of their work and cannot be expected to change elsewhere.The rooms must be provided with seating, means of drying and keeping clothing and personal effects secure.

Facilities for RestRest rooms or rest areas are required equipped with tables and seating (with backs) sufficient for the number of persons likely to use them at any one time.There should be arrangements for meals to be prepared and eaten, plus means for boiling water.

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2.0.5 Machinery SafetyHazardsMoving machinery can cause injuries in many ways:

● Sharp edges can cause cuts, stab or puncture the skin, and rough surface parts can cause friction or abrasion

● People can be crushed between moving parts of a machine like rollers, belts and pulley drives. They can also be crushed by the machine against a wall or some object. Two parts moving past one another can also cause shearing.

● Parts of the machine, materials and emissions (such as steam or water) can be hot or cold enough to cause burns or scalds and electricity can cause electrical shock and burns

● Injuries can also occur due to machinery becoming unreliable and developing faults or when machines are used improperly through inexperience or lack of training

Do…

● check whether the machine is well maintained and fit to be used● use the machine properly and in accordance with the manufacturer’s

instructions● make sure appropriate protective clothing and equipment required for that

machine is worn

Don’t…

● use a machine or appliance that has a danger sign or tag attached to it. ● wear dangling chains, loose clothing, rings or have loose, long hair that could

get caught up in moving parts● distract people who are using machines● remove any safeguards

2.0.6 Elevated Work AreasScaffoldingHazardWhen scaffolds are not erected or used properly, fall hazards can occur.

Solutions

■ Scaffold must be sound, rigid and sufficient to carry its own weight plus

four times the maximum intended load without settling or displacement. It

must be erected on solid footing.

■ Unstable objects, such as barrels, boxes, loose bricks or concrete blocks

must not be used to support scaffolds or planks.

■ Scaffold must not be erected, moved, dismantled or altered except under

the supervision of a competent person.

■ Scaffold must be equipped with guardrails, midrails and toeboards.

■ Scaffold accessories such as braces, brackets, trusses, screw legs or

ladders that are damaged or weakened from any cause must be

immediately repaired or replaced.

■ Scaffold platforms must be tightly planked with scaffold plank grade

material or equivalent.

■ A "competent person" must inspect the scaffolding and, at designated

intervals, reinspect it.

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■ Rigging on suspension scaffolds must be inspected by a competent

person before each shift and after any occurrence that could affect

structural integrity to ensure that all connections are tight and that no

damage to the rigging has occurred since its last use.

■ Synthetic and natural rope used in suspension scaffolding must be

protected from heat-producing sources.

■ Employees must be instructed about the hazards of using diagonal braces

as fall protection.

■ Scaffold can be accessed by using ladders and stairwells.

■ Scaffolds must be at least 10 feet from electric power lines at all times.

Fall ProtectionHazardA number of factors are often involved in falls, including unstable working surfaces, misuse or failure to use fall protection equipment and human error.

Solutions

■ Use guardrails, fall arrest systems, safety nets, covers and restraint

systems

■ Consider using aerial lifts or elevated platforms to provide safer elevated

working surfaces;

■ Erect guardrail systems with toeboards and warning lines or install control

line systems to protect workers near the edges of floors and roofs;

■ Cover floor holes; and/or

■ Use safety net systems or personal fall arrest systems (body harnesses).

LaddersHazardLadders and stairways are another source of injuries and fatalities among construction workers.

Solutions

■ Use the correct ladder for the task

■ Have a competent person visually inspect a ladder before use for any

defects such as:

○ Structural damage, split/bent side rails, broken or missing

rungs/steps/cleats and missing or damaged safety

devices;

○ Grease, dirt or other contaminants that could cause slips

or falls;

○ Paint or stickers (except warning labels) that could hide

possible defects

■ Make sure that ladders are long enough to safely reach the work area.

■ Mark or tag damaged or defective ladders for repair or replacement, or

destroy them immediately.

■ Never load ladders beyond the maximum intended load or beyond the

manufacturer's rated capacity.

■ Be sure the load rating can support the weight of the user, including

materials and tools.

■ Avoid using ladders with metallic components near electrical work and

overhead power lines.

Stairways

Hazard

Slips, trips and falls on stairways are a major source of injuries and fatalities among

construction workers.

Solutions

■ Stairway treads and walkways must be free of dangerous objects, debris

and materials.

■ Slippery conditions on stairways and walkways must be corrected

immediately.

■ Make sure that treads cover the entire step and landing.

■ Stairways having four or more risers or rising more than 30 inches must

have at least one handrail. 9

2.1 Plants and Machinery

2.1.1 Construction Regulation for Plants and MachineryUnder the construction regulations; On all construction sites on which transport vehicles, earth-moving or materials-handling machinery or locomotives are used, the project supervisor for the construction stage shall ensure that: (a) safe and suitable access ways are provided for them; (b) traffic and pedestrian routes are so organized and controlled including, where appropriate, by the provision of a traffic and pedestrian management plan, as to secure their safe operation.

2.1.2 Earth Moving and Excavating EquipmentHeavy equipment refers to heavy-duty vehicles, specially designed for executing construction tasks, most frequently ones involving earthwork operations. They usually comprise five equipment systems: implement, traction, structure, power train, control and information. Heavy equipment functions through the mechanical advantage of a simple machine, the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied. Some equipment uses hydraulic drives as a primary source of motion.

2.1.2.1 Types and Examples of Earth Moving and Excavating EquipmentLoader A type of heavy equipment machine used in construction to move aside or load

materials such as asphalt, demolition debris, dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs, raw

minerals, recycled material, rock, sand, woodchips, etc. into or onto another type

of machineryBackhoe loader A mechanical excavator that draws toward itself a bucket attached to a hinged

boom.

Excavator

A type of heavy construction equipment for removing soil from the ground.

