“An overview study of paratransit transport in the Indian context”
Joseph Subha
(11060242045)
Research Supervisor: - Dr. Amir Bashir Bazaz
A Dissertation Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
In
Economics
(2011 - 2013)
Symbiosis School of Economics
CONSTITUENT OF SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
(Established Under Section 3 Of The UGC Act 1956, By Notification No F9-12/2001-U.3 Of Government
Of India)
EXAMINERS’ CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation titled
(“An overview study of paratransit transport in the Indian context”)
Submitted by Subha Joseph Manelshekhar (11060242045) has been assessed and graded towards the partial
fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science (Economics) in the academic year 2011-13.
____________________________ (Signature)
Name of Internal Examiner: Dr. Amir Bashir Bazaz
____________________________ (Signature)
Name of External Examiner: Mr. Santanu Ray chaudhuri
Date: - 25/11/2013
Time: 2:00Pm
Place: - Pune
Symbiosis School of EconomicsCONSTITUENT OF SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
(Established Under Section 3 Of The UGC Act 1956, By Notification No F9-12/2001-U.3 Of Government Of India)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For this dissertation I would like to thank my Director, Dr. Jyoti Chandiramani, my mentor Dr. Amir Bajaj and
my professors for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information
regarding the dissertation and also for their support in completing the dissertation. I would also like to thank
my family and friends for their support during this dissertation.
Abstract:
The study examines the quality of the paratransit service and its operations in Pune with a view to
identifying its challenges and contributions to informal transport and equitable service distribution to the
residents of Pune. Structured questionnaires and past literature were used as sources of data. The primary data
included road networks, number of trips per day by operators, operating speed, and purpose of travel,
passengers’ security, and waiting time. The socio-economic characteristics of paratransit operators in the city
of Pune have been investigated in this paper. Information was collected both from primary and secondary
sources. Normally the economically weaker section of the society operates the paratransit vehicle and they
migrate to the urban area from the rural areas for their livelihood. The auto rickshaw operators are mainly
permanent city dwellers and illiterate. Many of them are migrated from the nearby rural areas. The sensitivity
of usage of paratransit modes with respect to the travel cost has been analyzed in this paper. The sensitivity
analysis revealed that the socio-economic condition of the paratransit operators can be improved by increasing
the fare of the modes and by providing relevant facilities for the operators. The study found that they are
making 9–12 trips per day. It was found that people’s feelings about the attributes of the service provided for
paratransit users, such as affordability, regularity, comfort and safety.
Background of Topic:-
Para transit is an alternative mode of flexible passenger transportation that does not follow fixed routes or
schedules.
Fully demand responsive transport—the most flexible paratransit systems offer on-demand call-up door-to-
door service from any origin to any destination in a service area.
Para transit services are operated by public transit agencies, community groups or not-for-profit organizations,
and for-profit private companies or operators.
It is about addressing the need of persons with disabilities and others for paratransit service. When accessible
“fixed-route” bus or rail service is not available or, if available, cannot be used by persons who need more
specialized transportation.
Cities and towns and villages in less-wealthy regions faced with many barriers to such transportation. These
barriers are so great that many cities, to say nothing of the countryside beyond these cities, have not begun to
address the task of providing paratransit for those who most need it.
The financial, infrastructure, and operational issues are daunting. In many rural areas, nearly everyone is
mobility-impaired because there is very little public transportation. The situation can be equally bad in cities
for persons with disabilities who are unable to use bus and rail lines. They remain trapped where they live,
unable to get to work, to school, or to medical help and other activities due to the prohibitive cost of hiring a
taxi or finding an accessible vehicle.
Para transit systems in many developing world cities are operated by individuals and small business. The
fragmented, intensely competitive nature of the industry makes government regulation and control much
harder than traditional public transport.
Government authorities have cited problems with unsafe vehicles and drivers as justifying efforts to regulate
and "formalize" paratransit operations.
However, these efforts have been limited by ignorance on the part of regulatory authorities and mistrust
between authorities and operators.
METHODOLOGY
The study on which this paper is based was a scoping study that aimed at identifying the main features of
strategy development and implementation among pune’s paratransit operators as seen by knowledgeable
observers. Its purpose was to provide background information for a further study that will gather information
directly from the business operators.
Alternative Service strategies
Following the implementation of ADA paratransit service, there has been growing interest in service strategies
offering flexible alternatives to paratransit. Transit operators increasingly need to serve markets for which
conventional fixed route bus and rail modes are too expensive, inefficient, or inflexible. Many operators are
finding that flexible services have an important role to play in serving low-density areas, dispersed trip
patterns, and travel by seniors and people with disabilities.
Social cost Benefit Analysis
Definition
A technique designed to determine the feasibility of a project or plan by quantifying its costs and benefits.
It refers to the study of feasibility of a project in terms of its total economic cost and total economic benefits. It
means to compare total cost with total benefit if we add external cost with private cost; it’s called total social
cost if we add external benefit with private benefit, called total social benefit.
For example: Suppose, a manufacturer produces soaps and sells it tk.20 a bar. Now, if we think about the
impact of soaps does the price of soap take note of the benefits from the use of soap, e.g., reduced risk of
spread diseases?
To reflect the real value of a project to society, we must consider the impact of the project on society. Impact
Positive Negative (Social Benefit) (Social Cost) Thus, when we evaluate a project from the view point of the
society (or economy) as a whole, it is called Social Cost Benefit Analysis (SCBA)/Economic Analysis.
Scope of SCBA
Can be applied to both Public & private investments – Public Investment: SCBA is important especially for
the developing countries where government plays a significant role in the economic development. Private
Investment: Here, SCBA is also important as the private investments are to be approved by various
governmental & quasi-governmental agencies.
Objectives of SCBA
The main focus of Social Cost Benefit Analysis is to determine:
1} Economic benefits of the project in terms of shadow prices; 2} the impact of the project on the level of
savings and investments in the society; 3} The impact of the project on the distribution of income in the
society; 4} The contribution of the project towards the fulfillment of certain merit wants (self- sufficiency,
employment etc).5} To ensure safety & transparency in para-transit system. 6} To ensure Social & financial
inclusion of auto drivers to make auto travelling a pleasant & passenger friendly transport system to make auto
drivers aware & responsible citizen.
An Interview: - An AV Interview conducted by me where I met many persons for their sustenance i.e. for
their livelihood they have to bear many consequences in this occupation. Now nowhere any occupation which
his left out with risk. All occupation i.e. an Entrepreneur is a risk bearer. But there are several occupations
after taking risk which is hazardous on other side.
Market prices, the basis for CBA, do not reflect the social values under imperfect market competition.
Externalities: A project may have beneficial or harmful external effects that are considered in SCBA, not in
CBA. Taxes & Subsidies: From the social point of view, taxes & subsidies are nothing but transfer payments.
But in CBA, taxes & subsidies are treated as monetary costs and benefits respectively.
Significances of Social cost Benefit Analysis:-
In SCBA, the division between benefits & consumption is relevant wherein higher valuation is placed on
savings. But in CBA such division is irrelevant. Concern for Redistribution: In SCBA, the distribution of
benefits is very much concerning issue where commercial private firm does not bother about it. Merit Wants:
Merit wants are important from the social point of view and therefore, SCBA considers these wants.
Social Impact Assessment and Targeting of Low Income or other Beneficiaries
As most transport reform advocates are extremely reluctant to broaden the inclusion of social benefits in the
road sector to make it easier to justify the financing of roads in low income areas for fear of the precedent it
would establish, most would support improving the degree to which road projects are targeted to low income
beneficiaries. In our view, this would best be done not by changing the economic appraisal but by changing
the importance of the evaluation determining how well the project is targeted to the needs of the poor, and by
changing the social impact assessment.
Since the aim of poverty alleviation should be central to lending criteria for all projects and not just an
assessment of poverty-oriented subcomponents and the mitigation of severe adverse social impacts, certainly
loan evaluation criteria should require a much more thorough assessment of the impact of the project on the
poor, perhaps in the social impact assessment.
How it works?
Para transit is a potentially attractive alternative to conventional transit, especially in remote, rural areas where
population density is too sparse to be supported by the schedule based transit system.
