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Chapter 29: Financial Panning A. Financial Planning: A decision making process and tool that enable management and investors to assess Financial results and set targets for Financial growth of the Company. B. Needs of Financial Planning: A. Contingency Planning - formulate responses to inevitable surprises B. Considering options C. Forcing Consistency - firm’s growth and financing requirements should be connected C. Financial Planning Involves Setting: - ShortTerm goals and objective - LongTerm goals and objective Then design a strategy to achieve goals. D. Short Term Financial Planning Spans a period of (1) year or less Forecasting future sources and uses of cash Managing accounts receivable and accounts payable A standard against which subsequent performance can be judged Makes sensible short term borrowing and lending decisions E. Option of Short Term Financing Bang Loans Stretching Payables F. Cash Cycle A metric that expresses the length of time (in days) that it takes for a company to convert resource inputs into cash flows This metric looks at the amount of time needed to sell inventory, the amount of time needed to collect receivables and the length of time the company is afforded to pay its bills without incurring penalties. Cash Cycle (days)= average days in inventory + average collection period – average payment period G. Strategies for reducing cash flow problems: 1. Maturity Hedging 2. Decrease cash cycle time 3. Cash Budgeting 4. Cash Reserves Maturity Hedging - is paying for shortterm costs, like inventory, with shortterm loans. Decrease Cash Cycle Time - can be done by decrease their inventory and receivables time periods - delay payment to supplier Cash Budgeting - gives managers a “headsup” about when shortterm financing may be needed. - cash budget simply records estimates of cash receipts and payments. - starts with a sales forecast, usually by the quarter, for the upcoming year - used to estimate of the timing of cash collections by quarter. Cash Reserves - Keeping cash reserves and few shortterm liabilities can go a long way to help avoid financial distress. - Higher reserve = greater liquidity - Having idle cash that is not put to work or invested means future revenue is foregone. H. Long Term Financial Planning concerned with funding the growth and development of the company for three (3) to five (5) years or even longer. obtaining debt capital from commercial banks or other financial institutions. Helps to avoid surprises and be prepared for the unavoidable.

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Professor: Preeti Agrawal Coverage of Midterm: Financial Planning Working Capital Options

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Chapter  29:  Financial  Panning    A.  Financial  Planning:  

A  decision  making  process  and  tool  that  enable  management  and  investors  to  assess  Financial  results  and  set  targets  for  Financial  growth  of  the  Company.      

B.  Needs  of  Financial  Planning:  A. Contingency  Planning  

- formulate  responses  to  inevitable  surprises  B. Considering  options  C. Forcing  Consistency  

- firm’s  growth  and  financing  requirements  should  be  connected    

C.  Financial  Planning  Involves  Setting:  - Short-­‐Term  goals  and  objective  - Long-­‐Term  goals  and  objective  

Ø Then  design  a  strategy  to  achieve  goals.    D.  Short  Term  Financial  Planning  Ø Spans  a  period  of  (1)  year  or  less  Ø Forecasting  future  sources  and  uses  of  cash  Ø  Managing  accounts  receivable  and  accounts  payable  Ø  A  standard  against  which  subsequent  performance  can  

be  judged  Ø  Makes  sensible  short  term  borrowing  and  lending  

decisions    E.  Option  of  Short  Term  Financing  

Bang  Loans  Stretching  Payables    

F.  Cash  Cycle  A  metric  that  expresses  the  length  of  time  (in  days)  that  it  takes  for  a  company  to  convert  resource  inputs  into  cash  flows  

             

   This  metric  looks  at  the  amount  of  time  needed  to  sell  inventory,  the  amount  of  time  needed  to  collect  receivables  and  the  length  of  time  the  company  is  afforded  to  pay  its  bills  without  incurring  penalties.      Ø Cash  Cycle  (days)=  average  days  in  inventory  +  average  

collection  period  –  average  payment  period    

G.  Strategies  for  reducing  cash  flow  problems:  1. Maturity  Hedging  2. Decrease  cash  cycle  time  3. Cash  Budgeting  4. Cash  Reserves  

 Maturity  Hedging    

- is  paying  for  short-­‐term  costs,  like  inventory,  with  short-­‐term  loans.  

