Best Practice in the Middle School Education. By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. December 2012

P R E L I M I N A R Y V I E W O F T H E D A T A T R A C E Y T O K U H A M A - E S P I N O S A , P H . D . , 2 2 D E C E M B E R 2 0 1 2

BEST PRACTICE IN MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION

GOALS Share research on Middle School “best practices” 1.  Format, Models, Definitions: What does this tell us about the “Cotopaxi

Middle School Identity” 2.  Instructional practice

•  Developmentally appropriate instructional practice •  educational neuroscience perspective; pedagogical

perspective; psycho-socio perspective; emotional perspective •  Grading

3.  Structure 4.  Curriculum

•  What is taught and why •  Twenty-first century skills development at the MS level •  Format of Exploratory and Mentor elements •  Developmentally appropriate curriculum content

•  At-risk behavior •  Mind-Body connection (nutrition, sleep, exercise, drugs)

FORMATS MIDDLE SCHOOL OPT IONS

MIDDLE SCHOOL OR K-8?

Middle school students have disadvantages when compared with K-8 structures when…

1.  Strange and new environment: Children are brought together for the first time in a middle school structure (as when several elementary feeder schools send kids to a single middle school) because social relations are strained.

2.  Teachers stretched too thin: Teachers are often spread out across a variety of age-group classes, instead of being able to focus on a single grade. That is, teachers who are primarily high school or elementary are recruited for middle schools, rather than having specialized middle school teachers.

3.  Socialization with different age groups is limited: K-8 school kids benefit from mixed grade activities and therefore are more empathetic to peers, reducing disciplinary problems that are often found in middle school structures.

4.  Disorganized transitions: Transitions from elementary and into high school are not well articulated or well-managed.

5.  Incoherency in school curriculum: Concepts taught in 5th grade are often retested in 8th grade without coherency or teacher communication.

MIDDLE SCHOOL OR K-8?

The Harvard series on educational policy (Schwerdt & West, 2011) identifies that moving kids from an elementary to a middle schools structure was NOT recommended in Florida because overall because: •  “students moving from elementary to middle school in grade 6 or 7

suffer a sharp drop in student achievement in the transition year…[which] persist through grade 10, by which time most students have transitioned into high school.”

•  And “middle school entry increases student absences and is associated with higher grade 10 dropout rates.”

•  However, ”[t]ransitions to high school in grade nine [rather than grade eight] cause a smaller one-time drop in achievement but do not alter students' performance trajectories.”

•  This finding was echoed by other studies at Stanford (Martin & Schwerdt, 2012).

MIDDLE SCHOOL FORMATS

Three basic formats: 1.  6-2-4 (K-16; 7-8; 9-12) 2.  5-3-4 (K-5; 6-8, 9-12) 3.  4-4-4 (K-4; 5-8; 9-12)

According to Combs (2005; 2011): •  “The overwhelming majority of the research supports the middle

school concept. •  “7/8 combination is the worst configuration available based on the

current research. •  “The 6-8 combination is the most common configuration at this

time, as supported by current research. •  “The 5-8 grouping is growing in popularity as research is becoming

more supportive of this configuration based on the constantly changing needs of the students.”

Middle years formation possibilities: •  The time of puberty is a time of intense learning when students must

deal with a new body, a new world, new responsibilities, and new intellectual pursuits. The problems of puberty are compounded by periods of brain growth and plateaus; this creates difficulties for the student as well as the teacher.

•  Myers research (1969) supports a 6-8 middle school because of the more gradual transition from self-contained classrooms to departmental organizations.

•  Hillyer (1972) reported that 5th, 6th and 7th grade students (as well as 8) should be included in a middle school and that middle schools met student needs better than the elementary model.

•  Garner found that the largest number of students’ adjustment problems occurred in a 7-8 school.

CHOOSING THE RIGHT MODEL: DEFINING MIDDLE SCHOOL

Combs, 2005; 2011

Middle years formation possibilities: •  Gateman and Creek report that 6th

grade was the most appropriate entry level for the middle school. Additionally, the research recommends that 5th grade teachers adopt promising middle school approaches. Gateman and Creek further report that 6th graders more closely resemble 7th graders than 5th graders in areas of personal adjustment and sense of personal freedom. Consequently, the 6th grade is the most appropriate entry level for the middle school.


Combs, 2005; 2011

Middles years formation possibilities: •  The New York Middle Grade Task Force states

developmentally, students in grades 6, 7, and 8 have more in common in terms of physical, social, psychological, and intellectual variables than do those in other age-grade combinations. A three year middle grade time frame allows the opportunity for strong, positive relationships to be built among students, teachers, counselors and administrators; this bonding is critical to healthy intellectual and emotional development and sets the state for future academic success and personal/social development for young adolescents. The task force recommends the ELIMINATION of fiscal incentives to build 7-9 schools and ESTABLISH incentives to build 6-8 schools.


Combs, 2005; 2011

Middles years formation possibilities: •  The Mineola Union Free School District reported 11 to 14 year olds

share broadly defined qualities the middle school combines into one organization and facility a school program that bridges, yet differs from the childhood (K-5) and adolescent (9-12) programs; they reported that the three grade combination provides more stability to the overall program; more time exists for the development of programs, promote teacher/pupil relationships, and provide individualized instruction to meet the highly variable needs and ability levels of this age group; the availability of guidance services is highly important; the emphasis on active student participation in interest groups and low-keyed athletics and social activities is important. Further, the report stated that the middle school facilitates the introduction in grade 6 of some staff specialization and team teaching the middle school provides an opportunity for gradual change from the self-contained classroom to complete departmentalization.