Users
The potential users of the paratransit system could be categorized into different groups such as students,
housewives, employees, disabled, elderly, etc. The profile of each user plays an important role and can be
defined as the mobility needs of the specified user, their financial situation, if they own private means of
transport, etc. The paratransit system aims to facilitate personal mobility needs and fight social exclusion
while providing high quality services at a relatively low cost. Tourists may constitute a special category of
the system’s users. The paratransit system may accommodate their mobility needs providing transportation
solutions of better quality and cost.
Identification of Impacts
Financial
Para transit services may result in the improvement of the local economy and the creation of new jobs in
some less favored regions by providing suitable mobility. The increased mobility, especially among rural
disadvantaged population groups will result in increased economic activity. Currently there are villages with
few and old families, which have no means to own a private vehicle or are unable to drive it. These families
rely on the bus service, which stops at their community twice a day. The ability of these groups to visit the
more vibrant market areas will result in increased economic activity at the local markets and touristic
SMEs, more opportunities for these disadvantaged groups and increased convenience. Students will easily
access schools, gyms, tutoring houses, and other extracurricular activities.
Land use
Another important impact of the paratransit system can be the spatial development of less favored areas. By
providing better transportation options, people will be less dependent on fixed schedule lines that may affect
their housing decisions. In addition, rural areas can be revitalized as people can still dwell in those areas and
have access to schools, jobs and markets, without having to rely exclusively on private vehicles.
Social (Education, health, other chances for better quality of life)
Para transit can contribute significantly against the social exclusion of special groups of the population such
as disabled and elderly people. It can also increase the chances for better education, medical treatment,
social life and several other aspects of everyday life in remote, rural areas.
Environmental (pollution, emissions)
The environmental impacts of paratransit are related to the consumption of energy, the gas emissions, the
air pollution as well as the level of traffic congestion in the more densely populated areas it provides service
to. Para transit also provides a good alternative solution to the problem of increasing car use subsequently
increasing numbers of car accidents.
There is much potential for the P/T system i.e. public transportation to attract more customers. It can
provide easy access to from work, so it would provide a transportation solution for employees. It can enable
people to reach otherwise inaccessible places and it is possible to mitigate the parking space problem.
Main Contribution through the Research: - It highlights the significance of Para transit transportation system in
simple terms it emphasis mainly upon the reduction of traffic congestion in cities & redeveloping it with or
rebuilding it with such kind of technology which will help to bring a revolution in transportation system.
Key findings:-
Around the world, demand-response paratransit services are needed to supplement accessible "fixed-route" bus
and rail services. Paratransit services will always be required for those seniors and disabled passengers who
are unable to take other public transport to their destinations, or are unable to reach transit stops and stations
due to inadequate sidewalks and road crossings. Both accessible "fixed-route" and more specialized
paratransit services are needed.
When available and accessible, transport modes open to the general public tend to be more inclusive, less
expensive, and more cost-effective than more specialized paratransit services. Bus, rail, taxi, auto-rickshaw,
and cycle-rickshaw services should be encouraged for seniors and persons with disabilities who are able to use
them.
Public, private, and non-profit sectors should work together to promote paratransit services. This is
demonstrated in our case studies of cities contracting with private providers. Cities can also promote
paratransit services by subsidizing the purchase of vehicles or providing lower-cost fuel and maintenance for
NGOs and other agencies.
New technologies have opened up new possibilities to expand paratransit service, such as the use of smart
phones, tablets, and GPS devices.
Smaller vehicles can be used to scale up lower-cost paratransit service. The use of central call centers, along
with minor design changes, can assist auto- and cycle rickshaw agencies, as well as taxi companies, to provide
lower-cost paratransit with less dependence on public subsidies.
Paratransit service within each of several zones may provide more trips for more people in large cities,
especially when accessible bus and rail services can assist by providing citywide connections.
NGOs can work together to save money on fuel, maintenance, and training, and in some cases may save
money on vehicle procurement as well.
Smart scheduling will better serve passengers at a lower cost per trip.
Look before you leap! Paratransit providers may benefit by phasing in their services without locking
themselves into too many commitments. This will provide more flexibility to reconfigure services based on
actual experience.
Stable funding sources must be identified in order to sustain large paratransit operations.
This is a lesson we learn from Moscow, São Paulo, Istanbul, and other large cities.
Demand management may help expand paratransit to rural areas where services do not currently exist.
Consideration should be given to scheduling services at periodic intervals along with other approaches to
providing transport at a sustainable cost.
Cities should consider mobility management or paratransit brokerages among the many alternatives for
promoting paratransit services. City staff should prepare detailed action plans to prioritize alternatives and
select ways to start up and scale up paratransit services.
The burgeoning urban population of India is engaging in a variety of economic activities in rapidly expanding cities,
which are, therefore, encountering fast escalations in urban travel demand.
A variety of transport modes, such as, walking, cycling, two-wheelers, Para-transit, public transport, cars, etc. are used
to meet these travel needs.
A study carried out for the Ministry of Urban Development, covering 21 cities in the country, suggests that more than
75 per cent of the trips in a city are on account of either employment or education.
ISSUES IN URBAN TRANSPORT IN INDIA
Congestion
Congestion is an outcome of twin factors, (a) growth in number of vehicles on road, (b) limitations to expansion of
road space.
Cities without good mass transit systems, like Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad and Bangalore, showed a higher growth rate
in vehicular population as compared to those with mass transit systems.
Declining Reliance on Public Transport
An associated problem has been the declining reliance on public transport vehicles, with a corresponding rise in the
dependence on personal motor vehicles. For examples, in Delhi, while the number of personal vehicles per 1000
population has expanded about 3 times (between 1981 and 2001); the number of buses per 1000 population has
increased only 2.3 times.
Accidents
The number of road accidents has increased, from about 161,000 in 1981 to over 400,000 in 2001. About 57 per
cent of the persons killed in road accidents in Delhi during this period were pedestrians and cyclists.
URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN INDIA
Current Status
Most experts acknowledge that persuading people to shift from personal vehicles to public transport is amongst the
most important elements of any strategy to meet the growing urban travel demand in a sustainable manner. This is
because public transport occupies less road space, consumes less fuel and emits less pollutant on a per passenger basis
for every unit of travel demand that it satisfies, compared to other motorized modes of travel.
Developing an Optimal Modal Mix
The next exercise in developing an appropriate strategy would be to determine optimal modal preferences for meeting
travel demand. This requires an assessment of the likely travel patterns, segmented for different categories of city residents
and an identification of the modes that are the most sustainable.
Mode share projections, which do not include walking trips, show a high reliance on public transport and
cycling. Further, survey-based studies carried out in Delhi and Mumbai show that while high income households rely
heavily on personal vehicles in Delhi, the low income households rely more on non-motorized modes. Walking
constitutes a high share for both categories in Mumbai followed by a reliance on public transport
Modal choices have to be made based on their relative congestion impacts, emission characteristics and energy
efficiency if they are to lead to sustainable mobility. It is well known that non-motorized modes emit no pollutants and
occupy least amount of road space. Hence, they should be amongst the most preferred modes. However, they are not
suitable for trip lengths longer than 6 to 7 km in highly undulating terrains during hot weather.
Essentially efforts have to be aimed at containing the use of personal motor vehicles for family outings during weekends
and special/emergency requirements. Daily commutes to work or school should be undertaken on more sustainable
modes.
Use of personal vehicles can be discouraged by making its use more expensive and difficult. This can be
achieved by a combination of fiscal and control measures. Examples of fiscal measures include charging of a fee for using
certain crowded parts of a city, levy of high parking fees, increasing vehicle registration charges and by increasing
the tax on fuel, etc.
Improving vehicle technology:-
Improving vehicle technology requires mandating the phased use of cleaner technologies and laying down a clear and
time bound action plan, with adequate lead-time, to allow the auto and oil industry to make the required
investments.
A cluster approach in urban planning also makes it easier to provide better public transport coverage, as connecting
cluster centres is often adequate to meet public transport needs. Short, intra-cluster trips can usually be performed by
walking, cycling or para-transit.
