Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2

7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2

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Ten Key Factors thatInfluence SuccessfulBilingualism and

Multilingualism

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.Know-It-All Switzerland

September 2013


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1. Benefits ofbilingualism andmultilingualism

2. Game:Myths ofMultilingualism

3. State of the research

4. Questions andgeneral discussion.


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BackgroundBA and BS from Boston University in InternationalRelations and Mass Communication (magna cum

laude). Masters from Harvard University inInternational Education and Development anddoctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (cross-disciplinary approach comparing findings inneuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, culturalanthropology and linguistics).

Director of the Institute for Research and EducationalDevelopment, Universidad San Francisco de Quito,Ecuador.

Author of Raising Multilingual Children (2001), TheMultilingual Mind (2003), and Living Languages (2008).New book on neuroscience and language 2014.

Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 24years of comparative research based on family casestudies (Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France,Switzerland, Germany) and work in 24 differentcountries.

Three children (raised in English, Spanish, German and

French).


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Three children (raised in English,

Spanish, German and French)


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Cognitive benefits:

Social benefits:

Economic benefits:

Personal benefits:

Communicationbenefits:

Cultural benefits:

Academic benefits:

Enhanced higher thinking skills (metalinguisticawareness, creativity, sensitivity to

communication, inhibitory control, flexiblethinking). Integration, appreciation of other cultures

Marketability of bilingual skills, government- andbusiness- recognized need.

Psychological well-being, self confidence, senseof belonging, enhanced identity with roots.

Literacy in three languages enables access towider literature and a wider communicationnetwork of family, international links.

Greater tolerance, less racism, bigger interculturalsense.

Easier to learn the third language, increasedcurriculum achievement--impact on othersubjects.

Linguist John Maher, of International Christian University in Tokyo (2002). The Practical Linguist: Make the most ofthe bilingual advantage. The Daily Yomiuri. Japan. Reformatted by Tokuhama-Espinosa 2005.


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(Neuro)linguistics:

Benefits of bilingualism

Bilingual children learn have higher levels of abstraction atearlier ages than monolinguals. (1)

Bilinguals learn to manage language rules at an earlier agethan monolinguals. (2)

Bilinguals learn to inhibit (ignore information calling forattention) earlier and with faster speed that monolinguals,

which directly relates to executive functions (3). Bilinguals use more of their brains than monolinguals. (3).

1. Suzanne Flynn professor of linguistics and second-language acquisition at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology; Ellen Bialystok, professor of psychology at York University in Toronto. 2. Adele Diamond, director of theCenter for Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Waltham. 3.Patricia Kuhl of the University of Washington .


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No disadvantages

Our findings suggest that early bilingualism offers nodisadvantages; on the contrary, young bilinguals may beafforded a linguistic and a cognitive advantage.

Early dual language exposure is also key to skilled readingacquisition.

Moreover, learning to read in two languages may afford

an advantage to children from monolingual homes in keyphoneme awareness skills vital to reading success.

Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20

*VIDEO 2: Does learning language make kids smarter?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxE (1:38 mins)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxEhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxEhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxE


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Children who experience early, extensive, and systematic

exposure to both of their languages quickly grasp the

fundamentals of both of their languages and in a manner

virtually identical to that of monolingual language learners.

Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20

*VIDEO 3: More Evidence Bilingualism Aids Thinking Skillshttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspx (4:03 mins)
http://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspx


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One minute paper on

-Languages-Bilingual Education -The Multilingual Brain(or any related title)


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Have a look at the paperson your seats. Which are

myths of multilingualism andwhich are true statements?

*Also see: Harvard lecture on Bilingualism andMultilingualism, Jan 2013 (Tokuhama-Espinosa) :http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=420EHD4TfOU


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The Ten Key Factors

1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity)2. Aptitude3. Motivation4. Strategy

5. Consistency6. Opportunity and support (home, school, community)7. Linguistic and historic relationship between

languages

8. Siblings9. Gender10.Hand-use as a reflection of cerebral dominance for

languages11.. and?


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True and False Quiz

Do you believe thestatement is true or false?

Why?

(Origins: These arestatements made by

teachers, doctors andparents I met while doingmy research.)


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True or False?

1. By learning

more than onelanguage achild can suffer

brain overload.

Nitsch, C., Franceschini, R., Ldi, G., Rad, E.-W., 2006; Hirsch, 1997.


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True or False?

2. Somelanguages areeasier to learnthan others.

Baker, 2004; Pinker, 2000.


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True or False?

3. Bilinguals are

more creativethanmonolinguals.

Kharkhurin, A.V. (2012); Ricardelli, 1992


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True or False?

4. Bilingualism

can causeproblems suchas stuttering

and dyslexia.

Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.


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True or False?

5. It is impossible

for an adult tolearn a newlanguage as fast

as a child.



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True or False?

6. It is impossiblefor an adult tolearn a newlanguage without

an accent.



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True or False?