 Decrease  Cash  Cycle  Time  

- can  be  done  by  decrease  their  inventory  and  receivables  time  periods  

- delay  payment  to  supplier    Cash  Budgeting  

- gives  managers  a  “heads-­‐up”  about  when  short-­‐term  financing  may  be  needed.  

- cash  budget  simply  records  estimates  of  cash  receipts  and  payments.  

- starts  with  a  sales  forecast,  usually  by  the  quarter,  for  the  upcoming  year  

- used  to  estimate  of  the  timing  of  cash  collections  by  quarter.  

Cash  Reserves    - Keeping  cash  reserves  and  few  short-­‐term  liabilities  

can  go  a  long  way  to  help  avoid  financial  distress.  - Higher  reserve  =  greater  liquidity  - Having  idle  cash  that  is  not  put  to  work  or  invested  

means  future  revenue  is  foregone.    H.  Long  Term  Financial  Planning  Ø concerned  with  funding  the  growth  and  development  of  

the  company  for  three  (3)  to  five  (5)  years  or  even  longer.  

Ø obtaining  debt  capital  from  commercial  banks  or  other  financial  institutions.  

Ø Helps  to  avoid  surprises  and  be  prepared  for  the  unavoidable.  

                       

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I.  Similarities  and  Difference  of  Short  Term  and  Long  Term    Similarities:  - focused  on  the  financial  health  of  a  company  - objective  is  to  maximize  the  efficient  use  of  capital    -  All  business  require  capital,  that  is  money  invested  

in  assets,  can  be  financed  by  long  term  or  short  term  sources  of  capital  

 Difference:  - Short-­‐term  involves  short  lived  assets  and  liabilites  - Short-­‐term  are  easily  reverable  

 J.  Reasons  why  Cash  Budgeting  is  important  to  Long  Term  Financial  Planning.  

• Cash  budgeting  ensures  that  a  company's  cash  position  advances  its  overall  long-­‐term  financial  plan    

• Provides  the  foundation  necessary  to  achieve  the  objectives.    

 K.  Growth  and  External  Financing    Internal  growth  rate    

maximum  growth  that  company  can  achieve  without  external  funds  

“maximum  growth  without  external  funds”    

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙  𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ  𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑  𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑛𝑒𝑡  𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠  

 Sustainable  growth  rate    

highest  growth  rate  the  firm  can  maintain  without  increasing  its  financial  leverage  

 “highest  growth  rate  maintained  without  financial  leverage”    

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙  𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ  𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘  𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜  ×  𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛  𝑜𝑛  𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦    

 Chapter  30:  Working  Capital  Management    A.  Working  Capital  

Short-­‐term,  or  current,  assets  and  liabilities  are  collectively  known  as  working  capital.    

Current  Assets:    • Inventories  • Accounts  Receivables  • Cash  Current  Liabilities  • Accounts  Payable  • Accrued  Expense  • Debt  due  within  year  

 

B.  Inventory  Management  Is  the  sensible  balance  between  the  benefits  of  holding  inventory  and  the  costs.    

       C.  Components  of  Inventory  

•  Raw  materials  •  Work  in  process  •  Finished  goods  

 D.  Inventory  Trade-­‐Off  

Involves  two  (2)  costs:  Ø Carrying  cost  –  storage  cost  Ø Order  cost  –  cost  of  purchase  from  supplier  

 E.  Relationship  of  the  Order  Size,  Order  Cost,  and  Carrying  Cost          

   

 

   

   

       F.  Economic  Order  Quantity  

Order  size  that  minimizes  Total  Inventory  Costs.    

 ◆ Example  –  A  retailer  sells  255,000  tons  of  coal  per  year.  