The central government of India has formulated a draft National Urban Transport Policy with the following
objectives:
· to bring about better integration of land use and transport planning so as to improve access to jobs, education, etc.;
· to encourage public transport and non-motorized transport so that the dependence on personal motor vehicles is reduced;
· to offer central government support for investments in cycle tracks and pedestrian paths;
· to offer central government support for investments in mass transit systems;
· to have a more coordinated approach to urban transport management through Unified Metropolitan Transport
Authorities;
· to offer support for capacity building at the state level;
SERVICE MODELS & NEW TECHNOLOGIES
To introduce different business and service models for practitioners who may wish to start up or scale up
paratransit services for persons with disabilities. New technologies may create new service models, especially
when used with taxis or with auto-rickshaws and other lower-cost vehicles.
In every country there are different types of transportation for different purposes, ranging from walking or
animal conveyances to the private car to many different types of public transportation including buses, trains,
taxis, and auto-rickshaws. “Public transportation” is often defined as transit service open to the public that
charges fares. "Paratransit" is a subset of public transportation that uses mini-buses, taxis, or smaller vehicles
that usually do not follow fixed routes or schedules.
Paratransit services may consist of a taxi or small bus that will run along a more or less defined route and then
stop to pick up or discharge passengers on request. More often, paratransit systems offer call-up door-to-door
service from any origin to any destination in a service area. Paratransit services may be operated by (1) public
transit agencies, (2) for-profit private companies or operators, and (3) NGOs and other not-for-profit
organizations.
The definition of “paratransit” transportation that “exclusively or partly serves mobility-impaired persons.”
These passengers often represent those who most need the transportation, are least able to pay for it, and,
accordingly, often receive the least service. Historically, these services, when provided at all, have been
provided by the third category – by voluntary, NGO, or social service agencies around the world, that is, by
the non-profit sector. In less-wealthy regions of the world, paratransit for mobility-impaired users is offered
mainly by these agencies, usually for their own clients so that they can get to health centers or schools or other
social service facilities.
Fortunately, there are hopeful signs that paratransit services may be increasingly operated by the first two
categories – by public transit agencies and by for-profit companies and operators, that is, by the public and
private sectors. This trend may result in expanding paratransit services in many locales – a “scaling up” of
current services – to the benefit of riders with disabilities. For this reason, this guide includes case studies
looking at paratransit for mobility-impaired persons offered by the public and private sectors. A major goal of
this guide is to promote coordination between the public, private, and nonprofit sectors to join forces to start
up and scale up paratransit services.
Public sector ownership and operation of paratransit services
`Public sector agencies, such as city governments and transport ministries, have many advantages. They are
stable and often powerful, and they may have the ability to adopt and enforce plans for a range of social goals.
For example, city governments have a unique ability to create a sustainable funding base for paratransit
services because they have taxing powers and may have access to funding for purchases of vehicles or
operation of services.
But these public entities may also have disadvantages, including bureaucratic inefficiencies, poor management
ability, difficulty in controlling the cost of service provision, or political agendas. Public sector paratransit
entities could take many forms, operating at national, state or local levels. They could be created under a
variety of legislative models, granting them power under national or state or local legislation, or formed by
joint agreements between two or more local governments using their existing legal powers.
Public, private, and non-profit sectors working together to provide paratransit services
• Public regulation of private operators: This approach is common around the world. For Example, a
transport ministry may regulate and monitor fares, establish vehicle safety and Maintenance standards set up
standards for driver training (of special importance to Paratransit operations
• Coordination and mobility management: The public sector can be a “mobility manager” for a City or
region by identifying paratransit providers, potential markets, and gaps in service; and by providing technical
expertise and exchanging ideas, or by promoting shared assets such As vehicles, maintenance, training, or
fueling facilities. This far-sighted approach is of special Importance in order to start up or scale up paratransit
services for mobility-impaired persons.
• Demand management: This approach is often seen as fostering sustainable cities by Promoting staggered
work hours, regulating development to make it easier to use public Transportation or providing better real-time
information to the public about all transport Modes.
In the world of paratransit services, demand management could also encourage Social service agencies to
stagger their hours to even out the “peak hours” for paratransit Services. If agency A serves its clients from 9
a.m. to 3 p.m. and agency B serves its clients From 11 a.m. to 5 p.m., their paratransit needs might be met with
fewer vehicles and drivers, which may mean a lower cost per trip or the ability to make more trips, to the
advantage of all?
Concerned.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other not-for-profit agencies operate paratransit services
incorporating various service models. They are often the main providers of paratransit services in many
regions. Especially in large cities, we recommend careful consideration of the possible advantages of this
“zone” or “district” service model in order to increase the amount of paratransit service.
This approach enables trips to be far shorter, so more passengers can be transported per hour at lower cost.
Services could then be scaled up to possibly include more trip purposes if the service is subsidized by a
municipality. But there are tradeoffs, especially if this model, that limits service to within specific zones, is
used to replace a current service which permits passengers to travel all over the city. Some current passengers
may then complain, with possible political repercussions.
These passengers may correctly point out that transferring to accessible bus or rail lines may in some cases be
tiring or not usable due to their disabilities. But if a new paratransit service starts up by using a model with
trips limited to specific zones, there will probably be fewer complaints and more people may ultimately
benefit.
Regulations and their impact on paratransit service models
Too little regulation can be a bad thing. So can too much. On the one hand, regulations should be provided
and enforced to assure that paratransit services are safe and efficient. On the other hand, regulations may
increase the cost of providing service and too much Regulation can be counterproductive.
General comments about some positive uses of regulations
People usually think of regulation as a function of city or regional or national governments. But even in the
absence of government regulations, transit agencies or associations of transit Companies or owners can self-
regulate, as can associations of NGOs and other non-profit Providers who operate vehicles to serve their
clients. The requirements of international or other donor agencies may also serve the function of regulating
paratransit services in helpful or negative ways.
What can go wrong?
Any one of the positive features noted above can be subverted by a lack of transparency or Integrity in the
promulgation and enforcement of regulations. Excessive bureaucracy and Paperwork, corruption, bribery, or
"playing favorites" among competing companies can subvert the role of the market and ultimately harm the
ability of everyone -- and especially Persons with disabilities -- to access public transport and paratransit
services.
Can regulations enhance paratransit services with commercial vehicles?
When consistent and fair legal enforcement of contracts is available, it is usually best to try and rely on
competition to assure the efficiency of private sector paratransit providers in a Well-regulated market-driven
environment.
Some unregulated service can be especially difficult to access on the part of elderly or disabled passengers.
The use of motorized auto-rickshaws, cycle-rickshaws and similar Vehicles charging lower fares should also
be considered where possible. Such vehicles may be usable by most persons with disabilities, including those
wheelchair users who can safely Transfer to the passenger seat provided space is provided to safely carry a
folded wheelchair.
Auto-rickshaws are found by the tens of thousands in many Asian countries and in some Regions of Africa and
Latin America as well. Many persons with disabilities currently rely on them. As fuel prices increase, they
will probably also find greater acceptance in Europe and North America. India alone manufactures some
400,000 auto-rickshaws every year. Entrepreneurs, city officials, and larger NGOs should consider GPS and
mobile phone Technologies that open up new possibilities for less-expensive and more convenient services
Using auto-rickshaws.
An auto-rickshaw entrepreneurship forum sponsored by EMBARQ included a focus on social Benefits, noting
that "Social equity by way of accessible and affordable transportation choices for elderly, women, disabled,
and children is a core aspect of promoting sustainable transports Services. Fleet DAR (dial-a-rickshaw)
services can help meet this goal by providing Household access to auto-rickshaws through centralized calling
facilities."
Entrepreneur-driven auto-rickshaw fleets with call centers have grown rapidly in India. For Example,
commercial startups utilizing call centers are reported in the Indian cities of Chandigarh, Delhi, Gurgaon,
Ahmadabad, Rajkot, Vadodara, Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore, and Chennai. Cycle-rickshaw call centers are
reported in various cities in Punjab, organized as a Non-profit benefitting the rickshaw drivers. These call
centers usually connect with fleets of Vehicles that utilize on-board GPS units and provide mobile
communication between drivers
And the call center. Some call-center operations charge a surcharge (called a "service Charge" or
"convenience charge") on the prevailing auto-rickshaw fare, which still is considerably lower than that of taxis.