7. When a childlearns hislanguages frombirth he iseffectively learning

them as two firstlanguages.


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1. Languages are separate and dont overlap(firewall model).

2. The second language is learned on top of thefirst.

3. The two languages are separate but overlap in

some areas (overlap hypothesis).

L1 L2


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Two languages in one brain:

Brain scans show that peoplebrought up bilingual from birth havelanguages in the same area of thebrain as monolinguals.

People who learn languages afterthe first seven months or so actuallyuse different areas for processingsounds, or simply do not perceivesounds, which are notrepresentative in their nativelanguage at all.

Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto, 2008; Fennell, Byers-Heinlein & Werker , 2006.


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AntonioRodriguez-Fornells,

Michael Rotte,Hans-JochenHeinze, TmmeNsselt andThomas F. Mnte

(28 February2002). Brainpotential andfunctional MRIevidence for how

to handle twolanguages withone brain. Nature

415, 1026-1029doi:10.1038/4151026a


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Humans have a unique ability to learn more

than one language-a skill that is thought tobe mediated by functional (rather thanstructural) plastic changes in the brain.

Mechelli, A. and J. T. Crinion and U. Noppeney and J. Ashburner and R. S. Frackowiak and C.J. Price (2004).


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True or False?

8. All people

have the samearea of theirbrain to speak

differentlanguages.


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True or False?9. It is notrecommended that

children learnliteracy skills in twolanguagessimultaneously

(children should notlearn to read in twodifferent languagesat once).


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Steps TowardsMultiliteracy Skills:

1. Understand the use of thewritten word

2. Learn the phonemicalphabet

3. Acknowledge exceptionsin sound to letter relation

4. Acknowledge exceptionsbetween languages

5. Practice: Familiarity,Repetition and Frequency

O l Skill Lit Skill


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Oral Skills

(Basic Communication)

Literacy Skills(Academic)

Time 1 Average 2 years to reach

native languageequivalent (however, thisis highly influenced by theage and motivation ofthe learner)

Average 5-7 years to

reach nativelanguage equivalent

Definition 2 Playground language Classroomlanguage

Characteristics 3

Origins

Supported byinterpersonal cues suchas gestures, facialexpressions andintonation.

Anglo-Saxon

De-contextualizedlanguage

Graeco-Latin

1. Cummins (1981); 2. Gibbins (1999); 3. Corson (1993, 1995)


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True or False?

10. The general

research findingsexamining trilingualsbrains to date point to

no pattern formultilingualism.

Nitsch, Franceschini, Ldi, Rad, n/d


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True or False?

11. Multilinguals

are shown to befaster at workingmemory tasks

thanmonolinguals.

Baddeley, 2001


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True or False?

12. Bilingual students

achieve higher results

on English-language

proficiency tests than

their Anglophone,monolingual peers.

Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994


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The Facts and Studies-The Benefits of Multilingualism

Bilingual students achieve higherresults on English-language

proficiency tests than theirAnglophone, monolingual peers_:

Significant effects of bilingualismwere found on four of fivemeasures, i.e., listening, speaking,writing, & vocabulary/grammar.No significant effect on readingability was observed.


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True or False?

13. A nine-year-old has the samesize brain as an adult; thereforethey learn foreign languages in

the same way.

Suddath, Christison, Torrey, Casanova & Weinberger, 1990.


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True or False?

14. The more

languages youknow, the easier it

gets to learn an

additional one.

Government of Canada, 2003; University of Oxford,2003


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True and False?

15. The quality of the first language

impacts the quality of the secondlanguage, and the quality of thethird language depends on thequality of the second language.

Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994


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True or False?

16. Most of theworld ismonolingual.

Nitsch, 2004


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There are roughly2,500-6,000lanagues in the

world.

The most widely spokenlanguages withapproximate number of

native speakers are thefollowing, totaling a littlemore than half of theworlds population:

Native languages speakers


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Myths

A child should first study his native language, thenafter he has mastered this, then learn a new one.A child who learns two languages simultaneouslywill be confused and have lower intelligence.

A child with two languages will never feelcompletely secure in either.A bilingual child will always have identity problemsand feel a lack of belonging to his cultures because

he will never fully be a part of either.Bilinguals tend to translate from the weakerlanguage to the stronger.True bilinguals never mix their languages.

Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narvez, 2009


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Benefits of bilingualism

Myths of multilingualism Video: Bilingualism (Benefits and Myths)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8 (3:18 mins)

Should an Autistic child be bilingual? Autistic Children BenefitWhen Allowed to Remain Bilingualhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Y (3:14mins)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8


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The Ten Key Factors that influence

successful bilingualism andmultilingualism


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The Ten Key Factors

1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity)

2. Aptitude

3. Motivation

4. Strategy

5. Consistency

6. Opportunity and support (home, school, community)

7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages

8. Sibllings

9. Gender

10. Hand-use as a reflection of cerebral dominance forlanguages

11. and?