Principle of hydraulic excavator

2.1.2.2 Trucks and Hauling EquipmentDump TruckA dump truck is a truck used for transporting loose material for construction.

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Telescopic Handler A telescopic handler has a similar appearance and function to a forklift but is more a crane than forklift, withcreased versatility of a single telescopic boom that can extend forwards and upwards from the vehicle.

2.1.2.3 Lifting and Vertical Transportation EquipmentTelescoping Boom Truck Mounted Mobile CraneA cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired carriers or a hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as self-propelled models.

Tower CraneA type of machine, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places.

2.1.2.4 Concrete Plant and EquipmentConcrete TrucksTo transport mixed concrete from a mixing plant to the site.

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2.1.2.6 Other EquipmentsTandem Vibratory Roller Tandem vibratory rollers compact freshly placed asphalt mats to specific densities using two, smooth steel drums that vibrate to consolidate the material.

Vibratory Plate CompatorsVibratory plate compactors are engine-powered, walk-behind machines that impart powerful vibratory compaction effort to loose materials and asphalt via a bottom-mounted steel plate that might vary in area from 1.5 to 3 square feet.

Concrete MixerA concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.

2.1.2.5 Pile Driving EquipmentHydraulic Pile Driving RigA pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles into soil to provide foundation support for buildings or other structures.

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PRELIMINARY WORKS

Dana Kan Jia Torng0323648

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3.1 Site ClearanceSite clearance is the compulsory procedure to remove any obstructing elements such as vegetation found on site to prepare for excavation or structure building. It involves:-demolition and removal of existing buildings and structures;-grubbing out of bushes and trees;-removal of topsoil to reduce levels..

STEPS:

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

3.0.1 IntroductionPreliminary works in a construction means all activities and preparation that has to be carried out before the main construction work commences in order for it to go smoothly.

1. First,vegetation is removed. A bulldozer is used to uproot the trees

.

2. Then, the bulldozer is used to remove the cleared vegetation from the site. The uprooted trunks and loose rocks are pushed toward a collection point. Taller and heavier trunks that cannot be pushed by the bulldozer are towed away by another machinery.

Excavator removing topsoil on site

3. Next, the topsoil at 30cm is removed because it contains decaying organic matter and roots. This part of the soil is unstable as a construction material for foundation and structure building.

4. Lastly, excavate the desired depth and transport the topsoil to another space as it can be reused later.

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3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

3.2 Site Investigation

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The site investigation is an essential preliminary measure of the design and construction of a project as the superstructure depends on the substructure . Through site investigation, key elements such as the soil condition, surrounding buildings and accessibility can be defined and this will allow adequate amount and type of resources and cost of construction to be decided.

3.2.1 Soil InvestigationAs the stability and integrity of a building depends on the soil’s strength under loading and pressure of the building, ground/soil investigation is vital to be carried out before any construction work is done on unknown ground.The purpose of soil investigation is to:

● determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project● determine the suitable and economic foundation design.● determine the occurrence and cause of changes in subsoil conditions.

The objectives are carried out to test the chemical and general characteristics of the soil by collecting soil samples from project site. These are obtained through a) Trial pits; or b) Exploratory boreholes.

a) Trial pits- done through collection of samples from excavated pits for visual inspection by digging manually or through machines. This is done so that samples can be collected without interferring with construction progress.

● use for collecting sample from shallow ground conditions

● Subsoil can be visually inspected insitu

● use to extract sample by drilling through dense rock formations at a depth beyond trial pits

● cheaper and simpler method than trial pits

Differences between trial pit and borehole

3.3 Setting Out Setting out the building outline is usually carried out once the site has been cleared of any debris and any reduced level excavation work is finished. Boundaries are marked and line on site to differentiate land between different occupants. The position of the line must be clearly marked on site so that it can be set up at any time and to ensure the correct positioning of various elements of the building plot.

PROCESS

1. First, a base line from which the whole of the building can be set out is to be established as this will usually be provided on a setting-out drawing for the foundations.

2. After the baseline has been set out, each corner should be marked with a corner peg. A check should now be made of the setting out lines for right-angles and correct lengths.

Setting out and checking methods

3. After completing and checking the setting out of the main building lines, profile boards are set up to determine the corners of the buildings. These are set up clear of the foundation trench positions to locate the trench, foundations and walls.

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

Setting out building outline on site16

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

Site 1 (Single Bungalow Construction)

3.3.1 Site Layout/ Site Boundary

Site 2 (Residential Terrace House Development)

Construction area

Site security and entrance

Site Office/worker’s quarters

Site Office/worker’s quarters

Retention pond

Retention pond

Site Boundary& Temporary Fencing

Site Boundary& Temporary Fencing

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Earthwork is a process which involves removing, moving and adding large quantities of soil, rocks from an existing land to another area.This is done to achieve a suitable level or height for a construction purpose. The specific type of earthwork done is determined by the condition of the site and soil and to prepare the site for other construction works such as making roadways, works on bridges and undertunnels.

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

3.4 Earthwork and Excavations

Types of Excavation

● Topsoil excavation- the removal of top soil as a Building Regulation Requirement Depth varies from site to site but usually in a 150 to 300mm range. Top soil contains flora and fauna life and decaying matter which makes the soil compressible and unsuitable to support the building structures.

● Reduce level/ Grading surfaces

-Cut and Fill method:Existing slopes are measured and levelled. This is a common and most used method as it can help save on the labour work of landfilling and also time consumed on transport. The quantity of soil that has been removed will equal to the quantity to be filled.

-On our site we visited, the ground was also uneven and at a slope. To ensure the building structure is built on a desired levelled ground, it was necessary for the site for the Residential Terrace houses to undergo the cut and fill process.

Sloping site

Photos of the condition of the slopes on site

Process of excavator removing and filling soil18

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

● Trench Excavations- narrow excavations primarily for strip foundations and buried services.