This surcharge may be reduced for seniors and Persons with disabilities (for example, Rickshawale in
Mumbai). Services may emphasize Security for women, children, and seniors (e.g., Radio Tuk in Gurgaon or
a similar service In Rajkot). Auto-rickshaw drivers may receive special training to assist seniors and persons
with disabilities (e.g., Any Time Rickshaw of G-Auto in Ahmedabad).
Call center startups need to pay special attention to driver training, to assure courteous and competent
treatment of their disabled passengers. They may need to deal with daunting regulatory environments. The
advantages of auto-rickshaws include lower costs and thus lower fares, a low-floor Design, and in some case
the ability to accommodate folding-type wheelchairs.
However, Safety concerns increase with the use of smaller vehicles such as auto-rickshaws. There is
especially a need for research into alternative methods for the use of seat belts. Mini-taxis (For example,
Tata's Nano) may be able to charge competitive rates with auto-rickshaws and provide a different set of
advantages and disadvantages in terms of accessibility.
Long-term implications
If a person with a disability can communicate directly with a nearby taxi or auto-rickshaw, the Scheduling and
dispatching support structure can be reduced or eliminated. GPS, Smartphone, and payment technologies may
enable a restructuring of many paratransit Services in developing regions in years to come.
The infrastructure for these developments is Already in place in many locales due to the rapid expansion of
mobile phones in the very Areas where land-line phone infrastructure is not well developed. This type of cell
phone Expansion will probably trend toward smart phones with paratransit-related applications.
However, there may still be a need for an integrating agency "to put it all together" in terms of Certifying
eligible clients if fare subsides are offered, or if incentives are needed for drivers or Companies to provide a
higher level of service to disabled passengers. These approaches may be assisted by regulatory reforms in the
auto-rickshaw permit Process and by reforms to road safety, including the segregation of auto-rickshaws from
other Motor vehicles in particularly congested areas.
Summing up, new technologies and the use of fleets of small commercial vehicles provide a Breakthrough in
creating higher-volume and lower-cost mobility for disabled persons, even if the requirements for such a
service may sometimes require use of a brokerage or other Agency to integrate and coordinate the different
elements of the system.
Governments unable or unwilling to directly subsidize the paratransit fares of low-income Persons with
disabilities may wish instead to subsidize access features and other Conveniences to make vehicles more
accessible and to better train drivers serving Passengers with disabilities. Not the least of these features is the
development of more Accessible auto-rickshaws and cycle-rickshaws that can be utilized by those wheelchair
users who cannot transfer to a regular seat during travel? Typically this will focus on designing the Rear or
one side of the vehicle to be hinged as a ramp, which may require extensive re-design of a sub-fleet of more
specialized vehicles?
Case study: AUTO-RICKSHAWS IN NEW DELHI
Three-wheeled motorized auto-rickshaws are a major public transport mode in Asia, Africa, and other regions.
A recent study by EMBARQ* reported that six Indian cities with a Combined population of 45 million was
served by some 330,000 auto-rickshaws. Metropolitan New Delhi alone has 80,000 "autos." An 8 km (5 mile)
trip by auto-rickshaw in New Delhi costs 58 rupees (=US$1.32), while even the least-expensive taxi service
would Be almost twice as much.
For persons with disabilities, often among the poorest of the Poor in cities such as New Delhi, any method of
improving travel by this mode is important. Agencies in India have shown increasing interest in auto-
rickshaws.
Salam, an initiative Of the S.J. Charitable Trust in New Delhi, is promoting the potential of auto-rickshaws to
provide lower-cost door-to-door services for persons with mobility and sensory Impairments. A test session
(photos above) was organized by Svayam in late 2011 at GNB Motors Ltd. in Faridabad, a suburb of New
Delhi, at the suggestion of Access Exchange International.
The test session provided an opportunity to more rigorously demonstrate the Potential of this mode. Two
models of auto-rickshaws were tested by volunteers with Disabilities, one of whom was semi-ambulatory,
using a crutch, while the second volunteer used a wheelchair. Not surprisingly, the larger model proved easier
to use by disabled Passengers.
Auto-rickshaws have rather low floors and the photos at top show that existing hand rails provide significant
help to a disabled person boarding the vehicle. Another photo (inset) shows the additional hand grasps
recently added to auto-rickshaw models.
Work is needed to test different low-cost modifications, including the value of one or more simple two-point
"airline style" seat belts or a more expensive Three-point retractable seat belt. Possible changes in the
bulkhead behind the driver could provide more room to enter the vehicle. Added padding to protect the knees
and legs of passengers could be considered, as well as a Device to help secure crutches or walkers. These or
other modifications are Part of the larger context relating to auto-rickshaw safety. Auto-rickshaws May be
safer than bicycles or motorcycles, but offer less safety than automobiles or vans or mini-buses. Fortunately,
New Delhi's auto-rickshaws have a top speed of only 50 Km/hour (30 mph) and a cruising speed of 35 km/hr
(22 mph).
Driver behavior is also a concern. Training and other support for drivers is needed. In turn, Strategies are
needed to enhance the ability of auto-rickshaws to provide these somewhat more specialized paratransit
services. One approach would be to modify all auto rickshaws with low-cost changes.
Another approach would address the complexities of a "Sub-fleet" of adapted auto-rickshaws with better-
trained drivers and an operational model that addressed scheduling, dispatching, and the use of call centers to
request services. This approach, which is already being tested in New Delhi, also would lend itself to the
possible use of subsidies in some cities to better enable qualified disabled persons to use the service.
In all events, other alternatives are needed for those disabled passengers who cannot transfer to a passenger
seat. The use of auto-rickshaws must also focus on Creating an environmentally sustainable service, for
example with less-polluting 4-stroke Engines instead of the 2-stroke engines used in some cities, as well as the
use of CNG (Compressed natural gas) as an alternative to diesel fuel.
Another concern is that only some models of auto rickshaws have the interior space to accommodate a folded
wheelchair behind the passenger seat, in a weatherproof compartment with a rain shield. Alternatively, it is
possible that a device to hold a folded wheelchair could be affixed to the rear of the Exterior of the vehicle.
However, no auto-rickshaw Model we have seen would permit a wheelchair User to enter the vehicle in the
wheelchair, although this could be done by means of complex Modifications that would include hinging the
rear or Side section of the vehicle.
To introduce key issues and processes to assure that subsidized Paratransit services reach those who most need
them. The use of low-cost market-driven paratransit modes, such as the example which is described in the case
study above from New Delhi, may hopefully help paratransit to become more available for seniors and persons
with disabilities, with little or no eligibility screening. In addition, as governments become more aware of the
negative "social costs" of not providing transport services to persons with disabilities, it may be hoped that
funds will be provided to further subsidize specialized paratransit services. Currently, however, eligibility
screening remains a critical element for agencies that strive to serve those who are most in need of paratransit
service.
In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) law provides clear and Structured
requirements regarding who is eligible to receive paratransit service. However, in less wealthy countries, some
of these requirements may not be relevant or there may be Others that is more critical to the program’s
effectiveness.
The ADA requires that paratransit service be provided to all those individuals whose disability prevents them
from using fixed-route service. The word “prevents” is a high threshold that is Necessary when viewed in the
light of another key requirement of the legislation that no Individual can be denied a trip based on trip purpose
or a number of other factors.
In other Words, if transit agencies have to provide paratransit for a very wide range of trips, there needs to be a
mechanism in place to control access to that program. That mechanism is the Eligibility process that flows out
of the legislative requirements. This is the key tool provided by the law to enable transit agencies to have a
measure of control over the demand for Subsidized paratransit services, and therefore over costs.
Often choose to limit eligibility based on type of disability, income level, age, or trip purpose (e.g., to work, to
rehabilitation services, to special education). Each of these limitations Serves to constrain the mobility of the
disability population, yet the lack of financial resources May require these measures in order to ensure a fair
application of the policy. Given how valuable this service can be in the lives of people with disabilities,
decisions about Eligibility can be highly emotional and politically charged.
For this reason it is important that Substantive input is gained from community leaders in how to design the
eligibility program. It is important that a passenger certification process be developed that is as objective and
fair as possible. Where professionals with experience in rehabilitation are present, it would be Advisable to
involve a physical or occupational therapist in the development and possibly the Implementation of the
eligibility process.