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1. The Windows of Opportunity

1. First: 0 a 9 months

(A window-and-a-half: 9 a24-30 months)

2. Second : 4 a 8 years

3. Third: 8 years + (fromold-age and back)

Language Milestones*2-3 Normal Mixing Stage3-4 Labeling of Languages5+ Cognizant of translation

concept

4-10 syntactic conservationism

*Remember that children can varyby as much as a year in eitherdirection related to languagedevelopment!


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2. Aptitude

Something one is born with

Approximately 10% of the

population

Measuring

MFLAT

Gardners definition of Intelligence

Levines neurodevelopmentalconstructs


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3. Motivation

Internal vs.External

Positive vs.

Negative

Positive (+) Negative (-)

Intrinsic

Extrinsic


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4. Strategy 5. Consistency

Seven most practicedstrategies

Do not have to besimple

They should be

consistent (especiallyfor younger children).

Sample Strategies


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Sample Strategies


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6. Opportunity and Support

How many times a daydoes the child have thechance to use the targetlanguage(s) in a given

day?At HomeIn SchoolWithin the Community

Who takes responsibility for

language learning? (TheChild himself? The School?The Community? TheFamily?)


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Sample language families (Europe)

Proto-Indo-European Languages Indo-Iranian

Iran (Persian, Kurd) Indo-Aryan (Hindu, Urdu, Bengali, Nepalese)

Indo-European Latin (French, Spanish Portuguese, Italian,

Rumanian)

Dutch (German, English, Dutch, Danish,Swedish)

Czech-Slovak (Czech, Slovak, Polish,Serbian-Croatian, Ukrainian, Russian)

Celtic (Gaelic, Gales) Baltic (Lithuanian, Letn) Greek Albanian Armenian

Other European languages Ugrians (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian) Basque Caucasus (Georgian, Chechen)


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Koryakov Y.B. Atlas of Romance languages. Moscow, 2001


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages


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Sample language families(Africa)

African languages

Afro-Asian Semite (Arabic, Hebrew)

Chadic Bereber

Cushitic

Egyptian

Nilo-Saharan (Masai)

Niger-Congo Yoruba

Bantu (Swahili, Bantu)

Hoisin (Nama)


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Sample language families(Asia)

Asian Pacific languages Dravidic (Tamil) Munda (Khmer, Vietnamese) Burushaski

Altaic (Mongol, Turkish, Tungus) Japanese Korean Sino-Tibetan (Chinese, Tibetan,

Burmese)

Thai (Thai) Austroasian (Malay, Bahasa,

Hawaiian, Tagalog)

Papua Aborigine Australian


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Sample language families(America)

American languages Esquimalt - Aleut (Inuit, Greenlandic)

Na-Deme

Athabasca (Navajo)

Algonquin (Other native languages)

Iroquoian

Siouan

Ute-Azteca (Nahuatl , Quechua )

Quechua Tup-Guaran

Jvaro

Ticuna


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Linguistic typologies

Based on Greenberg, 1966, Typological Ensembles


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First and second languagesinfluences on the acquisition of

a third language

Typology (similarity between languages)

Speakers level of proficiency Linguistic awareness

Time spent on language

Education level of the student

Age when language is learned Parent involvement

Teacher qualifications


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Typology

This appears to be the most importantvariable in determining the likelihood of

language transfer_ Similarity between languages

Languages that share grammar (aswith Latin roots), vocabulary, or have a

similar phoneme base are easier tolearn.


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8. Siblings

Positive influences

Negative influences


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9. Gender

Are there differences betweenboys and girls (men andwomen) related to language?

How are these measured?

What does this imply in terms ofchildren learning foreign

languages?


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10. Hemispheric dominancefor languages

Reflection of cerebral dominance

95% of right-handed people and 70% of left-handedpeople have Broca and Wernickes Area in the lefthemisphere.

What does this mean for teaching materials that are

developed for the majority?
http://www.mariarc.liv.ac.uk/small.jpg


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11. What other factor is missing?


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The Ten Key Factorsin Raising Multilingual Children

1. Timing and The Windows of Opportunity

2. Aptitude for Foreign Languages

3. Motivation

4. Strategy

5. Consistency

6. Opportunity and Support (Home, School and Community)

7. Language Typology and Similarities

8. Siblings9. Gender

10. Hand Use

11. ????

Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2000


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Individual influences


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Time spent on language

The more language is practiced, the moreproficient one becomes.

Amount of exposure has a strong effect

on the likelihood of both positive andnegative language transfer_

The role of linguistic exposure functionssimilarly in L2 and L3 acquisition.


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Education level of the student

[Language] learners who have highlydeveloped language skills (such asreading, writing and richness ofvocabulary) in their native language willmost likely find that these skills facilitate

second language acquisition, thoughthis has been less explored in L3 learners.


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Age when language is learned

Human beings can and do learn foreignlanguages throughout the lifespan.