Combs, 2005; 2011

Middles years formation possibilities: •  Mineola reports the following drawbacks:

•  some students in grade 6 are physically immature •  some 6th graders may not be able to handle the social

pressures coming from 7th and 8th graders •  having to adjust to so many teachers may be difficult for

some students

•  The Jamesville-Dewitt Central School District adopted the 6-8 model in 1980.

•  Trauschke (1970) reported that: •  fifth and sixth graders were not adversely affected by middle

school •  7th and 8th graders achieved at higher levels than junior

high 7th and 8th graders after two years in middle school •  middle school students showed more favorable attitudes

toward school, themselves, and other students and teachers


Combs, 2005; 2011

•  Case’s research (1970) suggested that a 5th grader in a middle school configuration is offered certain advantages not present in the elementary school.

•  Several studies (Smith and Brantley) reported better reading, science and math scores in middle schools.

•  Mooney (1970) reported children in the middle school achieved as well or better on the variables tested and that attendance was significantly greater than in equated regular schools.

•  Moss (1971) research included grade 5 in his definition of a middle school.


Combs, 2005; 2011

•  Hillyer’s research (1972) indicated that 5th and 6th graders should be included in a middle school because the differences in the various maturity levels were greater between grades four and five than they were between either grades five and six o grades six and seven.

•  Schoo (1970) reported that students in a 5-8 middle school showed higher self concepts than students in other schools; concluded that 5-8 schools provide an easier transition for students from elementary schools.


Combs, 2005; 2011


•  The Herricks Union Free School District (1978) adopted 5-3-4 model and reported that: •  the middle school reorganization can

shake-up and help the adoption of more flexible teaching strategies;

•  6th graders received a more diversified curriculum and had access to a greater range of facilities;

•  the emphasis on guidance services for 6th graders as well as a close learning relationship with a team of teachers was beneficial the transition to HS was much more smooth.

Combs, 2005; 2011

MIDDLE SCHOOL FORMATION OPTIONS

Retrieved from http://www.edulink.org/msconfig.htm

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSITIONS FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL MODEL TO WORK

•  Independent of the structure followed (K-8 or Middle School), the key to overall school graduation rates is the transition into high school: •  “Recent research points out

that a smooth transition to ninth grade can contribute to students' success in high school and beyond” (Oakes& Waite, 2009, p.6).

WHY CHOOSE A MIDDLE SCHOOL FORMAT?

Reasons for change in configuration •  A change in the recommended grade level combination

began on a large scale in the early 1960’s; this resulted in a shift from the 7-9 combination to a 6-8 or 5-8 configuration. This shift was based on: •  increasing evidence that children matured earlier than

before •  in 1910 children reached puberty at approximately 12-14

years of age; today, most children reach puberty by age 11. •  puberty appears to start approximately four months earlier

every decade •  Reasons for change in configuration: •  the belief that 9th grade was more attached to high school •  more sophisticated evaluation and research methods and

materials provided more accurate data. Combs, 2005; 2011

DEFINITION: WHAT IS A “MIDDLE SCHOOL”?

What is “Middle School”? •  A grade pattern that begins with either the 5th or the 6th

grade and ends with the 8th grade. •  An educational philosophy that emphasizes the needs and

interests of the students. •  A willing attitude on the part of the staff toward instructional

experimentation, open classrooms, team teaching, utilization of multimedia teaching techniques, and student grouping by talent and interest rather than age alone.

•  An emphasis on individual instruction and guidance for each pupil.

•  A focus on educating the whole child, not just the intellect. •  A program to help ease transition between childhood and

adolescence.

DEFINING MIDDLE SCHOOL

Association for Middle Level Education

INSTRUCTION VS. CONFIGURATION

•  However, Thompson and Homestead (2004) found that grade configuration was less important than Instruction. Of most importance is the •  educational level of teachers •  experience of teachers •  expenditure per student •  education and occupation of

parents •  Instruction vs. configuration •  length of school year •  quality of instructional materials

CHOOSING A MIDDLE SCHOOL “COTOPAXI” MODEL

CHOOSING THE RIGHT MODEL: WHAT IS THE “COTOPAXI MIDDLE SCHOOL IDENTITY”?

In order to choose the right model, a comparison of successful Middle School designs from around the world should be taken into consideration. •  According to the National Middle School Association (2003): •  “Successful schools for young adolescents are characterized by a

culture that includes: •  Educators who value working with this age group and are

prepared to do so •  Courageous, collaborative leadership •  A shared vision that guides decisions •  An inviting, supportive, and safe environment •  High expectations for every member of the learning community •  Students and teachers engaged in active learning •  An adult advocate for every student •  School-initiated family and community partnerships” (pp.9-19).


According to the National Middle School Association (2003): •  “Successful schools for young provide: •  Curriculum that is relevant, challenging, integrative and

exploratory •  Multiple learning and teaching approaches that respond to

their diversity •  Assessment and evaluation programs that promote quality

learning •  Organizational structures that support meaningful relationships

and learning •  School-wide efforts and policies that foster health, wellness,

and safety •  Multifaceted guidance and support services” (pp.19-35).

Retrieved on 22 Dec 2012 from http://www.google.com.ec/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&cad=rja&ved=0CGkQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Faccountability.spps.org%2Fuploads%2Ftransitions_to_middle_grades_-_define_the_foundations.pdf&ei=pCbWUJeAHpSi8QSb4oAg&usg=AFQjCNGrS7t3WOjVpvfEwrrhgmqJhEjOHg&sig2=Gq9x3kRSptzIpwV6dsRmPA&bvm=bv.1355534169,d.eWU

EXAMPLE TRANSITION MODELS

EXAMPLE TRANSITION MODELS

According to Scholastic, successful middle schools have: •  Teachers with vision, passion, and compassion, who

coach and guide rather than lecture. An increasing number of teachers are getting trained and certified by colleges and universities that have inaugurated programs geared to teaching this age group.