Medical personnel can also be used, although they tend to have less relevant experience in assessing functional
abilities to ride a bus or train than those in the rehabilitation field. Once the overall eligibility policy has been
decided, those involved in either the development of policy or in service provision will need to create criteria
and procedures to help interpret these policies.
For example, in the USA there are a number of key eligibility categories that could be adapted in other
countries. Persons are eligible for paratransit if their disability prevents them from getting to or from a bus or
train stop, from boarding or getting off the Vehicle, or from being able to ride on the bus. This can be due to
either physical or cognitive Reasons, or because of a visual disability. If the resources are available, the
paratransit provider may wish to request that an individual Come in for a mobility assessment, in which she or
he tries out a replica of a bus entrance at a bus stop to test the functional abilities that would be needed to take
a bus or train. This Replica does not require substantial equipment.
However, since it is intended to replicate a Real world environment, it could be conducted in an area where
there are street crossings, Traffic noise, wide streets, and other barriers that may prevent a person with a
disability from Getting to a bus. If a bus stop is available near to the assessment site, the individual can also be
accompanied by an assessor to determine their functional abilities.
Assuming that the number of people with disabilities who would need paratransit service in Any less-wealthy
country would far outstrip the capacity of the service, the need to Incorporate a “means” test seems to be
inevitable. In other words, while most people with Disabilities in less-wealthy countries are likely to be poor;
those who are the poorest are likely to be in the greatest need and have the least mobility alternatives.
As such, installing a Mechanism for determining an individual’s financial means may be the first threshold in
the Installation of a new eligibility policy. On the other hand, some systems may decide that it is Critical to
ensure that even a small segment of the disability community has access to work, Even if these are not the
members of the community who are in the greatest financial need.
While eligibility assessments may vary depending on the context in which they are being implemented (such
as availability of transit, accessibility of the environment, financial Resources), procedures must be developed
to ensure that this critical resource is distributed in the fairest possible way.
If not, situations may arise in which only a small fraction of the Disability population has access to paratransit
service, even though some of those individuals May have alternative mobility choices that are not available to
the majority. Some of these Concerns are touched upon in the Cape Town case study, below. Especially when
eligibility requirements are changed for an existing paratransit system, it should be anticipated that decisions
surrounding the design of the eligibility screening policy will be difficult.
Nevertheless, they may be necessary to ensure mobility for those who need it The most. The best policy may
be to begin with eligibility requirements that can later be relaxed if permitted by the capacity of the system.
This will give managers an opportunity to learn from experience as the system grows, while not having to
explain to public officials why they may need to cut back on service for some categories of users. It is always
easier to add Service than to take it away! With lower-income passengers, the needed revenues to provide
door-to-door services often come from multiple sources.
Paratransit systems for low-income disabled persons in major Cities in less-wealthy countries are usually
subsidized by long-term sources of income, usually from some combination of city, state, or provincial
transportation funding to supplement passenger fares which typically only cover a modest portion of the total
cost.
Emergency preparedness
Paratransit managers and dispatch personnel should give thought to how to prepare for Sudden emergencies,
including those for which there is some warning (e.g., hurricanes, Typhoons) and those for which there may be
little or no warning (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis). Emergencies can also vary from being of relatively small
scope (an accident involving a Single vehicle or an incident involving a single person) to very large in scope
(e.g., a major Flood or landslide).
In all such emergencies, vehicle fleets can become a critical element in Evacuating entire populations in an
area at risk or evacuating or assisting seniors and Persons with disabilities who may face special concerns if
they cannot get needed medicines, require oxygen, or need knowledgeable personnel to help remove them
from harm’s way. Emergency preparations for paratransit systems should include close liaison with existing
Medical, police, fire, and transportation agencies, as well as other services.
Managers should have up-to-date contact information for such agencies and coordinate plans with them to
address emergency situations. Contact lists for those persons with disabilities who may require special
assistance should be kept up-to-date along with plans for teaming up Personnel to evacuate such persons in an
emergency. In a city with well-developed Emergency services, paratransit providers can be included in
different types of drills to Prepare for different types of emergencies. Or, where needed, paratransit providers
could take the lead in promoting coordinated responses to emergencies.
RURAL PARATRANSIT
Introduction
The contributors to this guide are generally oriented toward accessible urban transportation and hold no special
qualification to address the even more difficult situations found in rural Areas, especially in regions which
may be lightly populated, mountainous, and lacking in Roads and transport infrastructure. In such regions, the
issues associated with disability tend to merge with issues of poverty and accessibility in general and the
difficulty which everyone has to get goods to market or to get to schools, jobs, or health care.
In addition, the Distinction between paratransit and other public transit modes may fade away in some
Circumstances. Rural transportation especially is a challenge for people needing travel between villages and
district or market towns. This "intermediate travel" is often a missing Link making it impossible to reach bus
routes, where the vehicles usually lack accessibility Features.
There are many studies concerning rural transport needs. The contributors to this guide are generally oriented
toward accessible urban transportation and hold no special qualification to address the even more difficult
situations found in rural Areas, especially in regions which may be lightly populated, mountainous, and
lacking in Roads and transport infrastructure. In such regions, the issues associated with disability tend to
merge with issues of poverty and accessibility in general and the difficulty which everyone has to get goods to
market or to get to schools, jobs, or health care. In addition, the Distinction between paratransit and other
public transit modes may fade away in some Circumstances. Rural transportation especially is a challenge for
people needing travel between villages and district or market towns.
This "intermediate travel" is often a missing Link making it impossible to reach bus routes, where the vehicles
usually lack accessibility Features. There are many studies concerning rural transport needs Everyone, make it
easier to identify by persons with low vision, help blind passengers to Safely position them behind the stop,
help disabled persons to reach the first step Of the bus if the driver is properly trained to stop adjacent to the
curb piece, and generally Keep intending passengers more safely off the road.
This approach needs research, as it would require enough road maintenance so that buses would not dig ruts
adjacent to the Curb piece or "widen" the road by moving away from particularly hazardous ruts, thus making
the curb piece irrelevant. (4) Rural bus stations (e.g., at villages served by daily or weekly bus service) would
benefit from all-weather shelters to protect waiting passengers. For example, Cuba evidently provides
facilities for disabled persons at some of their rural bus stations.
A comparative study
Role of Auto-rickshaw Sector in Promoting Sustainable Urban Transport
Role of the Type of Service (Contract Carriage)
The findings from this study indicate that auto-rickshaw services in cities can help meet the objectives of the Shift
strategy—of promoting public transport and reducing private motorization—based on the following aspects:
FIRST AND LAST MILE CONNECTIVITY TO PUBLIC TRANSPORT: Auto-rickshaw services,
integrated as a feeder mode providing such connectivity, can complement public transport systems by ensuring
that all parts of the city have easy access to public transport stations.
DOOR-TO-DOOR TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVE TO PRIVATE MOTOR VEHICLES: The door-to-
door on-demand service provided by auto-rickshaws will ensure that transport needs requiring door-to-door
connectivity, such as occasional trips to the airport or emergency trips for health care can be met in cities without
having to rely on private motor vehicles.
Vehicle performance and Need for improvements
This paper assesses the performance of the motorized three-wheeler (auto-rickshaw) in Indian cities with
respect to two important sustainability parameters—emissions and road safety—to identify current challenges
and areas for vehicle-related reforms that can improve performance:
EMISSIONS: A key challenge in the auto-rickshaw sector is its emissions of particulate matter of
aerodynamic diameter of less than
10 microns (PM10). PM10 are known to have adverse impacts on health, and the conventional two-stroke engine
auto-rickshaws prevalent in many cities are major sources of these emissions (Shah and Iyer 2004).
ROAD SAFETY: The paper looks at the impact of the auto-rickshaw sector on the safety of both city
pedestrians and the rickshaws’ occupants (driver and passengers). Research conducted by EMBARQ India using
pedestrian fatality data for Mumbai and Bangalore shows that auto-rickshaws lead to fewer fatal pedestrian acci-
dents than do motorized two-wheelers and cars.