Some considerations:

In a comparison of children in grades 2, 6 and 9, it

was found that the older children used morelanguage transfer (displaying greatermetalinguistic awareness)_. The younger thechildren; the general guideline is that child

learners are less likely to draw on the L1 the ages 4-10 are marked by syntactic

conservationism during which children tend tostick to one syntactic pattern, whereas adults are

more flexible.


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Speakers level of proficiency

There is a general consensusamong researchers that languagetransfer is more likely to occur atlower levels of proficiency whenthey use L1 or L2 to fill in language

gaps in L3.


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Linguistic awareness

characterized by increased meta-linguisticawareness, greater creativity and cognitive

flexibility, and more diversified mental abilities._

Awareness is not limited to linguistic structure andsemantics but also affects phonological,pragmatic, and sociolinguistic knowledge_


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Individual learning strategies

The degree of proficiency, time and order offoreign language learning are less important

than motivation and interaction with thetarget language.

Furthermore, proficiency and degree ofactivation are more important than

typological similarity with target language.


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Individual learning strategies

Metacognition

Role of First, Second Languages in Third

Language AcquisitionUse of inference

Vocabulary acquisition

Motivation and frequent use


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Metacognition:The Multilingual Mind

The manner in which word forms are connected to the otherwords in the multilingual minds: is this connection is mediatedby the first language or not. It has been found that firstlanguages do not necessarily play a privileged role in theacquisition of subsequent languages. The reaction timesmeasured showed that despite the claims in the literature,first language does not seem to have a determining role inthe development of a third language.

Findings suggest that both L1 and L2 have a role: L1 is thedefault supplier during transfer lapses and L2 duringinteractional strategies.


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Metacognition:The Multilingual Mind

Parasitism as a default mechanism in L3vocabulary acquisition (Christopher J. Hall andPeter Ecke) presupposes that new words areintegrated into existing lexical network with leastpossible redundancy and as rapidly as possible inorder to become accessible for communication.The authors propose that the multilingual lexicon

admits cross-linguistic transfer (CLI) from all possiblesource languages and at all representationallevels.


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The Mother Tongue Dilemma

The questions:Can a child develop strong

second language skills ifthey have a weak mothertongue (as in when theycome from poorerbackgrounds and have notbeen properly schooled inthe home language)?

Amount of exposure has astrong effect on the

likelihood of both positiveand negative languagetransfer1

Part of the answer:

[Language] learners whohave highly developedlanguage skills (such asreading, writing and

richness of vocabulary) intheir native language willmost likely find that theseskills facilitate secondlanguage acquisition2

1. Dewaele, J. (2001). Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the language

mode continuum;2. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .


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The Facts and Studies

4. The more languages you know, the easier it gets tolearn an additional one_.

5. Third-language learners are highly successful; theylearn more language faster than second languagelearners of the same target language; and (2) theirbehaviours are those of the self-directed learner_.

6. Semilingualism is a relatively rare phenomenonand is defined by a lack of dominance in any of thelanguages one is acquainted with_.


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The Facts and Studies

7. In 2000, more than a third of thepopulation of Western Europeunder 35 was of immigrant origin,according to a recent UNESCOreport on linguistic diversity in

Europe.

8. A study done in The Hague in1999 showed that in a sample of41,600 children aged between 4and 17, about 49% of primary

and 42% of secondary schoolpupils use a language otherthan Dutch at home, such asTurkish, Hindi, Berber or Arabic.

One-half to two-thirds of the

world is bilingual ormultilingual.


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School influences.


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Aspects of a good teacher

training program: Train teachers in English language instruction;

Have regular meetings for discussing instructional issuesand exchanging ideas;

Develop an activity-based and thematic syllabus; Program co-ordinators observe classrooms several times a

year;

Apply a formative evaluation using Portfolios

Observation

An attitude survey of teachers, parents, and administrators A teacher survey, and

English language testing.


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What does a good multilingualschool look like?


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Guidelines for Assessing Bilingualand Trilingual Children

Assessment must be developmentally and culturallyappropriate.

The child's bilingual linguistic background must betaken into consideration in any authenticassessment of oral language proficiency.Bilingualism is a complex concept and includes

individuals with a broad range of speaking, reading,writing, and comprehending abilities in eachlanguage. Furthermore, these abilities are constantlyin flux.


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A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requiresthe involvement of parents and family members, the studentsthemselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed pictureof the context of language learning and the resources that

are available to the child (Nissani, 1990).

What is called for is a description of the child's languageenvironment, of the extent to which significant others-adults orchildren-provide language assistance by modeling,

expanding, restating, repeating, questioning, prompting,negotiating meaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providingvisual and other supports.

Assessment of the child needs to take into account the entirecontext in which the child is learning and developing.


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Seven observations of good

multilingual programs*

1. First, successful multilingual programs startforeign language instruction early, normally in

elementary school.