- The sides and top of the excavations needs to be stable and be able to support to:

- protect the workers while working in the excavation;

- keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench;

- prevent any hazard falling into the excavation.

Trench Excavation found on site Excavation work carried out by machine.

- Before a foundation can be laid, it is necessary to excavate a trench of required depth and width. It is a type of temporary earthwork support and the type and amount needed depends on the type of soil, depth and nature of subsoil, depth of excavation, weather condition and duration.

- The centre rod moves up and down the excavation checking depth; the two side rails are placed in the ground next to the excavation.

OBJECTIVE

Figures below shows details of the excavation.

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3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

3.5 Site Preparation

TEMPORARY INFRASTRUCTURES

Temporary infrastructures erected at the site before construction works commence. These are preparations done to ensure the safety of the public, construction workers and to ensure materials are not damaged.

Proper signage is set outside the hoarding to inform the public and limit passage into the construction site.

INFORMATION SITE BOARD

HOARDING/ FENCING

Temporary fencing erected around perimeter of construction site to prevent unauthorised access and to shield the construction site from public view to cause less disturbance.

Open storage area for materials that are heavy and bulky and more weather resistant. Less durable and more expensive materials are kept in the storage cabin. The method of stacking and bundling up is used also to lessen damage and to ready for easy use as it is neatly stacked and does not cause any obstruction in the construction site.

MATERIAL STORAGE

SCAFFOLDING

WASTAGE DISPOSAL

A large container is placed outside the construction site to collect waste and construction debris produced on site to be later disposed off. This is also to ensure the cleanliness of the site is maintained.

Temporary structure made of wooden planks and metal used for ease of access upwards during construction of the building.

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TEMPORARY SERVICES

3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS

SITE OFFICE

Site office to accommodate site managers to hold meetings and to store construction site documentations. The working space has to be fairly accessible and practical, and has neccessary working furnishings.

Temporary shelter for construction workers to rest and stay on site during construction phase. Basic needs provided for the workers include bedroom, kitchen, storage facilities and toilet. These shelters need to fulfill criterias such as being weatherproof, fire-proof, located at a safe distance away from construction work and good ventilation and insulation purposes.

Site toilet for contractors and worker’s use. Aesthetic purposes are not the focus as they are only temporary. Temporary water supply is also provided for funtional and hygenic purposes.

WORKER’S QUARTERS

TEMPORARY TOILET

ELECTRICAL SUPPLY

For constant and ready supply of electrical energy to power many construction machineries operations to enhance work efficiency and reduce workload..

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FOUNDATION

Darren Tan Yong Tee0323398

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FACTORS DETERMINING THE TYPE OF FOUNDATION

GROUND CONDITIONThe ground or soil condition is necessary for determining the type of suitable foundation. The soil on which the building rests may be stable, level and of uniform composition, but in some situations it may be otherwise.

When the load is transferred from the structure to soil through foundations, the soil tends to consolidate and settlement of foundation occurs.The settlement of foundation causes cracks in building walls, beams, slabs etc. and building can even fail in case of large settlement.

Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow foundations can be provided.Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, deep foundations are used.

LOAD FROM BUILDINGThe loading condition depends on the form and type of building to be constructed.

In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively modest, so shallow foundation is preferred in this case. On the other hand, high-rise building with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation is required in such cases.

The foundation makes up the substructure of a building, constructed below or partly below the surface of the ground. It anchors the superstructure of the building by distributing the load safely into the ground.

The foundation of a building should be strong and durable, designed to accomodate the form and layout of the superstructure. It should also respond positively to the varying conditions of soil, rock and water table.

There are various types of foundation which can be classified into 2 categories: shallow and deep foundation.

INTRODUCTION

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4.0 FOUNDATION

uniform settlement (no cracks)

tipping settlement (often without

cracks)

differentialsettlement

(with cracks)

loads exerted on the building

superstructure

substructurefoundation

ground

building

4.1 FOUNDATION STRIP FOOTINGStrip footing is a continuous strip of concrete below a load bearing wall in a building to spread the load. It is placed centrally under walls and used in buildings up to 4 storeys in height.

PAD FOOTINGMade up of rectangular or square concrete ‘pads’ that support localised single-point loads such as structural columns, groups of columns or framed structures.

Two types of foundations are shallow and deep foundation.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONShallow foundations are employed when stable soil of adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near to the ground surface.

RAFT FOOTINGThe reinforced concrete raft is designed to transmit the whole load of the building from the raft to the ground where the small spread loads will cause little if any appreciable settlement.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION (REFERENCE)

cavity wall

concrete

internal load bearing wall

reinforced concrete

raft

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Uniformly Distributed Load(UDL)

Point Loads

SQUAREFOOTING

RECTANGULARFOOTING

CIRCULARFOOTING

STEEL PREFORMED PILESThis type of piles are made in the form of H, X or of thick pipesThey are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths.

PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILESPiles are in circular, square,rectangular, or octogonal in form. they are cast and curedn a casting yard and thentransported to the site for piling.

COMPOSITE PILESMade up of a combination ofmaterials - steel piles are used above the ground water level toprevent insect attack and decay.

DEEP FOUNDATIONDeep foundations are used when the soil underlying a foundation is unstable or of inadequate bearing capacity. They extend down through unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense sands and gravels well below the super structure.

TYPES OF PILESA pile is a column inserted in the ground to transmit the structural loads to a lower level of subsoil. Piles may be classified as either End bearing or Friction piles, according to the manner in which the pile loads are resisted.

END BEARING PILESThe shafts of the piles act as columns carrying the loads through the overlaying weak subsoils to firm strata into which the pile toe has penetrated.