Each  order  that  the  company  places  involves  a  fixed  order  cost  of  $450,  while  the  annual  carrying  cost  of  the  inventory  is  estimated  at  $55  a  ton.  (a)  What  is  the  economic  order  quantity  for  this  company?  (b)  How  many  orders  will  be  made?    a.  Economic  Order  Quanitity    

𝐸𝑂𝑄 =2×255,000×450

55 = 2,042.73  𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠  

Economic Order Quantity =2 x annual sales x cost per order

carrying cost

Order  Size  

Order  Cost  

Order  Size  

Average  Amount  of  

Inventory  

Carrying  Cost  

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b.  Number  of  Order  255,0002,042.73 = 124.83  𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠  

 G.  Tools  To  Minimize  Inventory  

1. Just-­‐in-­‐time  2. Producing  goods  to  order  

 H.  Credit  Management:  

Account  Receivables  -  Trade  Credit  -  Consumer  Credit  

 I.  Term  of  Sales  Credit,  discount,  and  payment  terms  offered  on  a  sale.  

- Cash  on  Delivery  - Cash  before  Delivery  - Credit  terms  

◆  Example  -­‐    5/10  net  30  – 5  -­‐  percent  discount  for  early  payment  – 10  -­‐  number  of  days  that  the  discount  is  available  – net  30  -­‐  number  of  days  before  payment  is  due  

 A  firm  that  buys  on  credit  is  in  effect  borrowing  from  its  supplier.    It  saves  cash  today  but  will  have  to  pay  later.    This,  of  course,  is  an  implicit  loan  from  the  supplier.    

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒  𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙  𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

= 1 +𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡  𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒

!"# !"#$%  !"#$    !"#$%&

− 1  

 ◆ Example  -­‐  On  a  $100  sale,  with  terms  5/10  net  60,  

what  is  the  implied  interest  rate  on  the  credit  given?  

𝐸𝐴𝑅 = 1 +0.0595

!"# !"

− 1 = .454  𝑜𝑟  45.4%  

 J.  Credit  Agreements  

a. Open  account  b. Sight  draft  –  is  a  message  to  the  buyer  to  pay  

immediately  since  shipment  is  already  delivered  

c. Time  draft—is  an  agreement  to  pay  later  on  according  to  the  period  given  in  the  draft  

d. Trade  acceptance—buyer  accepts  the  period  stated  in  the  time  draft  

e. Banker’s  acceptance—buyer  received  time  or  sight  draft  but  does  not  have  the  money  to  pay,  so  buyer  goes  to  the  bank  and  bank  accept  to  pay  for  the  buyer  first.  

f. Irrevocable  letter  of  credit—trade  happens  overseas.  Buyer’s  bank  writes  a  letter  to  the  seller’s  bank.  Buyer  and  Seller’s  bank  manages  the  transactions.  

g. Conditional  sale—bank  owns  title  of  ownership  until  buyer  pays  his  loan.  

 K.  Credit  Analysis  

- Determines  the  likelihood  a  customer  will  pay  its  bills.  

o Bond  Ratings  for  large  firms  o Credit  rating  agencies,  such  as  Dun  &  

Bradstreet  provide  reports  on  the  credit  worthiness  of  businesses  worldwide  

o Credit  bureaus  on  customer’s  credit  standing  

L.  Credit  Decisions  Credit  Policy  -­‐  Standards  set  to  determine  the  amount  and  nature  of  credit  to  extend  to  customers.  

- Extending  credit  gives  you  the  probability  of  making  a  profit,  not  the  guarantee.  There  is  still  a  chance  of  default.  

- Denying  credit  guarantees  neither  profit  or  loss.    

Based  on  the  probability  of  payoff,    expected  profit  can  be  expressed  as:  

𝑝  ×  𝑃𝑉 𝑅𝑒𝑣 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 1 − 𝑝  ×  𝑃𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡    The  Break  Even  probability  of  collection  is:  

𝑝 =𝑃𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑃𝑉 𝑅𝑒𝑣

 

M.  Collection  Policy  ◆ Collection  Policy  -­‐  Procedures  to  collect  and  

monitor  receivables.  ◆ Aging  Schedule  -­‐  Classification  of  accounts  

receivable  by  time  outstanding.  ◆ Factoring  -­‐  Arrangement  whereby  a  financial  

institution  buys  a  company's  accounts  receivable  and  collects  the  debt.  