This is likely a result of their lower speeds and lighter weights (Mohan and Roy 2003). There are concerns for
the safety of auto-rickshaw occupants, however, particularly in multivehicle collisions (ones between auto-
rickshaws and other motor vehicles). A study of auto-rickshaw injury patterns in Hyderabad revealed that
multivehicle collisions were the leading cause of injury for auto-rickshaw occupants.
Auto-rickshaw services in cities can help promote public transport usage and reduce private
motorization
To meet the objectives of the NUTP, the findings from this study highlight the need for an overarching policy
vision for the auto-rickshaw sector in urban transport (Figure E.1) based on the Shift and Improve strategies of
the ASI framework to promote sustainable urban transport.
Reform Needs and Next Steps
In accordance with the policy vision, the following regulatory and vehicle-related reforms will help ensure that
the auto-rickshaw sector supports public transport and provides alternatives to private vehicles, while
addressing the sustainability challenges of emissions and road safety:
ENSURE AVAILABILITY OF DISPATCH SERVICES: Auto-rickshaw services in the majority of
Indian cities are provided by individual owner-operators rather than by fleet companies. The lack of organization
makes it difficult to provide dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services. This needs to be addressed through
regulatory reforms that enable fleet-based operations with dispatch services to enter the auto-rickshaw sector.
These regulatory reforms should be pursued by State transport departments, which are the nodal regulatory
agencies for the auto-rickshaw sector.
REDUCE EMISSIONS: Findings from this study highlight that improvements in engine technology (moving
from two-stroke to four-stroke engines) is potentially the best approach to reduce PM10 emissions from the auto-
rickshaw sector. Four-stroke engines have lower PM10, hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions than two-stroke engines (Shah and Iyer 2004). Further, four-stroke engines can reduce PM10 emissions
by running on compressed natural gas (CNG) and other alternatives to gasoline (Reynolds, Grieshop and
Kandlikar, 2011).
The engine and fuel-related reforms should be pursued by State transport department as the nodal regulatory
agencies.
The needed reforms in emission standards are the adoption of separate emission standards for HC and NOx
emissions, instead of the current combined (HC + NOx) standard. These reforms should be pursued by the
Standing Committee on Implementation of Emissions Legislation set up by the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways (MORTH) for emissions legislation (SIAM 2011b).
IMPROVE ROAD SAFETY: Vehicle design improvements such as seat belts and padding on stiff surfaces
(Schmucker et al. 2009) have been noted as key reform needs to improve occupant safety in multivehicle
collisions. Further, infrastructure interventions such as dedicated lanes for auto-rickshaws, narrow lanes, and
speed tables on urban roads to reduce average speeds will reduce the risk of occurrence of multivehicle
collisions.
Vehicle design improvements, through reforms in current motor vehicle safety regulations, should be pursued
by the Automotive Industry Standards Committee (AISC) (SIAM 2011b) set up by MORTH for motor vehicle
safety regulations.
Infrastructure interventions to improve auto-rickshaw occupant safety should be pursued by City governments as
part of their citywide road safety enhancement strategies.
Policy vision for Auto-Rickshaw sector in cities
Quality of fuel
The quality of fuel has been significantly improved; leaded petrol has been completely phased out. Sculpture
content of diesel has been reduced in stages from 0.8% to 0.05% with effect from March 2001. The quality of
petrol being supplied to Delhi has been improved by reduction of sculpture content to 0.05% and benzene
content to 1%. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is emerging as an attractive alternative fuel due to its clean
burning characteristic and very low level of exhaust pollution.
Budget 2010 has set up a National Clean Energy Fund for financing research and innovation in clean energy
technology. Taxes and duty reductions for solar energy technologies and LEDs will give the necessary impetus
for the growth of renewable energy technology in the country.
Urban Transport Trend & challenges:
An analysis of literature on Urban transport trends in India reveals a shift away from public transport & non
motorized transport {NMT} modes, with increasing usage of private motor vehicles.
GROWTH IN URBAN TRANSPORT DEMAND:
With rapid urbanization, urban transport demand in India continues to grow. Population in Indian cities is
expected to increase by around 250 million in the next 20 years (McKinsey & Company 2010), bringing enormous
growth in urban travel demand. It is projected that total daily passenger trips in 87 major urban centers in India
will more than double from around 229 million in 2007 to around 482 million in 2031 (MoUD 2008).
GROWTH IN PRIVATE MOTORIZATION:
According to industry data from the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), India’s private motor
vehicle market (motorized two-wheelers [MTWs] and cars) grew by more than 85 percent between FY 2003-04
(around 59 million vehicles) and FY 2009-10 (around 110 million vehicles), at an average annual growth rate of
close to 11 percent (CII 2011). Rapid economic growth, rising per capita incomes, ease of consumer financing
options, and favorable government policies toward the automotive sector will continue to drive an unprecedented
increase in private motor vehicle ownership and usage in India (EconomyWatch 2011; India Reports 2011).
DECLINING PUBLIC TRANSPORT MODE SHARES: Public transport mode shares declined in Indian
cities (20-70% decline in different size cities) between 1994 and 2007. This can be attributed to the inability of
public transport services to keep pace with rising demand and to maintain high quality of service, coupled with
increasing private motor vehicle ownership and usage in cities (MoUD 2008).
DECLINING NONMOTORIZED TRANSPORT (NMT) MODE SHARES: Mode shares of NMT
modes (walking and especially cycling) have declined in Indian cities. Cycling mode shares in cities have
come down from an average of 30 percent in 1994 to less than 11 percent in 2007, attributed to an increase in
average trip lengths as a result of urban sprawl, inadequate facilities for cycling, and growth in private motor
vehicle ownership and usage (MoUD 2008).
USE OF INTERMEDIATE PUBLIC TRANSPORT AS PRIMARY MODE FOR DAILY
COMMUTES: City commuters are increasingly using IPT, including auto-rickshaws, as the primary mode
for their daily commutes in cities. As stated in the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), launched in
April 2006 by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India
CURRENT URBAN TRANSPORT TRENDS IN INDIAN CITIES ARE LEADING TO BRODER
SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES FOR PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN TERMS OF
INCREASING EMISSION AND ROAD FATALITIES
(MoUD, 2006), the deteriorating quality of public transport in many cities has led commuters to shift to IPT
for daily commutes.
These interrelated trends contribute to broader challenges for people and the environment in Indian cities. For
example: Private motor vehicles are the single largest contributors (contributing between 50 and 90%) of total
emissions1 by the passenger road transport sector in cities (MoUD 2008).
According to a study of road fatality trends (Mohan et al. 2009), the road fatality rate in India increased from 36
fatalities per million persons in 1980 to 95 fatalities per million persons in 2006. Though this study looks at
combined urban and rural road fatality trends, it reports that the growth in private motor vehicles is a major
Contributor to deteriorating road safety trends in cities. Unless policies to control urban road infrastructure
investments and the increasing number of motor vehicles are implemented, such trends are expected to continue
in the future.
Based on a detailed study of road fatalities and transport characteristics in 30 Indian cities in 2008, MoUD’s
comprehensive study on urban transport (MoUD 2008) found that cities with public transport services were safer
than those without them, and it concluded that improving public transport (and reducing private motor vehicle
usage) should be a key strategy for cities to improve road safety.
Characteristics of auto-rickshaw users can be assessed in terms of the trip purposes served by auto-rickshaws, for
example, work, education, shopping, health care, and recreation. Based on published statistics linking mode shares
with trip purposes for select cities, table 3 shows the mode share of auto-rickshaws for various trip purposes.
As seen from table 3, people use auto-rickshaws for a variety of purposes, including education, shopping,
health care, recreational trips, and commuting to work.
The statistics presented in figures 2 and 3 and tables 2 and 3 on auto-rickshaw market size, domestic sales
trends, and mode shares highlight the contribution of the auto-rickshaw sector to meeting the daily transport
needs of urban citizens.
Market size & Sales Trend:
The Market size of auto rickshaws in cities currently varies from around 15,000 to 30,000 in Tier II cities
(population between 1& 4 million) to more than 50,000 in Tier I cities (population greater than 4 million).
Based on population statistics, it is estimated that Tier I & II cities have 4 to 16 auto-rickshaws serving every
1,000 people on average.