FRICTION PILESFriction piles obtain support by adhesion or friction action of the soil around the perimeter of the pile shaft.

pile

ground level

load

stiff clay soil

pile

load

friction

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precast concrete/steel

shoe unit

reinforcement

ground

DRIVEN IN SITU/CAST-IN-PLACE PILESThe pile shaft is formed by using a steel tube which is either top driven or driven by means of an internal drop hammer working on a plug of dry concrete/gravel.

concrete pile

wooden pile

RAFT FOUNDATION (ON SITE)

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONShallow foundation is placed directly below the lowest part of a substructure and transfer building loads directly to the supporting soil by vertical pressure.

SUITABILITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONShallow foundations are typically used where loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing capacity of the surface soils.

RAFT FOUNDATIONSRaft foundations may be used for buildings on compressible ground such as very soft clay, alluvial deposits and compressible fill material where strip, pad or pile foundations would not provide a stable foundation without excessive excavation.

ON SITE FOUNDATION: RAFT FOUNDATION

On - site installation of raft footing

Preparation of the raft footing in progress

Formwork being set up

The ground has been dug for installing the foundation

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4.2 FOUNDATION

5.

More ties are added to the concrete before concrete is added.

1.

The formwork is built.

2. 4.

Main reinforcement bars are put in place.

RAFT FOUNDATION INSTALLATION PROCESS

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4.2 FOUNDATION

3.

Transverse reinforcement bars are placed.

Application of anti-termite treatment.

framework

reinforcementbar

concrete mixer

transversereinforcement

bar

BEAMS AND COLUMNS

Cryslyn Tan Zhia Lyn0324249

28

5.1 Beams and Columns

BeamsBeams are horizontal member spanning an opening and carrying a load that may be a brick or stone wall above the opening. Beams transfer all the loads including its self-weight to the columns or walls.

There are generally five different type of beams:1. Simply supported beam-Ends of a beam are made to rest freely on support beams

2. Fixed beam -Ends of beam are fixed into place. Other namesinclude built-in beam or encastre beam.

3. Cantilever beam-Beam is fixed on one end while the other end is free

4. Continuously supported beam-Two or more supports are provided for the beam

5. Overhanging beam- The ends extend beyond the wall or support.Overhanging of the beam is the unsupportedportion of the beam

Beams located at our site: 1. Fixed beam made out of concrete

Reinforcements in beamsReinforcing bars knows as rebars are used in constructing beams to make it stronger by withstanding tension forces as tension forces can crack concrete. These rebars have twisted strands with nobbles or ridges around them to make sure it does not slip. Doubly reinforcements are used where there are rebars in both compression and tension zones.

Stirrups in beams are used to hold the rebars together to reduce the shear and diagonal tension stresses. A closed stirrup is used in the doubly reinforcement concrete beams.

FormworkFormwork serves as a mould for concrete structures such as foundations, beams and columns. It moulds fresh concrete which is in a viscous state into a solid shape specified in the drawings.

Types of formwork:1. Timber2. Plywood3. Steel4. Aluminium5. Plastic

Some recommendations to prevent damages and difficulties:-1. Avoid driving too many nails into the formwork2. Use only necessary amounts of braces, timber, tie wires and etc.3. Consider, which board, panel or squared timber is to be stripped first, to fix them so as to permit easy removal in the proper sequence.

These beams are rigidly fixed on the walls for support which gives it extra durability. It is a primary beam in the beam structure.

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Formwork construction of beamsBeam formwork has prefabricated formwork sheeting parts which includes, sheeting bottom and side sheeting panels. For prefabrication of the formwork sheeting parts, a special preparation table must be manufactured on site.

1. The sheeting bottom and the side panels includes sheeting boards nailed together with the help of cover straps.2. The sheeting bottom can be placed on a pedestal support (a trestle formed by a waler connected with two columns with the help of cleats). The side sheeting is erected on the sheeting bottom and held by a thrust-board.3. At the upper edge of the side sheeting a waler is mounted at both sides holding together the formwork by wire or spindle ties.4. A stull-batten is to be nailed on the formwork immediately above the ties to ensure that the projected beam width is kept when tieing the formwork.5. The waler and the columns are additionally braced by diagonal boards.

Construction process of concrete ground beams:1. Reinforcements are laid straight with space block placed underneath.

2. Wooden formwork is then erected at the side of the reinforcements.

3. Make sure that it is placed securely to the ground and tightly to prevent the leakage of cement during slurry when vibrating.

4. Concrete is then poured into the formwork while vibrating to ensure that it is well bonded with the steel.

5. It is left for seven days while curing and then the formwork is removed.

1. Square strip 2. Post3. Stop rail

1. Side panel2. Cover strap3. Waler4. Thrust board5. Stull6. Formwork bottom7. Trestle8. Tire wire

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Construction process of concrete suspended beams:

1. Props/ supports are erected and soffit,theunderside of an architectural feature, as abeam or ceiling, of beams are fixed.

2. Formwork for the side of the beam is constructedwhich determines the shape and size of the beam.An important factor to consider is the strength of the formwork to ensure that it does not expandduring the filling of concrete.

3. Steel reinforcement is placed.

4. The formwork to side of beam complete withstruts is erected.

5. Concrete is poured into the formwork.Formwork will be removed once the concreteis set and done.

ColumnsColumns are vertical structural members. As load is transferred from the beams to the columns, the columns then transfers all its load to the building foundation. Columns can be classified based on its shape, slenderness ratio, type of loading and pattern of lateral reinforcement.

Materials of columnsConcrete columnsConcrete columns are the most commontype of column used in construction. Theyare rigid and have easy workability.

Timber columnsThey are not very durable but aestheticallypleasing and also environmentally compatible.Extra steps such as laminating need to be doneif timber is used.

Steel columnsIt is more costly but is more durable than concreteor timber. It can also withstand many things suchas corrosion. It is economical because of theirhigh strength-to-weight ratios.