 N.  Cash  Management  

- Responsibility  to  provide  adequate  cash  to  the  firm  

- Responsibility  to  ensure  funds  are  not  blocks  and  remain  idle  

 O.  Objectives  of  Cash  Management  

a. Liquidity  b. Marginal  Benefits  (interests)  c. Trade  off  between  cost  of  idle  cash  and  benefits.  

Ways  to  invest  idle  cash  - Sweep  programs  

   

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P.  Way  of  Receiving  Cash  Electronically  o Automated  Clearing  House  o Wire  Transfer  

are  large-­‐  value  payments  between  companies  – Fedwire  – Chips  

 Q.  Speeding  Check  Collection  

Ø Allows  the  firm  to  gain  quicker  use  of  funds  Ø Transfer  times  are  reduced  Ø Check  clearance  is  fast  

◆ Concentration  Banking:  Decentralized  system  of  account  receivables  

◆ Lock  Box  System:  Payments  send  to  regional  post  office  box  

◆ International  cash  Management:  Multinational  bank  with  branches  in  each  country  

◆ Compensating  balances:  – Monthly  fee  – Minimum  average  balance  

R.  Short  Term  Investments  Ø Readily  marketable  securities  (stocks  and  bonds)  Ø  Convert  the  investment  into  cash  within  one  (1)  

year      S.  Sources  of  Short  Term  Borrowings  

◆ Bank  loan  (features)  – Commitment  – Maturity  – Rate  of  interest  

◆ Syndicated  loans  ◆ Loan  sales  and  CDOs  ◆ Secured  loans  ◆ Commercial  paper  ◆ Medium  term  notes  

 Chapter  20:  Understanding  Options    A.  Terminologies  

a. Derivatives  -­‐  Any  financial  instrument  that  is  derived  from  another.  (e.g..  options,  warrants,  futures,  swaps,  etc.)  

b.  Option  -­‐  Gives  the  holder  the  right  to  buy  or  sell  a  security  at  a  specified  price  during  a  specified  period  of  time.  

c.  Call  Option  -­‐  The  right  to  buy  a  security  at  a  specified  price  within  a  specified  time.    

d.  Put  Option  -­‐  The  right  to  sell  a  security  at  a  specified  price  within  a  specified  time.  

e.  Option  Premium  -­‐  The  price  paid  for  the  option,  above  the  price  of  the  underlying  security.  

f. Intrinsic  Value  -­‐  Difference  between  the  market  value  of  the  underlying  and  the  strike  price  of  the  given  option.  

g. Time  Premium  -­‐  Value  of  option  above  the  intrinsic  value  

h. Exercise  Price  -­‐  (Striking  Price)  The  price  at  which  you  buy  or  sell  the  security.  

i. Expiration  Date  -­‐  The  last  date  on  which  the  option  can  be  exercised.    

j. American  Option  -­‐  Can  be  exercised  at  any  time  prior  to  and  including  the  expiration  date.  

k. European  Option  -­‐  Can  be  exercised  only  on  the  expiration  date.    

B.  Call  Option  Buyer  has  the  right  to  buy    Seller  has  the  obligation  to  buy  if  buyer  exercises  option  to  buy  

 ◆ Suppose  the  stock  of  XYZ  company  is  trading  at  $40.  A  

call  option  contract  with  a  strike  price  of  $40  expiring  in  a  month's  time  is  being  priced  at  $2.  You  believe  that  XYZ  stock  will  rise  sharply  in  the  coming  weeks  and  so  you  paid  $200  to  purchase  a  single  $40  XYZ  call  option  covering  100  shares.  