2. Second, successful multilingual programsteach through coherent, well-articulatedframeworks, which are careful to scaffold their

learning in a developmental style.

*Elizabeth Clayton, Center for Applied Linguistics


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3. Third, the successful multilingual schools typically

enjoy strong leadership, and have enthusiastic

backing from key stakeholders.

4. Fourth, successful multilingual programs teach

languages as core subjects, (unlike the American

tendency to make foreign languages electives).

5. Fifth, successful multilingual school teachers

receive rigorous preparation and are trained how

to manage students from different languagebackgrounds. They also make language a priority,

giving it equal status with prestigious courses like

Math, Physics and Core Language.


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T dditi l h t i ti f


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Ten additional characteristics ofsuccessful multilingual schools*

1. Successful multilingual schools ensure that

language basics, including phonemic

awareness, phonic fluency, age appropriate

vocabulary, text comprehension and grammar

are taught explicitly.

2. They emphasize good oral skills and encourage

active, authentic language use by students.3. Successful multilingual schools integrate the

students family in a positive way.

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2007

4 They use a variety of assessment tools and


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4. They use a variety of assessment tools andconsider the product, the process and theprogress of the student.

5. Some of the most successful schools use thematicsyllabi and work within dual-immersion structuresin which all students take pride in their homelanguage while learning a second or third.

6. The most successful schools conduct linguistic

and ethnic audits and know their clients(students) well. When possible, they hire staff thatspeak the home languages of the families theyserve and make every effort to keep clearchannels of communication.


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7. Successful schools conduct regular teachertraining to ensure that teachers keep an up

to date toolbox of activities handy.

8. They also have high expectations of theirstudents.

9. The best multilingual schools allow a portionof their budget to be invested in multilingualmaterials and media.

10. Successful multilingual schools do their best

to create a significant learning experiences,which relate new information to priorknowledge, and give students a certain levelof autonomy (control and choice).


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An overview of the most

effective language programsin multilingual schools


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Partial immersion

Characteristics:

There is some initial instruction in the

childs primary language, thirty to sixtyminutes a day,

This is usually limited to the introduction

of initial reading skills. All otherinstruction is in the second language.


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Dual immersion

Characteristics:

Two languages are taught to the same group,normally divided by native vs. non-native

speakers.

Normally taught by two different team teachers.

Can be conducted from 30-70 to 50-50 model

(time in designated languages).Need for qualified teachers.

High level of peer teaching.


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(E)SL Pullout

Characteristic:

Students are taken out of regular classtime for support in the secondlanguage.


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(E)SL Sheltered

Characteristic:

Students remain in class with the otherstudents, but are given a tutor in theclass.


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Early English Immersion

All instruction is in English

English is taught through the contentareas (as well as a separate subject)


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Early Exit Programs

There is some initial instruction in the childs

primary language, thirty to sixty minutes a

day,This is usually limited to the introduction of

initial reading skills. All other instruction is in

English.


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Late exist programs

Receive a minimum of forty-percent oftheir total instructional time in Dutch.

Students remain in this program throughsixth grade, regardless of when they arereclassified as fluent-English proficient.


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Results: Comparing programs

Children in immersion programs had comparabletest scores regardless of the school theyamended; the same was true for students in theearly-exit programs (Ramirez et al., 1991, Vol. II, p.96).

In sum, after four years [K-3] in their respective

programs, limited-English proficient students inimmersion strategy and early-exit programs (asdefined in this study) demonstrate comparableskills in mathematics, language, and readingwhen tested in English. (ES, p. 20)

Different growth curves


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Different growth curvesbetween immersion strategy,

early-exit, and late-exit students

While the growth curves for immersion strategy and early-exitstudents show growth for first to third grade in mathematics,English language, and reading skills, they also show a sawingdown in the rate of growth in each of these content areas asgrade level increases. This deceleration in growth is similar tothat observed for students in the general population.

Different growth curves


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Different growth curvesbetween immersion strategy,

early-exit, and late-exit students

In contrast, the growth curves for students in the late-exit

program from first grade to third grade and from third gradeto sixth grade suggest not only continued growth in theseareas, but continued acceleration in the rate of growth,which is as fast or faster than the norming population. That is,late-exit students appear to be gaining on students in the

general population.


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Virginia Colliers Model

When first language instructional support cannot be provided,the following program characteristics can make a significantdifference in academic achievement:

Second language taught through academic content

Conscious focus on teaching learning strategies needed todevelop thinking skills and problem-solving abilities

Continuous support for staff development emphasizingactivation of students' prior knowledge, respect for students'home language and culture, cooperative learning, interactiveand discovery learning, intense and meaningfulcognitive/academic development, and ongoing assessmentusing multiple measures.