•  Creation of schools-within-schools. A body of research has shown that the most effective middle schools divide students into small groups under the guidance of a core group of teachers, across disciplines, who act as advisors and mentors. Some schools assign an advisor to each pupil who serves as a mentor, checks in with him daily, and meets regularly to assess performance, weaknesses, and strengths.


http://www.scholastic.com/resources/article/model-middle-schools/

According to Scholastic, successful middle schools have: •  An exciting, meaningful learning experience that

challenges all students to use their minds well, regardless of ability. Concerned less with getting the right answer, good middle schools care more about how a student got to that answer in the first place. Children are taught to think critically, research, and analyze, so they can problem-solve and interpret rather than memorize facts and tables and regurgitate them back on a test. Classes in art, music, technology, drama, foreign languages, and careers offer students opportunities to explore new areas, pursue interests, and identify aptitudes.

•  Thematic curriculums that link several subjects. In one Texas middle school, students read The Scarlet Letter while studying Colonial history. In New York City, a unit on the monarch butterfly becomes a template not just for science class, but for math and English as students compute how long it takes for a caterpillar to shed its chrysalis, experiment with what to feed it, and record what they learned in a journal they share with parents.



According to Scholastic, successful middle schools have: •  Use of different teaching styles to reach and challenge

all types of learners. That's why you might see the science teacher asking students to drop water balloons from the second-story window to calculate rate of fall and measure acceleration, or bring in cake mixes to simulate a volcano erupting in chemistry class, rather then simply lecturing on scientific principles.

•  Innovative scheduling that allows more time for in-depth study and fits the pattern of middle school minds. It's not easy for a preteen to concentrate for 45 minutes, break for five, and then buckle down for another 45-minute period. Block scheduling allows for fewer, but longer, classes. A lecture, a project, and time for discussion makes learning more meaningful.



According to Scholastic, successful middle schools have: •  An understanding of what it's like to be an

adolescent and the ability to respond well to students' needs and concerns. Classes in ethics, conflict resolution and bully-proofing behavior, media literacy, substance abuse, eating disorders — the full panoply of issues confronting kids today — are woven into the curriculum. The best schools include a staff of nurses, counselors, social workers, or child psychologists who can recognize when a child needs help.

•  A thriving after-school curriculum of athletics and clubs, intramurals, student government, community service projects and peer tutoring that keep kids engaged and supervised after the final bell rings.



CHOOSING THE RIGHT MODEL: THE ROLE OF SCHOOL CLIMATE

Hoy and Sabo (1998) indicate the school climate, actively and conscientiously constructed by the institutional leaders in conjunction with the community, are key aspects of creating the right environment for middle school learners. •  A primary suggestion of their work: •  “distinguishes between the concepts of

organizational culture and climate, formulates two perspectives of school climate (openness and health) discusses Total Quality Management theory and educational quality, and offers empirical indicators of school quality.

CHOOSING THE RIGHT MODEL: THE ROLE OF SCHOOL CLIMATE

To devise a true identity, it appears that school climate is fundamental good MS programs. How can this be measured? 1.  Organizational Climate Description

Questionnaire Revised for Middle Schools (OCDQ-RM)

2.  Influences on school climate (Scherman, 2002): •  Cohesiveness •  Trust •  Respect •  Control •  Violence •  Physical infrastructure

A MODEL: “TURNING POINTS 2000”

•  Turning Points 2000: Transforming Middle Schools began in 1989 with the Carnegie Corporation of New York issuing guidelines for strengthening the academic core of middle schools and establishing caring, supportive environments that guide adolescents.

•  This was followed by the development of the Turning Points Network in 1999 based on research from the Center for Collaborative Education in Boston (CCE) (1998).

“TURNING POINTS” VISION*

“Our Vision for Middle School Students •  Recognizing that each child comes with unique

strengths, challenges, and needs, Turning Points teachers maintain high expectations for all their students and hold a vision that their students will leave middle school able to: •  Think creatively •  Identify and solve complex and meaningful problems •  Know their passions, strengths, and challenges •  Communicate and work well with others •  Lead healthy lives •  Be ethical and caring citizens of a diverse world.”

Retrieved from http://www.turningpts.org/vision.htm

“TURNING POINTS” VISION*

“Our Vision for Middle School Students involves… •  Understanding the intellectual, social, physical,

moral and emotional characteristics of the early adolescent can provide the foundation for a vision of learning and teaching in the middle grades….The risks young adolescents face as they navigate this phase of life can be considerable as they make decisions and choices that will affect their health, education, and who they will become.

•  Middle schools need to both strengthen their academic core, and establish caring, supportive environments that value the young people they serve. Above all, each and every middle school teacher needs to develop strong relationships with his or her students. Such relationships are the foundation for powerful learning.”

Retrieved from http://www.turningpts.org/vision.htm

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

•  Instructional practices are the teaching-learning dynamics that shape a student’s experiences in class.

•  From the teaching perspective, instructional practices include: •  Classroom activities, formats

methodologies and grading practices •  From the learning perspective,

instructional practices are seen to be influenced by successfully developmentally appropriate practices that consider: •  Emotions, social contexts, mind-body

connections, as well as a learner’s own biology.

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

•  Developmentally appropriate practices in education are classroom designs (activities, formats, etc.), which match most learners’ abilities and are generally associated with age and maturity.

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES: ACTIVITIES

Classroom activities in successful Middle Schools contexts include •  Disciplined inquiry: •  Learning for deep understanding •  Scaffolding •  Learning to dialogue and form question

Recommended readings: •  Making thinking visible: How to promote engagement,

understanding, and independence for all learners (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison, 2011)

•  Teach like a champion: 49 techniques that out students on the path to college (K-12) (Lemov & Atkins, 2010)

•  Best practice (4th ed.) (Zemelman, Daniels &C Hyde, 2012)

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES: RECOMMENDED READINGS

General Teaching in Middle School

Middle school teaching: A guide to methods and resources. (3rd ed.) by Kellough & Kellough (1999).