◆ Say  you  were  proven  right  and  the  price  of  XYZ  stock  rallies  to  $50  on  option  expiration  date.  With  underlying  stock  price  at  $50,  if  you  were  to  exercise  your  call  option,  you  invoke  your  right  to  buy  100  shares  of  XYZ  stock  at  $40  each  and  can  sell  them  immediately  in  the  open  market  for  $50  a  share.  This  gives  you  a  profit  of  $10  per  share.  As  each  call  option  contract  covers  100  shares,  the  total  amount  you  will  receive  from  the  exercise  is  $1000.  Since  you  had  paid  $200  to  purchase  the  call  option,  your  net  profit  for  the  entire  trade  is  therefore  $800.  

◆ However,  if  you  were  wrong  in  your  assessment  and  the  stock  price  had  instead  dived  to  $30,  your  call  option  will  expire  worthless  and  your  total  loss  will  be  the  $200  that  you  paid  to  purchase  the  option.  

                           

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C.  Put  Option  Seller  has  the  right  to  sell  Buyer  is  obligated  to  buy  if  seller  exercises  option  to  sell    

◆ Suppose  the  stock  of  XYZ  company  is  trading  at  $40.  A  put  option  contract  with  a  strike  price  of  $40  expiring  in  a  month's  time  is  being  priced  at  $2.  You  strongly  believe  that  XYZ  stock  will  drop  sharply  in  the  coming  weeks  after  their  earnings  report.  So  you  paid  $200  to  purchase  a  single  $40  XYZ  put  option  covering  100  shares.  

◆ Price  of  XYZ  stock  plunges  to  $30  after  the  company  reported  weak  earnings  and  lowered  its  earnings  guidance  for  the  next  quarter.  With  this  crash  in  the  underlying  stock  price,  your  put  buying  strategy  will  result  in  a  profit  of  $800.  

◆ you  invoke  your  right  to  sell  100  shares  of  XYZ  stock  at  $40  each.  Although  you  don't  own  any  share  of  XYZ  company  at  this  time,  you  can  easily  go  to  the  open  market  to  buy  100  shares  at  only  $30  a  share  and  sell  them  immediately  for  $40  per  share.  This  gives  you  a  profit  of  $10  per  share.  Since  each  put  option  contract  covers  100  shares,  the  total  amount  you  will  receive  from  the  exercise  is  $1000.  As  you  had  paid  $200  to  purchase  this  put  option,  your  net  profit  for  the  entire  trade  is  $800.    

   

  Call  Option     Buyer   Seller  

Expectation   MP↑   MP↓  Loss   Limited  to  OP   Unlimited  Profit   Unlimited   Limited  to  OP  

     

  Put  Option     Buyer   Seller  

Expectation   MP↓   MP↑  Loss   Limited  to  OP   Limited  to  Stock  Price  Profit   Limited  to  Stock  Price   Limited  to  OP  

             

D.  Moneyness  A  term  describing  the  relationship  between  the  strike  price  of  an  option  and  the  current  trading  price  of  its  underlying  security    

At  the  money   In  the  Money   Out  the  Money  (breakeven)   (to  exercise)   (not  to  exercise)  EP  =  MP   EP  <  MP:  call  option  

EP  >  MP:  put  option  EP  <  MP:  put  option  EP  >  MP:  call  option  

                               IN  THE  MONEY  

◆ In-­‐the-­‐money  options  are  generally  more  expensive  as  their  premiums  consist  of  significant  intrinsic  value.  

◆ Has  an  intrinsic  value  The  Intrinsic  value  is  a  difference  between  the  strike  price  and  the  underlying  price.  It  can  be  only  positive  

Ø Intrinsic  value  for  the  CALL  Option  =                                                                          Underlying  Price  –  Strike  Price  

Ø  Intrinsic  value  for  the  PUT  Option  =                                                                          Strike  Price  –  Underlying  Price  

 OUT  THE  MONEY  ◆ Out-­‐of-­‐the-­‐money  options  have  zero  intrinsic  value  ◆ Out-­‐of-­‐the-­‐money  options  are  cheaper  as  they  

possess  greater  likelihood  of  expiring  worthless.    AT  THE  MONEY  

◆ Has  no  intrinsic  value                  

Long ShortCall option Right to buy asset Obligation to sell assetPut option Right to sell asset Obligation to buy asset

EP  

MP  

MP  Put  Option  

Call  Option  

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E.  Financial  Alchemy  with  Options  Ø looks  at  how  options  can  be  used  to  modify  the  risk  

characteristics  of  a  portfolio.    