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Teachers role


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Characteristics of a good teacher


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Characteristics of a good teacher

In groups:

Put the characteristic in order of importance:

CaringKnowledgeable

ExperiencedIntelligent

Planner

OrganizedJust

HappyDedicatedBalanced

Good valuesCreative

ProfessionalConcerned

Reflective

RespectfulActive

SureDidacticDynamic


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The Facts about Teacher Importance

The quality of the teacher is the singlemost important factor influencing student

success.

In research on Third Language Acquisition,Cenoz and Lindsay (1994) highlight thevital role of the teacher.

Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994; Aarts & Verrhoeven, 1999; Marzano and pickering, 1998.


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What motivates students?


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1. Teacher enthusiasm2. Relevance of the subject3. Organization of course

4. Appropriate difficulty level5. Active participation bystudent

6. Variety of activities andmethodology

7. Personal link between teacherand student

8. Use of appropriate, concreteand clear examples.

According to Sass (1989), the eight most influential factors thatmotivate students and that are controlled by the teacher are:

Sass, E. J. "Motivation in the College Classroom: What Students Tell Us." Teaching of Psychology, 1989,

16(2), 86-88.


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Question:


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Ques o :Teacher translation

Regarding translations, we donot have any specific guidelinesabout what to do. We

encourage teachers to useEnglish for classroommanagement and to translateutterances in Dutch into Englishand recast it. We always givethe advice that a child needs tobe understood first andforemost.


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Quality of the Teacher

High EFL (EAL) teacherqualifications means:

Being versed in appropriate teachingmethods

Understanding of students nativelanguage structure (or being able tospeak it)

Understanding of learning styles

Owning a good toolbox of

motivational skills Appropriate use of evaluation and

feedback mechanisms

Respect for other cultures


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Teaching practices-What to do


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g p

Teacher should make classes

student-centered and try

NOT speak most of the time,

nor initiate the majority of theexchanges by asking display

questions, but rather seek out

student-initiated requests.

Musumeci, D. (1996). "Teacher-Learner Negotiation in Content-Based Instruction: Communication at Cross-

Purposes." Applied Linguistics 17(3): 286-324.


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g p

Teachers should not

only modify their own

speech in response to

students' requests(verbal or non-verbal),

they should also request

modifications of the

students' speech.





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g p

Sustained negotiation - in

which teachers and

students verbally resolve

incomplete or inaccurate

messagesshould occur

frequently.




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The person who does the


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The person who does the

work is the person who learns.

A paradigm shift:


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A paradigm shift:

The teacher doesnot have to answerall the questions:

The art ofanswering aquestion with aquestion.

The science ofgetting students toanswer each other.

Student-Centered Learning


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Before: Teacher-centered From the sageon stage to the guide onthe side

Now: Student-centered(Subject-centered)The students are theprotagonists, and theteachers work is primarilyin the planning, not theexecution, of classactivities.

Classroom strategies: Methods


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Classroom strategies: Methodsfor better language learning

1. Cooperative learning and other groupingstrategies (allow for native language use)

2. Task-based or experiential learning3. Inter-disciplinary activities (authentic learning)

4. Push for vocabulary development (grammarfollows natural samples)

5. Use of graphic organizers/portfolios to trackdevelopment.


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Steven Zemelman, Harvey


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Daniels, y Arthur Hyde (2002):

Best practices1. Student-centered2. Experiential3. Holistic4. Authentic5. Expressive6. Reflective7. Social8. Collaborative9. Democratic

10. Cognitive11. Developmental12. Constructivist13. Challenging14. (fun)

Emotional aspects of learning


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Emotional aspects of learning

When aconcept fightswith an emotion,the emotionalmost always

wins.

Sousa, D. (2002). Cmo aprende el cerebro, p.53.


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Classroom strategies:Methods for better third


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Methods for better third

language learning Cooperative learning and other grouping

strategies (allow for native language use)

Task-based or experiential learning

Whole language strategies

Push for vocabulary development (grammarfollows natural samples)

Use of graphic organizers/portfolios to trackdevelopment.


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DAILY PRACTICE


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L. Dee Fink (2003) Creating Significant Learning Experiences, p.22


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Socratic Method

Never tell what you can ask.


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Characteristics of a person who thinks critically


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Characteristics of a person who thinks critically

Intellectual curiosity

Intellectual courage

Intellectual humility

Intellectual empathy

Intellectual integrity Intellectual perseverance

(intellectual generosity)

Faith in reason

Act justly: Have the disposition and

be conscience of the necessity to

consider improbable outcomes.

Paul (1992) cited in Muoz & Beltrn 2001, tranalated by the author

Examples of activities thatstimulate critical thinking


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stimulate critical thinking

1. Debate

2. Problem-based learning

3. Case studies

4. Stories, fables

5. Dramatization

6. Role play

7. Crossword puzzels8. Questioning

The Art of Questioning Essential Questions


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The 5 Es

5 Es:l l i


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Engage, Explore, Explain,

Elaborate, EvaluateLinks:

Constructivism and the 5 Es from the Miami Museum of Sciencehttp://www.miamisci.org/ph/lpintro5e.html

The 5 Es from the Afterschool Training Toolkit, SouthwesternEducational Development Laboratoryhttp://www.sedl.org/afterschool/toolkits/science/tk_5Es.htmlOnline

Cursos para profesores: La evolucin de la enseanzaexcelentesejemplos de la utilizacin de las cinco Es en una unidadde PBSOnline http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/course/


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E1: Engage

Each class should begin with

an event that captivates

the attention of the

students.