Reinforced concrete columns

Concrete columns that have been reinforced with steel bars to make it stronger.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RCC COLUMNS 31

Formwork construction of columns

1. Similar to beam formworks, the sheeting of column formworks is prefabricated according to the column dimensions from sheeting boards connected by cover straps.2. The sheeting panels are placed in a foot rim which is anchored in the soil by steel bolts.3. The foot rim consists of double-nailed boards. The foot rim must be exactly measured-in because it is decisive for the exact location of the column. It has the same functions as the thrust-board for foundation or beam formwork.4. When the sheeting panels have been inserted in the foot rim, vertical arch timbers are placed to take up the forces from the cover straps of the formwork sheeting.

5. Around the arch timbers, which have the function of walers, column clamps of flat steel are clamped with wedges or a rim of boards is arranged similar to the foot rim. Additional formwork tieing by tie wires or steel screws is not necessary.6. The distances of the clamps are specified in the formwork project. Normally they are approximately 700 mm.7. The column in the formwork is laterally tied by diagonal board braces.

Construction process of concrete columns:1. After completing the foundation, the construction of columns begins. The reinforcement work will start first, the metal bars will be set accordingly to the construction drawing, and each bar is added with spacer block to prevent the steel bar from touching the formwork

2. Formwork is then placed surrounding the steel bars according to the specified shape and size of the column which is assembled piece by peice.

3. Concrete is poured into the formwork and left to dried

4. Formwork is then removed from the column stump and base.

1. Formwork sheeting2. Cover strap3. Clamp4. Arch timber

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Column located at our site:Concrete columns are used in our site. Columns are rectangular in shape and are slender and tall. This column makes the house look more elegant and as if it is taller. It is easy to work with, better resistant to fire than steel and also coat effective.

SLAB

Seow Koji Takehira0320816

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5.2.2 (a) Concrete Slab

Concrete is a material which is strong is compression but weak in tension. As shown in diagram 5.2.a, it is a slab with only concrete itself, and if the member is overloaded its tensile resistance may be put to a stress which cause structural failureThus, concrete slabs are normally incoorperated with reinforcement such as steel bars which are to provide additional tensile strength for durability.

ReinforcementA rebar, or reinforcing bar is a common steel bar, and is commonly used in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures.

It is usually formed with carbon steel, they are produced by hot rolling processwith subsequent superficial hardening by heat treatment. It is the best material to use as reinforcement because the coefficients of expansion of steel and the concrete are considered almost the same.

5.2 Slabs

5.2.1 Introduction

A slab is a common structural element of modern buildings which are often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs can be used as exterior paving. These slabs are supported by foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. There are different types of slabs where each have its own characteristics and differences.

The purpose of slabs is to:- Strength to support dead and live loads- Maintaining its elasticity- Resist fire- Sound Insulation- Thermal Insulation- Durability- Damp and Ground Gas Resistance

5.2.2 Type of Slabs

Composite Decking Concrete Slabs

Precast Concrete Wood Subflooring Different size of gaps and opening has different kinds of usage. 34

Rebar spacer:A rebar spacer is a device that secures the reinforcing steel or "rebar" in reinforced concrete structures as the rebar is assembled in place prior to the final concrete pour. The spacers are left in place for the pour to keep the reinforcing in place, and become a permanent part of the structure.

Expansion JointsTo prevent structural failure due to shrinkage and movement cracks between concrete slabs.

Advantages : - Durable- Stiff- Energy Efficient- Speed of Construction- Damp Proof- Cheap- Fire Resistant

Disadvantages:- Hard to rectify defected slab-Finished will be not nice with patch works.- It doesnt possess satisfactory thermal and sound insulation

Construction ProcessFirst, Table formwork is moved to desired location to support the concrete situ.

Next, Formwork is placed on top of the table formwork to shape the concrete

Then, steel rebar with additional spacer is placed to float and reinforce the concrete

Finally, concrete is poured in and settled. After when the concrete is dried, the table formwork will be removed from the slab.

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5.2.2 (b) Composite DeckingThe deck act as part of a structural system with steel beams. The deck is placed on top of the steel beam and steel ‘shear studs’ are welded through the deck and onto the top of flange of the beam. Then, perforations to bond the deck with the concrete.After the concrete is placed and cured, it will hold the studs and act compositely with the steel beam and greatly increase the load carrying capacity.

Advantages:- Light weight and strong- Precise and predictable- Fast Assembly- Long span and height

Construction ProcessFirst, steel deck is placed on top of the steelbeam

Then, steel rebar with rebar spacer is placedfor additional reinforcement

Finally, concrete is poured in and the steel deck itself act as a permanent formwork

Disadvantages:- Expensive- Lose Strength in Fire- Susceptible to corrosion

Open Web Steel Joist FramingPrecast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place. In this case, it is used as a underlay to pour concrete on top and act as a one way load distribution.

Advantages:- Light Weight- Alternative to Beams- Span up to 40m- Typical Spacing of Joist up to 12m

Construction Process

Similar to composite decking, it is supported by steel joist insteadof metal decking and beams.

Disadvantages:- Increased Floor Depth- Difficult Fireproofing

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5.2.2 (d) Wood SubflooringSubflooring is the structural member that spans perpendiculary across the floor joists. It serves as a base for the floor finishes, the subfloor can work in tandem with joist to create a structural diaphragm to transfer lateral forces to shear walls. Material commonly used are plywood and particle board, which can be connected by glues, nails and screws.

Advantages:- Light weight and strong- Fast Construction time

Construction Process:Concrete blocks are formed to shape and laid under the wooden subloor first to receive the dead and live loads.

Then, Wooden beam and joist are placed, so the wooden decking can laid on top.

Disadvantages:- Might deform over time- Weak in Fire- Susceptible to termites and moist condition.

5.2.2 (c) Precast ConcretePrecast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place. In this case, it is used as a underlay to pour concrete on top and act as a one way load distribution.