Teaching in the middle school (4th ed.) by Manning & Bucher (2011). Teaching in middle and secondary schools (10th ed.) by Carjuzza &

Kellough (2012). Classroom management for middle and high school teachers (9th ed.)

by Emmer & Evertson (2012). What every middle school teacher should know (2nd ed.) by Brown &

Knowles (2007). Meet me in the middle: Becoming an accomplished middle level

teacher by Wormeli (2001). Classroom strategies for interactive learning by Buehl (2008). “Why won’t you just tell us the answer?!: Teaching historical thinking in

grades 7-12 by Lesh (2011).

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES: METHODOLOGIES

Some classic guides and handbooks on middle school education were popular in the late 1990s, and some of the classics are mentioned below:

•  Handbook for Middle School Teaching (2nd ed.) by George, Lawrence and Bushnell, 1998;

•  Imagination in Teaching and Learning: The Middle School Years by Klegan (1992);

•  In the Middle: New Understandings about Writing, Reading, and Learning by Nancie Atwell (1998);

•  Middle school teaching: A guide to methods and resources (3rd ed.), by Kellough & Kellough, 1999.


Language: Differentiated instruction for the middle school language arts teacher:

Activities and strategies for an inclusive classroom by D’Amico & Gallaway (2009).

In the Middle: New Understandings about Writing, Reading, and Learning. (2nd ed.)by Atwell (1998).

Teaching middle school writers: What every English teacher needs to know by Robb (2010).

Teaching reading in middle school (2nd ed.): A strategic approach to teaching reading that improves comprehension and thinking by Robb (2010).

The middle school writing toolkit by Clifford (2006). Giggles in the middle: Caught’ya! Grammar with a giggle for middle school

by Bell Kiester (2006). Teaching middle school language arts: Incorporating twenty-first century

literacies by Roseoro, Jago & Schultze (2010). Awakening the heart: Exploring poetry in elementary and middle school by

Heard (1998).


Math Differentiated instruction for the middle school math teacher: Activities

and strategies for an inclusive classroom by D’Amico & Gallaway (2008).

Science Differentiated instruction for the middle school science teacher: Activities

and strategies for an inclusive classroom by D’Amico & Gallaway (2010).

Art The art teacher’s survival guide for elementary and middle schools by

Hume (2008). History Reading like a historian: Teaching literacy in middle and high school history

classrooms by Wineburg, Martin & Monte-Sano (2011). Music Middle school general music: The best part of your day by McAnnally

(2010).

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES: GRADING

Grading in Middle School, as in all levels of formal education, should seek higher, deeper and more profound thinking.

Recommended reading: •  Fair isn’t always equal: Assessing and grading in the

differentiated classroom by Wormeli (2006). •  Embedded, formative assessment (William, 2011) •  Academic conversation (Zweiers & Crawford, 2011) •  Social-emotional learning assessment measure for middle

school youth (Haggerty, Elgin &Woolley, 2011).


There are many ways to think about developmentally appropriate practices, among them are: •  educational neuroscience

perspective •  pedagogical perspective •  psycho-socio perspective •  emotional perspective

EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE

Educational neuroscience perspective •  There are different neurotransmitters in the brain

that can either enhance or impede new connections in the brain, and therefore influence learning. •  High stress, anxiety, depression and other volatile

emotional states related to adolescents due to their hormonal changes can influence learning. •  A student’s perception about his own ability to learn

influences this delicate hormonal balance.

EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE

•  “Although most people believe that cognitive development plateaus in early adolescence, current research shows that young adolescents go through tremendous brain growth and development. Far from being over the hill, they are just beginning to encounter the mountain” (Lorain, 2012).

CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

Early adolescents share several characteristics •  desire for independence •  growth in importance of the peer group •  sexual, emotional and social maturation •  search for values and norms •  resentment of authority figures •  ambivalence concerning dependence •  emancipation from the home •  fluctuation of emotions •  concern about physical growth and appearance •  development of self concept


Motivation and self-perception •  According to Pajares and Graham

(1999), self-efficacy and motivation constructs influence mathematics performance in middle school students.

•  John Hattie (2009; 2012) has shown that a student’s self-perception as a learner has a profound impact on the actual success rate for learning.

•  Andeman and Midgley (1997) found that self-perception about being a good learner decreased from 5th to 6th grade, which can result in a vicious downward circle for learning (believing you can’t learn leads to the reality that you don’t).

STUDENT SELF-PERCEPTION

•  There are clear relations between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students, as shown in Parejas, Britner and Valiente’s work on Writing and Science (1999):

•  “task goals were associated positively with self-efficacy, self-concept, and self-efficacy for self-regulation and negatively with apprehension; performance-approach goals were associated positively with self-concept; and performance-avoid goals were associated negatively with self-concept and self-efficacy for self-regulation and positively with apprehension. In”

GOAL ORIENTATION THEORY

•  “Goal orientation theory was used to examine changes in personal achievement goals, perceptions of the classroom goal structure, and perceived academic competence as students move from elementary to middle school.

•  Surveys were given to 341 students in the 5th grade in elementary school and again in 6th grade in middle school.

•  Results show that students were more oriented to task goals (wanting to improve their competency), perceived a greater emphasis on task goals during instruction, and felt more academically competent in 5th grade than in 6th grade.