This awakens the natural

curiosity that they might

have about the topic and

helps them make links with

past knowledge.

E2: Explore


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E2: Explore

Students then do an activitythat allows them to explore anew concept or skills.

Students looks for solutions to

problems or to explain aphenomena in their ownwords.

This stage permits students togather a group of sharedexperiences and worktogether to find a solution.

E3: Explain


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3: p a

Only after the studentshave explored the concepton their own should theteacher then explain usingthe correct terminology.

Remember: Explanationsafter the experience!


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E4: Elaborate

In this stage give the studentsto deepen their

understanding and to applywhat they have learned tonew situations.

Here, be sure to allow

students to discuss theirideas.

E5: Evaluate


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The final unit of the class hastwo objectives:

First that students develop aclear understanding.

Second, to evaluate whatthey think they can now do.

At this point it is logical toevaluate key concepts andskills.


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Evaluation and Assessment



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and Trilingual Children

Assessment must be developmentally and

culturally appropriate.

The child's bilingual linguistic background

must be taken into consideration in anyauthentic assessment of oral language

proficiency. Bilingualism is a complex

concept and includes individuals with a

broad range of speaking, reading, writing,

and comprehending abilities in each

language. Furthermore, these abilities are

constantly in flux.



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The goal must be to assess the child's

language or languages without

standardizing performance, allowing

children to demonstrate what they

can do in their own unique ways. Assessment must be accompanied

by a strong professional

development component that

focuses on the use of narrativereporting, observations of language

development, and sampling the

child's language abilities.

Guidelines for Assessment


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Guidelines for Assessment

A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requiresthe involvement of parents and family members, the studentsthemselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed picture ofthe context of language learning and the resources that areavailable to the child (Nissani, 1990).

What is called for is a description of the child's languageenvironment, of the extent to which significant others-adults orchildren-provide language assistance by modeling, expanding,restating, repeating, questioning, prompting, negotiatingmeaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providing visual and

other supports. Assessment of the child needs to take into account the entire

context in which the child is learning and developing.


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Guidelines for Assessing Bilinguald T ili l Child


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PRODUCT

PROCESS

PROGRESS

Assessment must bedevelopmentallyand culturally

appropriate.

McLauahglin, B., Blanchard, A.G., & Osani, Y. (1995). Assessing Language Development inBilingual Prechool Children. NCB Program Information Guide Series, Number 22, Summer 1995.

EVALUATION

PRODUCT

PROCESSPROGRESS


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Backward Design

Grant Wiggins and JayMcTighe (1998/2005).

Understanding bydesign. Alexandria, VA:Association forSupervision andCurriculum

Development.

Three steps to ensuring understanding(backward design)


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Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.

Step 1. Identify desired results


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Start with the end in mind.

Think of competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes):What should students know, understand and be able todo?

Determine important knowledge (facts, concepts,principles, dates, formulas).

Determine important skills (processes, strategies andmethods).

Determine important attitudes (e.g., empathy, intellectualhonesty, perseverance)


St 1 Id tif d i d lt


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Step 1. Identify desired results

Determine what content area will be the focus ofevaluation.

Why it is important to do so? What is the enduring understanding that is the object

of the teaching?


Global

Knowledgeformulas,

datess, facts,names, etc.


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Objetives

Global

Specific CompetenciesSkills able to do"

Attitudesvalues,

perspectives

Step 2. Determine AcceptableEvidence (Evaluation activities)


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Evidence (Evaluation activities)

Backward designs focus forces usto think about each unit of theclass in terms of assessmentevidence to document and

validate desired learningobjectives.

How do we know if the studentsare achieving the results wedesire and the standards we

need?What will we accept as evidence

of learning (the achievement ofthe competencies)?


Philosophy of evaluation


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Philosophy of evaluation

1. What is the purpose ofevaluation?

2. What is the difference betweenevaluation and feedback?

3. Should we evaluate students

based on standards, or on astudents individual potential inyour subject?

How do we choose the
http://members.tripod.com/~fono/cerebro.gif


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right evaluation methods?

Criteria:

1. Is the evaluation method the mostappropriate to measure progresstowards the objective?

2. Can the instrument bedifferentiated?

Types of informal and formalevaluation methods


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evaluation methods

(summative and formative)

Observations, conversations and feedback

Tests and exams

Academic hints

Projects, simulations

Essential questions(examples)


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(examples)

How do you cultivate and sustain cultures of highexpectations and goodness?

Why do we need to learn a foreign language?