Advantages:- Easy to Manufacture- Good Quality Control- Rapid Speed of erection- Controllable condition

Construction ProcessFirst, the precasted ‘form’ of concrete slab is arranged in sequence and organised.

then, reinforcement and rebar spacer are placedon top for additional strength and tensile strength.

Structural concrete is poured in and cured, wherethe precasted form of concrete slab act as a permanent formwork with the structural concrete.

Disadvantages:- Very heavy members- Camber in beam and slabs- Connection may be difficult

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5.2.3 Types of Floor Systems

5.2.4 Reference to Site

Slab on grade construction, the slab is in contact with the ground.

Construction process of concrete slab

As observed from the picture, the siteuses two-way slab with beam floor system.

Meaning, the force of dead and live loadis distributed in x and y axis evenly.

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WALLS AND STAIRCASE

Chloe Teh Shu-Ern0323708

39

5.3 WALLS INTRODUCTION

vertical elements of a building which enclose the spaces within it and which may also divide that space

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

+ Strength and stability + Weather Resistance+ Fire Resistance + Thermal Insulation+ Sound Insulation

INTERIOR WALLS

+ Acts as subdivision of spaces in a building+ Can be load bearing or non load bearing

EXTERNAL WALLS

+ Able to withstand horizontal wind loading+ Acts as protection against weather+ Provides insulation + Can be load bearing or non load bearing

TYPES OF WALLS

+ Concrete Wall+ Masonry Wall+ Glass Wall

LOAD BEARING WALLS+ Walls that bear some of the building’s weight along with its

own+ Side wall collumns and and endwall frames can be

eliminated

NON LOAD BEARING WALLS+ Does not support any gravity loads from the building + Doesn’t bear any weight besides its own

CONCRETE WALLS

+ Made of mixture of cement, sand, stone, and water that hardens to a stonelike mass

MASONRY WALLS

+ Made of brick, stone, tile, ceremic blocks, adobe and glass blocks

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5.3 WALLS TECHNIQUES

DIMENSIONS OF A CLAY BRICK

Two important criteria determine this size. First, it is the ideal width for the human hand to lift and place in position with minimum strain and secondly, it satisfies the need for bricks to be modular in terms of BOND patterns.

BRICK LAYING TECHNIQUES

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5.3 WALLS ERECTION OF WALL

Dowel bars fixed to RC wall at every 4 course brickwall

Fibre mesh for joint area

DPC on floor before levelling course cement mortar

Exmets are placed around every four bricks

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5.3 WALLS ON SITE

Metal frames are attached to the corners, so that went cement is applied, the edges of the walls will be uniform and sharp.

Exmets are wrapped around every four bricks to ensure that the bricks hold their position.

A sheet of mesh is laid in between the concrete layers to prevent concrete from cracking while drying.

Bumps like this are present on every side of the wall to ensure that the concrete will be applied evenly throughout the walls.

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5.4 STAIRCASE INTRODUCTION

A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts.

Features of stairs:

1: Upper Level2: Lower level3: Surface - bottom landing4: Surface - top landing 5: Stair flight line6: Angle of inclination of stair flight 7: Stair flight

Anatomy:

Determining number of steps needed:Divide the total rise (distance from the ground to the structure’s threshold) by the recommended height of each step—commonly 7 inches—rounding to the nearest whole number. This will give you the number of steps you will need. Multiply the stair depth—commonly 10 inches (which allows for a slight overhang and a small gap between steps)—by the number of treads, or the number of steps minus 1. This will give you the total run (how far out the steps will extend).

Materials:

Steel Concrete

Glass Timber

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5.4 STAIRCASE TYPES OF STAIRCASE

STRAIGHT

QUARTER LANDING

CURVED

WINDER

HALF LANDING

SPIRAL

ON SITE

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STAIRCASE CONSTRUCTION

1. Formwork is made out of wood to maintain the shape of the stairs while concrete is poured in

2. Concrete is poured into the formwork

3. Formwork is removed after concrete has dried

4. Tiles are applied to the stairs to make it look nicer and cleaner, and to protect the stairs.

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DOORS AND WINDOWS

Lim Xiu Qing0323214

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6.0 Doors and Windows

Material used in constructing doors at site:

3 types of door used in the construction site are:

Introduction

Doors and windows are essential in a building. They

are meant to be a movable barrier secured in a wall

opening. Both doors and windows also comes in

various functions such as a use of ventilation and light,

to give an access to inside of a room; they also act as a

barrier to noise.

HDF Door

For main door (2100mm x 900mm) (2100 x 750mm) toilet door

Timber Door

Room door: 2100mm x 850mm

Aluminium Frame Sliding Door

Side door: 2100mm x 1400mm

Types of doors: 1. Hinged doors – common door, only allowed one direction to be open. Simple and rigid

2. Revolving doors – have four wings usually in public building

3. Sliding door – slide horizontally along tracks with runners and rails.

4. Swing door- can move in both ways 5. Folder door- doors that fold back to back into a compact bundle when oor are pushed open.

11. Flushed- usually in rural building. A frame that has stiles, top and bottom rails&narrow rails.

12. Louvered- permit free ventilation through them and at the same time gives privacy.

Procedure of insulating a doors and windows:

Both procedure and method are the same for both doors and windows. Installing a door need to be properly done as it can cause problems later. After plastering, special attention needs to be taken care of. The steps are:

1. Identify where is the door and the layout and measurement indicated in plan of the drawing. Then place the frame with a wood supporting it.

2. Insert lintel at the top to support the brick above or any opening

3. After inserting the lintel, start laying bricks till the top.

4. Lastly, plaster it to give a smooth finishing and add the door.

lintel

Types of Fixtures and Fastening Hinges, Bolts, Handle, Locks

Doors

Windows

Types of windows opening :

Details in a window:

Windows material at site:

Aluminium frame window for all the windows in the residential construction site.