•  As perceived a greater emphasis on performance goals (an emphasis on relative ability and right answers) in middle school than in elementary school. Several interactions emerged between year (5th grade, 6th grade), and both student level of ability (higher, lower, based on standardized achievement tests) and subject domain (math, English)” (Andeman & Midgley, 1997, p.296)

PEDAGOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Pedagogical perspective •  There appears to be a great difference between

how elementary and middle school teachers approach teaching (Midgley, Anderman & Hicks, 1995, p.90): •  “comparisons based on survey data indicated that middle

school teachers and students perceive the school culture as more performance-focused and less task-focused than do elementary teachers and students. In addition, elementary school teachers use instructional practices that emphasize task goals, and endorse task-focused achievement goals for their students, more than do middle school teachers. A perceived stress, in the school, on task goals predicted self-efficacy both for teachers and students, whereas a perceived stress on performance goals was unrelated to self-efficacy.”

PSYCHO-SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

Psycho-social perspective •  According to Wentzel’s studies (1998): •  “Adolescents' supportive relationships with parents, teachers, and peers were

examined in relation to motivation at school (school- and class-related interest, academic goal orientations, and social goal pursuit).

•  On the basis of 167 sixth-grade students, relations of perceived support from parents, teachers, and peers to student motivation differed depending on the source of support and motivational outcome: Peer support was a positive predictor of prosocial goal pursuit, teacher support was a positive predictor of both types of interest and of social responsibility goal pursuit, and parent support was a positive predictor of school-related interest and goal orientations.

•  Perceived support from parents and peers also was related to interest in school indirectly by way of negative relations with emotional distress. Pursuit of social responsibility goals and school- and class-related interest in 6th grade partly explained positive relations between social support in 6th grade and classroom grades 1 year later.” (p.202)

PSYCHO-SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES

•  According to Wentzel, Barry & Caldwell (2004, p.195): •  “In this 2-year longitudinal study (n=242), the authors examined

relations of having a reciprocated friend and characteristics of a reciprocated friend to students' social and academic adjustment to middle school.

•  With respect to having a friend, 6th-grade students without friends showed lower levels of prosocial behavior, academic achievement, and emotional distress than did students with reciprocated friendships. Not having a friend in 6th grade also was related to emotional distress 2 years later.

•  Evidence that motivational processes mediate relations between friends' and individuals' prosocial behavior was obtained. For students with reciprocated friendships (n=173). friends' prosocial behavior predicted change in individuals' prosocial behavior in 8th grade by way of changes in goals to behave prosocially.”

PSYCHO-SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES

•  Wentzel & Caldwell (1997) found that “peer relationships are related to classroom achievement indirectly, by way of significant relations with prosocial behavior” (p.1198). •  Prosocial behavior, antisocial

behavior, and emotional distress are directly related to academic achievement.

EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Emotional perspective •  Emotional stability in the middle school years is a

strong indicator of future emotional balance (Roeser, Eccles & Sameroff, 1998). This study •  “[s]howed reciprocal relations between school motivation

and positive emotional functioning over time. •  “Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of the middle

school learning environment (support for competence and autonomy, quality of relationships with teachers) predicted their eighth grade motivation, achievement, and emotional functioning after accounting for demographic and prior adjustment measures” (p.321).

SCHOOL STRUCTURE: WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE AND

WHY LEARNING OCCURS

SCHOOL STRUCTURE: WHO, WHEN, AND WHERE LEARNING TAKES PLACE

•  School structure includes the way classes are time tabled, which teachers are present when in the student’s learning day, as well as the physical divisions of learning. •  People •  Who influences in the learning process

•  Time •  Structure of the day

•  Space •  Where and how one learns

•  Climate or learning environment

TEACHER SPECIALIZATION

•  People •  According to Jacob and Rockoff (2012), a

key element in successful school structures in allowing teachers to specialize.

•  Teachers who are asked to teach in middle school levels as well as high school levels tend not to be as effective as those who teach a single grade level.

•  “A teacher who receives the same grade assignment year after year will improve roughly 50% faster than a teacher who never repeats a grade assignment” (p.32).

TEACHER SUPPORT

•  According to Ryan (2001), “students’ perceptions of teacher support, and the teacher as promoting interaction and mutual respect were related to positive changes in their motivation and engagement.

•  “Students’ perceptions of the teacher as promoting performance goals were related to negative changes in student motivation and engagement. Implications for recent educational reform initiatives were also discussed” (p.437).

CARING TEACHERS

•  People: Who influences in the learning process? •  According to Wentzel (1997): •  “A longitudinal sample of 248 students was followed from 6th to

8th grade. •  Perceived caring from teachers predicted motivational

outcomes, even when students' current levels of psychological distress and beliefs about personal control, as well as previous (6th grade) motivation and performance, were taken into account.

•  Eighth-grade students characterize supportive and caring teachers along dimensions suggested by Noddings (1992) and models of effective parenting (Baumrind, 1971).

•  Teachers who care were described as demonstrating democratic interaction styles, developing expectations for student behavior in light of individual differences, modeling a "caring" attitude toward their own work, and providing constructive feedback” (p.411).

TIME

•  Time •  Structure of the day •  Earlier start times are linked to

reductions in student performance “stemming from increased absences and fatigue” according to Jacob and Rockoff (2012).

•  In 1999 a federal “Z’s to A’s Act” was proposed to start all middle schools at 9:00a.m. (U.S. Department of Education)

SPACE

•  Space •  Where and how one learns:

everything from physical divisions of learning spaces within the larger school context, to the design of micro learning spaces, such as labs and classrooms.

•  Having learning spaces with a smaller number of students actually increases the likelihood of taking and having higher scores on ACTs and SATs, according to Krueger and Whitmore’s longitudinal study (2001).