Why do we need to learn how to add (read)?

Why care?

Why is sound important?

Why do we read, write and tell stories?

Why do we need to learn about different countries?

How does energy change?

The art of questioning


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Paradigm shift:

The teacher does not

have to answer all the

questions.

Start a habit of answer a

question with a question.

Habit of centering all

classes on the student

(on learning vs. on

teaching)


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Step 3. Lesson Plans (Activities,E i d I t ti )


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Experiences and Instruction)

What activities will provide students with theknowledge and skills needed in this subject (in this

unit, in this class)? What should be taught and how should I teach it

in order to reach my stated goals? What materials are needed to conduct the

activities?

Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by

Desi n

Good Learning Environments


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g

Seven factors in good learningenvironments:

1. Safe environment

2. Intellectual freedom3. Respect

4. Self-directed

5. Paced challenges

6. Active learning7. Feedback

Billington. Seven Characteristics of Highly Effective Learning Programs, 1997.

Three considerations inki b i


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making rubrics

1. Holistic or analytic?

2. Generic or specific?

3. Scale?

Holistic or analytic?


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Holistic or analytic?

Whole product Divides product into

various characteristicsand awards each part.

For example, in a math class the teacher can choose togive a grade based on the final answer, or to givepartial credit for steps in the resolution of the problem

Holistic Analytic

Generic of specific?


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Generic of specific?

Use the same rubric to gradedaily activities

While specific rubrics

are designed for aspecific activity.

For example, a language teacher can design a rubricfor class participation which is used on a daily basis, orshe can design a rubric for a specific classpresentation.

GENERIC SPECIFIC

Scale?


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Scale?

Scales be from 1 to1000, dependingon the localcriteria.

The decision aboutthe number ofpoints isdetermined by therange of you want

to reflect.

Typical: 5 points,but4 is better!

Applications


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Options:

Some teachers give rubrics to

student at the beginning of the

semester or unit.

Others give rubrics at the start

of each graded activity.

Others develop the rubric with

the students.

What are evaluationsaccommodations?


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According toA Mind at aTime:

Accommodations are small

adjustments in the way weteach or grade in order tohelp each student findsuccess in class.

(If they are extreme, theyneither help the student northe teacher, however.)

Source:: Mel Levine, 2000.

Simple accommodations


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SPACE: Change a students seat (to improveconcentration).

PERSON: Permit feedback or evaluation in smallgroups or by peers, parents or the student himself.

TIME: Give more time to the student (so long as

the task is not time-dependent). (For example, ifthe purpose is to value the quality of writing, doesit really need to be timed?)

Source:: Mel Levine 2000.

To differentiate in evaluation


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1. Start with a good diagnosis: Whataspect of learning troubles the student?

2. Choose the correct evaluation toolbased on the objectives(competencies).

Use rubrics to consider Product,Process and Progress.

3. Apply accommodations.


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Final Big Ideas

Semilingualism


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Semilingualism

The termsemilingualism is often used to describe thelanguage situation of immigrant and language minority

populations whose native language may be different fromthe standards of their native country, yet whose secondlanguage is also considered substandard.


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What kind of an Issue?

Identity?

Linguistic?

Political?

Ex.: Does English as a thirdlanguage help or hurt


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immigrants in Holland?

English as a high prestige language: Europeslingua franca in 2005.

Bilinguals performed better learning English (as a

third language) than monolinguals.

The more languages you know, the easier it getsto learn an additional one. Third-languagelearners are highly successful; they learn morelanguage faster than second language learnersof the same target language; and (2) theirbehaviours are those of the self-directed learner.

English as a third languageHELPS low income children in


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Holland when

School programs are accompanied by

(1) Home stimulation and support for all threelanguages with special emphasis on nativelanguage fluency;

(2) Parents' motivation for schooling is high and thegive value to their childrens efforts; and

(3) Children's self-esteem is integrated into theacademic, social, cultural and cognitive goals of

multilingualism.

Future challenges


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The practical obstacles include

Continual increase in immigrant community growth.

Shortage of teachers who can teach with knowledge ofstudents native languages

A complex set of legal, administrative and funding issues inurban school districts that balance the needs of schools

The political obstacles include

Wariness and lack of support among substantial portions of

the population. Rights of new immigrants a priority?

Threat to the status of Dutch

UNESCO recommendation


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Mother tongue education and multilingualism are increasinglyaccepted around the world and speaking ones ownlanguage is more and more a right. International MotherLanguage Day, proclaimed in 1999 by UNESCO and markedon 21 February each year, is one example.


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National Language Policy


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Language is a sensitive political issue, as it is aprofound symbol of national and personalidentity.

In the Netherlands, itself containing a highpercentage of immigrants, research has beguninto the common challenges facing both "old"and "new [language minorities]. Whether or not

the EU is willing to include the thorny issue ofimmigration in a future language policy remainsa point of debate


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Questions?

Thank you for coming!


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