Types of windows designs are:

All windows uses the same material but different design at the site.

Additional material use in the site for doors and windows: corner bead

Use to provide a neat edges for walls and also for doors, windows and other openings.

Corner bead

1. Before constructing the window, measurement and layout need to be the same compare to the plan.

2. Add lintel at the top to support the brick or the structure to prevent it from sinking down.

3. After adding lintel to the structure, start laying bricks till the top.

6. Plaster the wall to give a smooth finishes surface and insert the frame of the window.

Insulation of windows are almost the same as doors.

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ROOF

Alison Tang Ing Ee0323705

51

7.0 Roof

7.1 IntroductionRoof is a part of a building envelope that cover on the uppermost part of a building. The roof provides protection from weather, animals, rain, snow,heat,wind and sunlight.

Roof requirement:

Gable roof: It is generally have two sloping side that come together at a creating end walls with a triangular extension.The shape of the roof and how it is detailed depends on the structural system used which reflect climate, material and aesthetic concern.

Flat roof:Flat roofs are definitely the most simple roof to build as they have no pitch. The flat roof space can also be used for some activities.

Gambrel Roof:The gambrel roof is usually a symmetrical two slope sided roof on each side. The upper slope is with a shallow angle while the lower slope is steep.

7.2 Types of roof shapesThe main factors which influence the shape of roofs are surrounding environment, climate and the materials available for roof structure. Roof terminology is not rigid defined. Roof shapes vary form almost flat to steeply pitched from time to time.

Available types of roofs from the site :

Gable Roof

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7.3 Roofing Materials Roofing material is the outermost layer on the roof of a building. It self-supporting sometime but generally supported by underlying structure. The building roofing materials provide shelter from the natural elements. The outer layer of the roof shows the great variation dependent upon availability of the nature of the supporting structure and material. Sheathing, underlayments, fasteners and tile should be installed in accordance.

Clay TileClay tile is made from dense, hard and nonabsorbent material. The tiles are intended to provide the drainage and water shedding to form a dry covering over a building. Clay tiles are also used to protect a waterproof underlayment from wind, sun and for aesthetic reasons.

Concrete tileConcrete tile is made from a mixture of aggregate, portland cement and water. Concrete tiles have a long lifespan, are resistant to rot and insects and also offer good fire protection. Their strength is strengthen by the interlocking mode of installing tile roofs and it is extremely durable.

Roof tile from site:

concrete hacienda roof

Roof Construction MethodRafter roofRafters are sloped framing running downward from the peak of the roof to the plates of the outside walls. They act as the support for the roof load. Purlin plates are used to support longer rafter spans. Purlin is structural member in a roof and use as a support for rafters.

Ceiling joists tie the outside walls together and support the ceiling materials for the building. For extra strength, collar beams or collar ties may be attached higher up between opposite rafters. The plates, rafters and tie beams serve to transfer the weight of the roof to the walls of the building.

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Truss roof

A timber roof truss is a structural framework of timbers designed to provide support for a roof and to connect the space above a room. It is often referred as A-frames. Truss roof occur at regular intervals, linked by longitudinal timbers such as purlins. Bay is the space between each truss.

Queen Post Truss 1. Queen posts2. Tie Beam 3. Straining beam4. Principal rafter

King Post Truss 1. King post 2. Tie Beam3. Principal Rafters 4. Struts

The A-frame combines the rafters, joists and jacks together. A roof is made up of some A-frames. Trusses are manufactured in some different shapes and sizes to suit the needs of various types of roofs.

Installation of truss1.Trusses was lifted by crane in a manner that minimises lateral bending stresses. 2.Each bundle of wood will be lifted separately and the worker will attach the chains from the spreader bar to the two node points at each side of the truss.3.The joiners used to mark each position of the trusses as specified on the drawing along the wall plate.

truss joiner

4.The trusses will be fixed in sequence and accordance with working drawings.5.It starts with the gable truss which is just inside or placed over the end wall. 6.Brace it back to some other stable part of the structure or to the ground. 7.Fix it to the top plate at the required location which usually indicated by set out marks as each truss is installed. 8.To ensure correct alignment,use a gauging rod and ties for spacing the trusses, and a string line along the apex. 9.It is important that trusses are lined up along the apex but not the heels.

10.The trusses must be braced longitudinally as they are erected.11.It is to provide the stability to the trusses during the process of erection.12.After full installation is completed, the bottom chord ties should be maintained in place.

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Installation of Roof Sheathing

1.To determine the exact length of each rafter by measuring from the peak of the roof along each rafter on one side of the roof. Measure the distance from the peak to the tip of the rafter tail on the first and last rafter of the run and make a pencil mark.To make a cut line,snap a chalk line between the two pencil marks.

2.Cut each rafter tail on the chalk line by using a circular saw to ensure that every rafter is the same length.3.Place the first piece of oriented strand board sheathing on the bottom of rafter tails at one end of the roof. Align the long edge of the sheathing with the end of the sheathing and the rafter tails. With a nail every 6 inches along each rafter, nail the sheathing into place by using a framing nailer.

oriented strand board sheathing

5.To begin the second row,place a piece of sheathing above the first piece that was installed.Slide the sheet of a rafter width over the end of the roof so the edge is centered on the next rafter. Raise the sheathing ⅛ inch above the previous row and nail the sheathing into the place. After completing the second row of sheathing, move onto the third row, fourth row and so on until the last row extends past the peak of the roof.6.Mark a chalk line along the overhanging sheets. Use a circular saw to trim off the excess sheathing. Trim off the tops of those sheets which chalk line with the aligned sheathing on the peak of the roof 7.Repeat the process with the opposite side of the gable roof.

4.Locate another piece of sheathing beside the first aligned with the end of the rafter tails. Then allow a ⅛ inch gap between the first and second sheet for seasonal expansion.Use a framing nailer to nail this sheathing into place. Repeat it with additional sheathing until reach the end of the first row.