Industry Statistics on auto-rickshaw production & sales between 2003 & 2010 are presented in fig-3. These
statistics show that the auto rickshaw market is growing. While part of the domestic sales are associated with
the rural & semi-Urban market, domestic sales are being driven by the growing auto-rickshaw market
particularly in Tier II & Tier III cities (Tier cities are those with a population of less than 1 million), as well as
by replacement sales – scrapping old vehicles & replacing them with new ones-in Tier I cities.
Mode Shares & user characteristics:-
Analysis of mode shares for select cities (Table 2) Shows that auto-rickshaws serve between 10 & 20 percent
of daily person trips made on motorized road transport modes. For these cities, auto-rickshaws constitute a
small percentage (2-11%) of the total number of motor vehicles, but they account for a higher percentage of
mode shares since they serve multiple users over the course of a day & night.
Note: Numbers in city brackets with city names represent 2010 population (estimated) in millions.
Source: 2010 city population data estimated (by interpolation) from 2001 census population (world Gazetteer,
2011). Auto Rickshaw market size (registration) data obtained from regional transport offices (RTOs) of
respective cities. Cities included here (Mumbai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Pune, Chennai, Jaipur, and
Rajkot) are those which market-size data could be obtained from RTO’s
Source: SIAM 2011a
Note: The mode share data in above table represents the percent of trips under each trip purpose that occur on
auto-rickshaws. For example, in Delhi, 10% of work trips & 23% of educational trips occur on auto rickshaws.
Source: iTrans 2009.
ROLE OF AUTO-RICKSHAW SECTOR IN PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT
Connectivity to Public Transport
Providing connectivity, among other parameters such as frequency, reliability, comfort, and safety, is an
important aspect of public transport to retain as well as attract users. Auto-rickshaw services, integrated as feeder
modes providing first and last mile connectivity for public transport services, help ensure that public transport is
accessible to all parts of the city. In this role, auto-rickshaws will also ensure accessibility to public transport for
commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with disabilities. Ahmadabad’s Bus Rapid Transit
(BRT) system, Janmarg, has demonstrated that successful integration of auto-rickshaw services as feeder
modes is a key aspect of ensuring accessibility and usage of the BRT system (Janmarg 2010).
Door-to-Door Service as Alternative to private Motorized Transport
The ability to make door-to-door (long-distance) trips is a clear benefit of private motor vehicles. Therefore,
strategies to mitigate private motorization growth in cities have to ensure that door-to-door motorized transport
alternatives are available. This is particularly important for (1) occasional trips such as trips to the airport, and
for shopping.
And recreation, and (2) emergency trips such as for health care, where door-to-door on-demand transport is
favorable. Public transport typically does not provide door-to-door connectivity in cities, and it mostly
operates on a fixed schedule. The door-to-door on-demand service provided by auto-rickshaw services can
help ensure that such transport needs in cities are met without the need to rely on private motor vehicles
(Mohan 2010). This has also been noted in the NUTP, which states that the primary role of auto-rickshaw
(and other types of contract carriage) services in cities is to serve “occasional trips such as trips to
airports or rail stations with excessive baggage, or emergency trips that have to be undertaken immediately
when it is not possible to wait for public transport” (MoUD 2006).
It is important to note, however, that while auto-rickshaws provide an alternative to private motor vehicles; this
paper does not assess whether they are replacing private motor vehicles or directly mitigating their usage in
Indian cities.
Challenges
To ensure that auto-rickshaw services are able to play their intended role—as feeder services to public transport
and as a door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles—it is important to address the following
challenges:
COMPETITION OF AUTO-RICKSHAW SERVICES WITH PUBLIC TRANSPORT: Current trends
in urban transport (section 2) highlight the usage of IPT modes (auto-rickshaws and taxis) in cities for daily
commute trips, because of the poor quality of public transport. Thus, improving public transport in cities would
be a key strategy in ensuring that auto-rickshaw services fulfill their intended role as feeder services instead of
competing with public transport for long-distance trips (MoUD 2006).
CHALLENGES IN TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FOR DISPATCH (DIAL-A-RICKSHAW)
SERVICES: Dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services in the auto-rickshaw sector would be important in making auto-
rickshaw services an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles for occasional and
emergency trips. Fleet operations have been noted to be most effective
THE WAY FORWARD
Policy vision for the Auto-Rickshaw sector in cities
The National urban Transport Policy (NUTP) of the Ministry of Urban development, Government of India, is
the key guiding policy at the national level with the underlying rationale of people-based transport planning,
the NUTP framework focuses on planning & investments in public transport & NMT systems in cities. This
section presents the way forward for the auto-rickshaw sector in terms of a policy vision & targeted reforms
that should be pursued to ensure its role in promoting sustainable transport.
PROMOTING PUBLIC TRANSPORT USAGE THROUGH IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY: In
addition to serving occasional and emergency trips, auto-rickshaw services can play an important role in making
public transport accessible to all parts of the city, and encouraging daily commute trips on public transport by
providing first and last mile connectivity. As feeder services, auto-rickshaws will ensure that public transport is
accessible to commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with disabilities.
REDUCING PRIVATE MOTOR VEHICLE USAGE AND PROVIDING QUALITY DOOR-TO-
DOOR TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVES:
While the NUTP recognizes the role of auto-rickshaw services in serving occasional and emergency trips, it does
not acknowledge that auto-rickshaws provide a door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles. As
discussed earlier, reducing private motor vehicle usage while providing quality transport alternatives is an
integral part of the ASI framework to promote sustainable urban transport.
Thus, the policy vision should recognize that provision of quality auto-rickshaw service in cities is an important
part of the strategy to help reduce private motor vehicle usage. It should also highlight the need to improve auto-
rickshaw services to make them an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles in serving
occasional and emergency trips.
In addition to the role of the type of service (contract carriage), the policy vision should present the way forward
for the type of vehicle (motorized three-wheeler) in the auto-rickshaw sector, as part of the Improve strategy of
the ASI framework. The findings in this study highlight the need for vehicle-related reforms in the auto-rickshaw
sector to meet emissions and road safety challenges.
Figure 5 depicts the policy vision for the auto-rickshaw sector to promote sustainable urban transport in cities,
looking at both the type of service (contract carriage) and the type of vehicle (motorized three-wheeler).
As indicated in Figure 5, regulatory and vehicle- related reforms are needed in the auto-rickshaw sector to
ensure its role in promoting sustainable urban transport. These reforms are presented in the following
subsection.
Reform Needs
Recommendations for both regulatory and vehicle-related reforms are summarized in table 4.
Regulatory Reforms to introduce Dispatch Services
Contract carriage services in cities can be separated into dispatch and “walk-up” services (e.g., use of cab stands
or street hail) (Schaller 2007). In accordance with the policy vision (figure 5), in order for auto-rickshaws to
fulfill a role as both a feeder service for public transport and a door-to-door alternative to private motor vehicles,
both dispatch and walk-up service must be readily available (this is because feeder services to public transport
would typically be walk-up services at public transport stations, while dispatch services, as noted earlier, would
be important to enable auto-rickshaws to serve as an attractive door-to-door alternative to private motor
vehicles).
The majority of Indian cities have walk-up services but lack dispatch (dial-rickshaw) services, because the auto-
rickshaw sector is not organized (having individual owner-operators) and lacks fleet-based operations, which
would enable implementation of technology for dispatch services.
Policy vision for the Auto-rickshaw sector in Cities
Source: ITRANS 2012 c
Several case studies from different cities Shivaji Nagar, Kothrud {Pune}, Ahmedabad {Gujarat}, Bangalore.
A 2nd Case study of Paratransit in Indore
Additional details profile of driver:
Education
Educational background & training of the drivers is one of the primary indicators which were used to assess
the knowledge of safety (including passenger safety) amongst drivers. The Table 8-1 shows the educational
qualification of drivers in PTS. This indicator was also stressed by the RTO officials and traffic police.
According to them, low literacy levels among drivers are one of the major issues in creating awareness
programs and to improving safety. Poor adherence of traffic rules leads to traffic jams and accidents in the
city.