SCHOOL CLIMATE

•  Sweetland’s study explains the vital role of empowering teachers, which in turn influences school climate, which in turn impacts learning in Math and Reading achievement (2000, p.703): •  “Empowerment is defined and

measured in terms of teachers’ power to control critical decisions about teaching and learning conditions…

•  The results support the pivotal importance of teacher empowerment in the effectiveness of schools.”

SCHOOL CLIMATE

•  The lives of early adolescents are full of social decisions about what is “popular” versus “deviant” behavior.

•  This self-perception evolves, however, during the middle school years and students who were self-classified as being unpopular, nerds o strange in middle school often find they are “reconstructed” their self-image in high school and become “normal”.

•  This ability to become self-confident and transform one’s self-image was found to be correlated with the integration into social groups, sports teams and other school activities (Kinney, 1993).

CURRICULUM: EXPLORATORY AND MENTOR ELEMENTS

Format of Exploratory and Mentor elements •  According to Andeman, Maehr y Midgley (1999): •  “Investigated the effects of the transition from elementary- to middle-

level schools on the motivational beliefs (MBs) of 278 students attending 2 substantively different types of middle schools: one was characterized as utilizing task-focused instructional practices, while the other school utilized more traditional practices.

•  …students attending the school that placed a greater emphasis on competition and ability differences exhibited higher mean levels of personal performance goals and personal extrinsic goals after the transition.

•  There was an increase in perceptions of an emphasis on performance goals between the 5th and 6th grades for students who moved into this school. In contrast, students who moved to the school that used more task-focused (and less performance-focused) instructional practices exhibited fewer negative shifts in MBs after the transition” (p.131).

CURRICULUM: EXPLORATORY AND MENTOR ELEMENTS

•  According to Andeman (1999, p.89): •  “Examined the extent to which changes in students' self-reported

positive and negative affect across the transition to middle school are explained by their perceptions of the achievement goal orientation in their classes, sense of school belonging, and their social goals.

•  Hierarchical regression analyses indicate that students' perceptions of a task goal orientation in their classes, school belonging, relationship and responsibility goals predicted increased positive affect in 6th grade.

•  An ability goal orientation predicted increased negative affect, while school belonging was inversely related to negative affect.

•  A significant interaction effect indicates that a task goal orientation was inversely related to negative affect but that this relation was moderated by students' level of endorsement of status goals. An appendix of the scales, sample items, and reliability coefficient is provided.”

TWENTIFIRST CENTURY SKILLS

Three Global Comptencies: 1.  Use tools interactively

(e.g., language, technology in order to learn how to learn.

2.  Interact in heterogeneous groups (learn to live together).

3.  Act autonomously.

Worth being acquainted with (knowledge)

Important to know and be able to do (skills)

Significant (long-‐term) learning (a=tudes) “Quality” of learning: Learn to

learn; learn to live together; act autonomously.

Based on Wiggins & McTighe (2005), Understanding by Design; Fink (2003) Crea1ng Significant Learning Experiences.

LAYERS OF KNOWLEDGE

HOW IS “QUALITY EDUCATION” RELATED TO CRITICAL THINKING?

1.  Intellectual curiousity 2.  Intellectual courage 3.  Intellectual humility 4.  Intellectual empathy 5.  Intellectual honesty 6.  Intellectual perserverance 7.  Intellectual generousity 8.  “Faith” in reason or a method 9.  The ability to act justly 10.  The predisposition to review all angles,

however unlikely they seem initially

A person who thinks critically shows…

Adapted from Paul, 1992

CURRICULUM: SCIENCE

According to Kesidou and Roseman (2002, p.522), the average science curriculum in the middle schools programs which: •  “only rarely provided students with a sense of

purpose for the units of study, took account of student beliefs that interfere with learning, engaged students with relevant phenomena to make abstract scientific ideas plausible, modeled the use of scientific knowledge so that students could apply what they learned in everyday situations, or scaffolded student efforts to make meaning of key phenomena and ideas presented in the programs.

•  New middle school science programs that reflect findings from learning research are needed to support teachers better in helping students learn key ideas in science.”

CURRICULUM: SCIENCE

Best practice? •  Problem-Based Learning meets Case-Based

Reasoning in the middle-school science classroom: Putting learning by Design(TM) into practice (Kolodner, Camp, Crismond, Fasse, Gray, Holbrook, Puntambekar. & Ryan, 2003): •  “Learning by Design(tm) (LBD), a project-based inquiry

approach to science learning with roots in case-based reasoning and problem-based learning…lay the foundation in middle school for students to be successful thinkers, learners, and decision makers throughout their lives and especially to help them begin to learn the science they need to know to thrive in the modern world…”

•  The success of LBD depends on a highly collaborative classroom climate.

CURRICULUM: WHAT IS TAUGHT AND WHY

Curriculum content should go beyond class subjects to include learning about: •  At-risk behavior •  Mind-Body connection (nutrition,

sleep, exercise, drugs) •  Values

MIND-BODY CONNECTION

•  Explicitly teaching students about the mind-body connection – how what they eat, drugs, sleep and exercise can influence their performance in school – can in and of itself improvement behaviors related to these areas (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2011).

•  When girls, for example, are taught about normative developmental challenges related to nutrition in, this conscientious improved behavior related to eating disorders (Levine, Smolak, Moodey, Shuman & Hessen, 1994).

WHAT SCHOOLS ADMINISTRATORS CAN DO TO EASE THE TRANSITION

Transitions in and out of middle school rest with administrators and counselors. Why should they do? Create a Program That Involves All the Stakeholders •  A well-planned, systematic transition program involves all the

stakeholders: students, school personnel, and parents. Here are some things to consider:

•  Incoming middle school students should be involved in a variety of activities preparing them for middle school. They should have the opportunity to meet middle school students and teachers in their elementary school. They should have the opportunity to visit the middle school in the spring and meet the staff and students, particularly their homeroom teacher and classmates. Educators in both the elementary and the middle school should provide activities for students that lessen their concerns, build their confidence, and reduce their anxiety.