Roof Underlays

Roof Underlays are called sarking or roofing felt provides the barrier to the entry of wind and rain blown between the tiles or states. It is laid between the roofing shingles and the roof decking. There are some main purposes of it: 1. Water barrier which prevent the external water vapour from percolating into the roofing deck. 2. To prevent the chemical mixture for shingle roof from leaking onto the roofing deck.3. Acts as a secondary ambient barrier by reinforcing the aim of heat and sound insulation.

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8.0 Summary

In this project, we had learn the skills to analyse, compare and to refer different elements of building construction in terms of its process, method, materials, and the necessary tools.

This report includes the detail and the summary of the available building construction method, which is widely used in the modern construction industry.

This project enables us to have insight and build knowledge on how the process of each and different construction phase can affect time, cost and resources spent.

8.1 Reference

Site and Safety

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2008). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Personal protective equipment (PPE). (n.d.). Retrieved September 22, 2016, from http://www.hse.gov.uk/toolbox/ppe.htm

Traffic Management | Contractors Equipment | Greenham | Greenham Site. (n.d.). Retrieved September 22, 2016, from http://www.greenham.com/Contractors-Equipment/Traffic-Management~c~CA

Organising site welfare. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2016, from http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/welfare.htm

Why is machinery safety important? (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2016, from http://www.hse.gov.uk/toolbox/machinery/safety.htm

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. (n.d.). Retrieved October 6, 2016, from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html

Tandem Vibratory Rollers. (n.d.). Retrieved October 6, 2016, from http://www.constructionequipment.com/tandem-vibratory-rollers

Vibratory Plate Compactors. (n.d.). Retrieved October 13, 2016, from http://www.constructionequipment.com/vibratory-plate-compactors

Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals Regulations) 1996. (n.d.). Retrieved October 13, 2016, from http://www.firesafe.org.uk/health-and-safety-safety-signs-and-signals-regulations-1996/

Preliminaries Work

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2008). Building construction handbook (8th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Chudley, R., Greeno, R., Hurst, M., & Topliss, S. (2011). Construction Technology(5th ed.). Edinburgh gate, Harlow: Pearson education limited.

Setting Out the Building Outline. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.buildersengineer.info/2014/01/setting-out-building-outline.html

Setting Out Trenches. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.buildersengineer.info/2014/01/setting-out-trenches.htm

Sheau Hui Tan Follow. (2015). Building Construction Report. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/tansheauhui/building-construction-report-55776562

CalvinSuah Follow. (2015). Building Construction 1: Experiencing Construction. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/CalvinSuah/building-construction-1-experiencing-construction

Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Hoarding_for_construction_sites

@. (2010). WORK PROCEDURE - EXCAVATION. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/work-procedure-excavation/1632/

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Foundation

Raft foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved October 7, 2016, from http://civilconstructiontips.blogspot.my/2011/06/raft-foundation.html

FOUNDATION SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BUILDINGS. (2014). Retrieved October 12, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-selection-criteria/6971/

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FOUNDATION FOR BUILDINGS. (2015). Retrieved October 15, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/factors-affecting-selection-of-foundation-for-buildings/10504/

Beam and Column

Ching, Francis D.K. Building Construction Illustrated. 5th ed. 2014. Print.

4. Types of Formwork. Retrieved October 17, 2016, from Ukrainian Library for Schools, http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/en/d/Jgtz025be/4.html

Civil Engineering (Beams,Columns). (2011, June 2). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from Slideshare, http://www.slideshare.net/mbrsalman/civil-engineering-beamscolumns

Slab

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2008). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2004). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

Emmitt, S., Gorse, C. A., & Barry, R. (2006). Barry's advanced construction of buildings. Oxford: Blackwell Pub.

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (1999). Construction technology. Harlow: Longman.

Grundy, J. T. (1977). Construction technology. London: Edward Arnold.

Guide for concrete floor and slab construction. (1997). Detroit, MI: American Concrete Institute.

Padhi, S. (2013, April 1). CivilBlog.Org. Retrieved September 30, 2016, from http://civilblog.org/

Mishra, G. (2011). COMPOSITE STEEL JOISTS. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/composite-steel-joists/5895/

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Staircase and Walls

http://www.popularmechanics.com/home/how-to-plans/how-to/a2145/4224738/

http://schools.ednet.ns.ca/avrsb/133/ritchiek/notes/Text/grade10/stairconstruction.htm

http://extremehowto.com/how-to-build-stairs/

http://civilblog.org/2015/09/28/10-different-types-of-stairs-commonly-designed-for-buildings/

http://www.understandconstruction.com/walls.html

https://www.thebalance.com/exterior-wall-materials-used-in-building-construction-844846

http://www.nucorbuildingsystems.com/builder/engineeringtips/1.13.pdf

http://www.understandconstruction.com/walls.htmlhttp://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-masonry-walls/10800/

Doors and Windows

Francis D.K. Ching, 2008, Building Construction Illustrated. Fouth Edition.

Roofs

https://www.thisoldhouse.com/ideas/roof-shapes

https://www.carpentry-pro-framer.com/Roof-Framing.html

http://www.pole-barn.info/building-rafters.html

http://www.thisiscarpentry.com/2012/11/09/common-rafter-framing/

http://www.diynetwork.com/how-to/rooms-and-spaces/exterior/all-about-roofs-pitches-trusses-and-framing

http://www.pryda.com.au/architects-builders-designers-engineers/product-information/roof-trusses/

http://www.probuilder.com/5-steps-proper-roof-sheathing-installation

http://homeguides.sfgate.com/install-roof-sheathing-50736.html

Simmon,H.Leslie,2001. Construction: Principles,Materials and Method. 7th Edition. New York. John Wiley&Sons.

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