1. Protective  Put  - A  risk-­‐management  strategy  that  investors  

can  use  to  guard  against  the  loss  of  unrealized  gains.  The  put  option  acts  like  an  insurance  policy.  

Advantages  of  Protective  Puts...  o Allows  you  to  hold  on  to  your  stocks  and  

participate  in  the  upside  potential  while  at  the  same  time  insuring  against  any  losses  

o The  cost  to  buy  the  insurance  is  relatively  cheap  considering  how  much  money  you  are  protecting  

Disadvantages  of  Protective  Puts...  o Cost  of  the  Put  option  eats  into  your  profit  o The  option  has  a  limited  lifespan  (it  expires)  

and  has  to  keep  being  renewed  (buying  another  option)    

2. Straddle    - Involves  purchasing  both  put  and  call  option  - Both  options  has  the  same  EP  and  expiration  

date  - Straddle  is  useful  in  a  high  volatile  market  

since  it  allows  you  to  choose  which  ever  option  would  benefit  you  the  most  

       

         F.  Six  (6)  Factors  Affecting  Option  Premium  

1. Underlying  Price  (MP)  2. Strike  Price  (EP)    3. Time  until  expiration  4. Volatility  5. Interest  Rate  6. Dividends  

   

Underlying  Price  - most  influential  factor  on  an  option  premium  - MP↑:  call  prices  increase  and  put  prices  decrease  - MP↓:  call  prices  decrease  and  put  prices  increase.  

 

   Strike  Price  

- determines  if  the  option  has  any  intrinsic  value  - More  in  the  money  =  OP↑  - More  out  the  money  =  OP↓  

 Expected  Volatility  

- Volatility  is  the  degree  to  which  price  moves,  regardless  of  direction.    

- DEGREE  OF  PRICE  MOVEMENT  - Historical  volatility  refers  to  the  actual  price  

changes  that  have  been  observed  over  a  specified  time  period.  

o historical  volatility  is  used  to  determine  possible  volatility  in  the  future.  

- Implied  volatility  is  a  forecast  of  future  volatility  and  acts  as  an  indicator  of  the  current  market  sentiment.  

- ↑Volatility  =  ↑OP      Time  until  expiration  

- The  longer  an  option  has  time  until  expiration,  the  greater  the  chance  that  it  will  end  up  in-­‐the-­‐money,  or  profitable.  (because  of  time  money  value)  

- ‘Time  Decay’  is  the  ratio  of  the  change  in  an  option's  price  to  the  decrease  in  time  to  expiration.  (Also  known  as  "theta"  and  "time-­‐value  decay")  

o As  an  option  approaches  its  expiry  date  without  being  in  the  money,  its  time  value  declines  because  the  probability  of  that  option  being  profitable  (in  the  money)  is  reduced.    

 

               

Call  Option  

 

100  shared  @50   EP:5

2  

MP:60  

MP:40  

Put  Option  

can  buy  share  for….  

can  sell  share  for….  

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Interest  Rates  - also  have  small,  but  measurable,  effects  on  option  

prices.  - ↑  interest  rates:  call  premiums  will  increase  and  put  

premiums  will  decrease.  o because  of  the  costs  associated  with  owning  

the  underlying;  the  purchase  will  incur  either  interest  expense  (if  the  money  is  borrowed)  or  lost  interest  income  (if  existing  funds  are  used  to  purchase  the  shares).  In  either  case,  the  buyer  will  have  interest  costs.  

 

   Dividends  

- underlying  stock's  price  typically  drops  by  the  amount  of  any  cash  dividend.  

- ↑underlying's  dividend:  call  prices  will  decrease  and  put  prices  will  increase  

- ↓underlying's  dividend:  call  prices  will  increase  and  put  prices  will  decrease.