Peter Lorain for the National Education Association, 2011


Create a Program That Involves All the Stakeholders •  Current middle school students also

should be prepared for and included in orientation presentations -- through a leadership/student government class, a “buddy” system, or other planned ways.

•  School leaders should plan and provide for several events that involve students, teachers, and parents. These events should focus on providing a positive message about middle school, that it is safe and fun. They should also focus on providing information about the changes that early adolescents will be experiencing.



Create a Program That Involves All the Stakeholders •  Elementary teachers, counselors, and other licensed staff

members should be aware of the concerns of their students and the anxieties of moving into middle schools. They should be upbeat and reassuring -- and they should not use middle schools as a "threat" or misplaced motivational tool. They should know about the developmental issues, indeed, some of their students in the elementary schools will already be experiencing some of these changes.

•  Middle school teachers should be well versed in the developmental issues of their students. They also should be aware that students will experience anxieties associated with the change and they should begin before school starts to work to neutralize these anxieties. Visiting elementary schools in the spring, so the students know the teachers, and addressing any questions or concerns on the first day of the school year are two ways to facilitate this easing into the year.



Create a Program That Involves All the Stakeholders •  Parents should attend the spring incoming

parent night to meet homeroom teachers and begin to establish a relationship with the teachers.

•  Parents should attend school meetings to learn about the concerns and questions their children have and will have. They should talk with their children about the upcoming school year and emphasize the positive aspects of attending middle school. Parents should watch for signs of depression and be ready to address them.

•  Parents need to learn about young adolescents and their developmental issues and stages so that they will understand better this new and wonderful person with whom they live, and be able to interact with them in positive ways that build relationships.


CONCLUSIONS

•  Summary •  Key Factors: •  School climate development •  Successful transitions into and out of middle school •  Permit teachers to specialize in a single age group. •  Climate counts: A student’s self-perception as a learner –

shaped in great part due the school climate – is the single greatest factor influencing academic performance.

•  The entire community plays a role

•  Further reflections

REFERENCES Alexander, W. M. (1968). A survey of organizational patterns of reorganized middle

schools. Washington, DC: United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Andeman, E.M. & Midgley, C. (1997). Changes in achievement goal orientations, perceived academic competence, and grades across the transition to middle-level schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(3), 269-298. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1996.0926

Anderman, E. M., Maehr, M. L. & Midgley, C. (1999). Declining motivation after the transition to middle school: Schools can make a difference. Journal of Research & Development in Education, 32(3), 1999, 131-147.

Anderman, Lynley Hicks (1999). Classroom goal orientation, school belonging and social goals as predictors of students' positive and negative affect following the transition to middle school. Journal of Research & Development in Education, 32(2), 89-103.

Atwell, N. (1998). In the Middle: New Understandings about Writing, Reading, and Learning. Second Edition. Portsmouth, NH: Elsevier.

Bell Kiester, J. (2006). Giggles in the middle: Caught’ya! Grammar with a giggle for middle school. Maupin House Publishing, Inc.

Boulton, M.J. & Smith, P.K. (1994/2011 Jul). Bully/victim problems in middle-school children: Stability, self-perceived competence, peer perceptions and peer acceptance. Developmental Psychology, 12(3), 315-329. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-835X.1994.tb00637.x

Brown, D.F. & Knowles, T. (2007). What every middle school teacher should know (2nd ed.). New York: Heinemann.

Buehl, D. (2008). Classroom strategies for interactive learning. International Reading Association.

Carjuzza, J. & Kellough, R.D. (2012). Teaching in middle and secondary schools (10th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989, June). Turning points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. The Report of the Task Force on Education of D’Amico, J. & Gallaway, K. (2010). Differentiated instruction for the middle school science teacher: Activities and strategies for an inclusive classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dixon, A.L., DeVoss, J.A. & Davis, E.S. (2008). Strengthening links between the levels: School counselor collaboration for successful student transitions. Journal of School Counseling, 6(21). Available from: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ894792

Emmer, E.T. & Evertson, C.M. (2012). Classroom management for middle and high school teachers (9th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Haggerty, K., Elgin, J &Woolley, A. (2011). Social-emotional learning assessment measure for middle school youth. Social Development Research Group, University of Washington Commissioned by the Raikes Foundation.

Heard, G. (1998). Awakening the heart: Exploring poetry in elementary and middle school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Hoy, W.K. & Sabo, D.J. (1998). Quality middle schools: Open and healthy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Hume, H.D. (2008). The art teacher’s survival guide for elementary and middle schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Jackson, A.W. & Davis, G.A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Jacob, B.A. & Rockoff, J.E. (2012 Apr). Organizing schools to improve student achievement: Start times, grade configurations, and teacher assignments. A Hamilton Project policy paper of the Brookings Institute. Educational Digest, Prakken Publications.

Kellough, R.F. & Kellough, N.G. (1999). Middle school teaching: A guide to methods and resources. (3rd ed.). Upper Saddlle River, NJ: Merrill.

Kesidou, S. & Roseman, J.E. (2002). How well do middle school science programs measure up? Findings from Project 2061's curriculum review. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 39(6), 522-549).

Kinney, D.A. (1993 Jan). From nerds to normal: the recovery of identity among adolescents from middle school o high school. Sociology of Education, 66(1), 21-40.

Kleran, E. (1992). Imagination in Teaching and Learning: The Middle School Years. Chicago, IL University of Chicago Press.

Kolodner, J.L., Camp, P.J., Crismond, D., Fasse, B., Gray, J., Holbrook, J., Puntambekar, S. & Ryan, M. (2003). Problem-Based Learning meets Case-Based Reasoning in the middle-school science classroom: Putting learning by Design(TM) into practice. Journal of Learning Sciences 12(4), 495-547.

Krueger, A.B. & Whitemore, D.M. (2001). The effects of attending a small class in the early grades on college-test taking and middle school test results: Evidence from Project STAR. The Economic Journal, 111(468), 1-28.

Lesh, B. (2011). “Why won’t you just tell us the answer?!: Teaching historical thinking in grades 7-12. Stenhouse Publishing.

Levine, M.P., Smolak, L., Moodey, A.F., Shuman, M.S. & Hessen, L.D. (21994&2006). Normative developmental challenges and dieting and eating disturbances in middle school girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15(1), 11-20.

Levstik, L.S. & Barton, K.C. (2011). Doing history: Investing with children in elementary and middle schools. New York: Routledge.

Lorain, P. (2011). Transition to middle school. National Education Association. Retrieved on 22 December 2012 from http://www.nea.org/tools/16657.htm

Lorain, P. (2012). Brain development in young adolescents: Good news for middle school teachers. National Education Association. Retrieved on 22 December 2012 from http://www.nea.org/tools/16653.htm

Manning, M.L. & Bucher, K.T. (2011). Teaching in the middle school (4th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Martin, W. & Schwerdt, G. (2012). The middle school plunge. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University, Hoover Institution.

McAnnally, E.A. (2010). Middle school general music: The best part of your day. R&L Education.

McEwin, C. K., Dickinson, T. S., & Jenkins, D. (1996). America’s middle schools: Practices

and programs-A 25-year perspective. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association.

McEwin, C. K., Dickinson, T. S., & Jenkins, D. M. (2003). America’s middle schools in the new century: Status and progress. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Midgley, C., Anderman, E. & Hicks, L. (1995). Differences between elementary and middle school teachers and students: A goal theory approach. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15(1), 90-113.

Mizelle, N.B. & Irvin, J.L. (2000 May). Transition from Middle School to High School. What Research Says. Middle School Journal, 31(5), 57-61.

National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents : A position paper of the National Middle School Association. Westerville, OH: NMSA. Available in Google Books: http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=RgJjcMQUZWgC&pg=PR3&dq=middle+schoo+&lr=&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3

Oakes, A. & Waite, W. (2009). Middle-to-high-school transition practical strategies to consider. Washington, DC: Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement.

Pajare, F. Critner, S.L. & Valiante, G. (2000). Relations between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 406-422.

Pajares, F. & Graham, L. (1999). Self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and mathematics performance on entering middle school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(2), 124-139.

Robb, L. (2010). Teaching middle school writers: What every English teacher needs to know. Boynton/Cook.

Robb, L. (2010). Teaching reading in middle school (2nd ed.): A strategic approach to teaching reading that improves comperhension and thinking. Scholastic Teaching Resources

Roeser, R.W., Eccles, J.S. & Sameroff, A.J. (1998 Jun). Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: Longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school. Development and Psychopathology, 10(2), 321-352.

Roseoro, A.J.S., Jago, C. &Schultze, Q.J. (2010). Teaching middle school language arts: Incorporating twenty-first century literacies. R&L Education.

Ryan, A.M. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents’ motivation and engagement during middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 437-460.

Schwerdt, G. & West, M.R. (2011). The Impact of alternative grade configurations on student outcomes through middle and high school. Program on Education Policy and Governance, Harvard University 11-02. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.

Smolak, L., Levine, M.P. & Thompson, K. (2001). The use of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire with middle school boys and girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(2), 216-223. DOI: 10.1002/1098-108X(200103)29:2<216::AID-EAT1011>3.0.CO;2-V

Sweetland, S.R. (2000). School characteristics and educational outcomes: Toward an organizational model of student achievement in middle schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(5), 703-729.

Thompson, K.F. & Homestead, E.P. (2004 Jan). Middle school organization through the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Middle School Journal, 35(3), 1-7. Retrieved 22 December 2012 from

Valentine, J. W., Clark, D., Irvin, J., Keefe, J., & Melton, G. (1993). Leadership in middle level education, volume I: A national survey of middle level leaders and schools. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.

Van de Walle, J., Karp, K.S. & Bay-Williams, J.M. (2012). Instructor's review copy and field experience guide for elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally, 8/E. New York: Pearson Education.

Weiss, C.C. & Baker-Smith, C. (2010). Eighth-grade school form and resilience in the transition to high school: A comparison of middle schools and K.8 schools. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(4), 825-839. doi: 10.1111/j.1532.7795.2010.00664.x

Wentzel, K. R. (1998 Jun). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202-209. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.202

Wentzel, K. R. (1997 Sept). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 411-419. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.411

Wentzel, K. R., Barry, C.M. & Caldwell K. A. (2004 Jun). Friendships in middle school: Influences on motivation and school adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 195-203. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.195

Wentzel, K.R. & Caldwell, K. (1997/2006). Friendships, Peer Acceptance, and Group Membership: Relations to academic achievement in middle school. Child Development, 68(6), 1198-1209. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01994.x

Wineburg, S., Martin, D & Monte-Sano, C. (2011). Reading like a historian: Teaching literacy in middle and high school history classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press.

Wormeli, R. (2001). Meet me in the middle: Becoming an accomplished middle level teacher. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair isn’t always equal: Assessing and grading in the differentiated classroom. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

CONTACT

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Director of IDEA (Instituto de Enseñanza y Aprendizaje; Teaching and Learning Institute) of the Universidad San Francisco de Quito Casa Corona – planta baja Cumbayá, Diego de Robles y vía Interoceánica Quito, Ecuador, 17-22 Telf.: 297-1700 x 1338 o 297-1937 [email protected]