Table -1: Qualification of PTS Drivers (Based on Surveyed Samples)
EducationLevel
Auto-rickshaw Magic Taxi Van Sample Total
Illiterate 1 - - - 1
Primary 8 10 - 6 24
Secondary 3 6 4 4 17
Higher Secondary 1 - 1 3 5
Graduate & Above 1 - 2 - 3
Total 14 16 7 13 50Source: Sample Size 50; TAR Analysis, 2010
In most cases, the drivers are educated, except for 2% who are illiterate. Out of 50 drivers interviewed, 24
drivers have primary education (up to 5th standard) and 17 have secondary education (up to 10 th standard).
Basic qualification for new drivers is a minimum of secondary school education (10th standard or above).
1.2 Experience
The drivers come with different years of driving experience. The level of education in comparison with
year of driving experience is presented in the Table 1-2
Table 8-2 Education and Driving Experience
Year ofOperation
IlliterateUp to 5th
StdUp to 10th
StdUp to 12th
StdGraduate &
AboveTotal
Sample
1-2Yrs - 9 1 1 - 11
3-4Yrs - 3 - 1 1 5
5-10Yrs - 6 10 - 1 17
>10Yrs 1 6 6 3 1 17Source: Sample Size 50; TAR Analysis 2010
1.3 Age of the PTS Drivers
Maximum drivers are in the age group of 25 to 40 years. Auto-rickshaw drivers (relatively low proportion)
seem to be the oldest, i.e. above 50 years in age.
Table 1-3: Age Group of PTS Drivers
PTS Type Age Group (in year) Sample Total<25 25 to 40 40 to 55 > 55
Auto Rickshaw 14% 50% 21% 14% 14
Tata Magic 13% 63% 25% 16
Taxi 14% 71% 14% 7
Maruti City Van 8% 77% 8% 8% 13
Reason of Driving: - PTS gave different reasons for choosing their current occupation. They better income.
About 38% an alternate employment opportunity. Most people (40%) drive because this professions
guarantee of the people is in this occupation because they do not have any other employment opportunities.
Source: Sample size 50; TAR U Analysis 2010
PASSENGER CHARACTERISTICS
Majority of the people use PTS for commuting to their work place or educational institutions. Table 1-1 shows
the distribution of survey sample, i.e. PTS usage by people under different age classification.
Table 1-1: Classification of PTS Passenger by Age
PassengerAge
Group inYears
Reported PTS Usage Period Sample Total
6Month
6 Month to 1 Year
1-2 Years >2Years
<25 10% 27% 32% 31% 81
25to40 14% 9% 17% 60% 87
40 to 55 33% 11% 22% 33% 18
>55 7% 21% 14% 57% 14
Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200
Passenger Trip Details
The average length of trips and number of responses for each paratransit trip were analyzed from the surveyed
samples. The results are presented in Table 11-2 and Table 11-3.
Table 1-2 Classification of PTS Passengers by Purpose and Mode of Travel
Purpose ofTravel Auto
Tata Magic Taxi
MarutiVan
Nos. ofRespondents
Business 46% 31% 8% 15% 13Education 50% 24% 2% 24% 50
Connecting with Bust Train stations & Airport 67% 33% 3Health 83% 17% 6Shopping 55% 25% 20% 20Social Visits 38% 38% 25% 8Work 44% 19% 7% 30% 90Others 80% 20% 10Total 50% 23% 4% 24% 200Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200
From the Table 1-2, it is evident that most people commute (using PTS) for work followed by education. The
results also indicate that Auto-rickshaws are the most preferred (50%) mode of transportation while taxis are
least preferred (4%). Since Tata Magic and Maruti van usually operate over different routes, in general,
commuter's preferences are mostly divided between route based transportation system (Maruti van or Tata
Magic) or meter based transportation system (Auto-rickshaws). Permits time and privacy. Women and
children try to avoid PTS mainly for these reasons.
Purpose oftravel
Auto Tata Magic
Private 2 Wheeler
PrivateCar
Taxi MarutiVan
Bus Total
Social 3 1 9 2 1 5 21Work 7 10 13 7 3 11 8 59Other 1 1 10 3 15Average trips by mode of transport 33 34 83 13 21 30 29 243Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200
Advantages and Disadvantages of PTS
The passenger response on the advantages and disadvantages of PTS is presented in the Figure 1-1 to Figure
1-3.
Source: Passenger survey, TARU
Figure 2: Overcrowding in PTS
Source: Chimanbagh Road location
From the analysis it is evident that people are comfortable using PTS and find it convenient. Except for
economy, Auto-rickshaw was found to be relatively more convenient, safe, ensures privacy, accessible and
easily available (24 hours a day). Issues that need attention includes, lack of safety, overcrowding,
pollution, travel time, travel without license & permits time and privacy. Women and children try to avoid
PTS mainly for these reasons.
Source: Passenger survey, TARU 2010
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study was conducted to understand paratransit system in the context of its overall mobility. It
collected spatial information and non spatial information through primary survey supplemented by Auto-
drivers & daily commuters interviews. The results provide a snapshot of the situation. Some of the issues
identified through this study are as follows:
Core areas with narrow roads limit the access of public transport buses. This increases the reliance on PTS.
Inadequate public transportation in the fringe areas resulting in near complete reliance on Para Transit System.
The road networks within the city are limited.
Some of the roads are narrow, unpaved or poorly maintained A significant proportion of the right of the
way is infringed by vendors and unauthorized parking resulting in narrowing of the effective width of the
road.
Extremely congested roads with an incompatible mix of both motorized and non-motorized vehicles
traveling at widely different speeds
Most of livelihoods and economic activities are concentrated in and around the core (CBD) requiring high
proportion of population to travel to these areas on a daily basis. This results in peak hour congestion.
Maximum traffic congestion is found in busiest part for example in Pune Hinjewadi.
Para Transit system not accepted by the authorities as an integral part of transportation systems resulting in
growth of an informal demand and supply.
Limiting the number of PTS vehicles on road while inability to improve the public transport leads to high
reliance on private vehicles. This in turn leads to increased traffic congestion.
Overcrowding, unreliability, safety, timely availability and low value for money spent on PTS are the majors
concerns amongst users. The system therefore is perceived to be inconvenient and unsafe especially for
women and elderly.
Poor educational background of the drivers combined with lack of enforcement by regulatory authorities is
currently leading to poor safety within the PTS operations. Systems for traffic control & management is either
primitive or non-existent. Limited staff with the traffic department and lack of technology causing
inefficient and ineffective traffic control.
Increasing number of traffic accidents, especially among pedestrians and motorcyclists are evident
High densities of vehicles on road contribute to environmental impacts including air and noise pollution.
Mass transportation systems especially in a few metropolitan cities have moved from construction to the operational stage.
The government has taken half-a-step by preparing a draft National Urban Transport Policy. The next half-step would
be taken when regulatory reforms are put in place to provide comprehensive urban public transport services at an
affordable price to all. Due to increasing vehicular population, the carrying capacity of the roads within city
is highly reduced. Insufficient public transport and high reliance on the private vehicles are the main reasons
for this situation. The results indicate that two wheelers constitute majority of vehicles along with private
cars. Bicycle usage is moderate and contribution of public transport is very low, which is one of the main
reasons for traffic congestion.
Numbers of vehicles on the roads are high and increasing during morning peak hours, compared to evening.
The PTS vehicles are the only option of transportation for majority of lower income inhabitants. Due to
the lack of alternatives, they usually get the worst end of the bargain. They are often riddled with problems
like overcrowding, lack of safety and comfort. One of the major disadvantages quoted by PTS passengers is its
unreliability. The average monthly expenditure by household across all SECson transportation ranges from
Rs. 400 to Rs. 15,000. The share of PTS expenses ranges from Rs. 175 to 450. The upper SEC inhabitants
do spend very less on PTS compared to lower SEC inhabitants. This is due to their (upper SEC inhabitants)
high reliance on private vehicles.
PTS vehicles are mainly used for business/work purpose, education, followed by shopping and social visits.
Among the paratransit vehicles, Auto-rickshaws constitute the highest numbers, whereas Tata Magic carries
the maximum passengers. The surveys indicate that many of the route permit vehicles ply on routes, which
are not allocated to them. The rural PTS vehicles spend significant part of their operational travel within the
urban boundaries. Cream skimming is quite common among operators.
Recently, RTO has stipulated rural paratransit vehicles to be painted in a unique color to differentiate them
from urban permit vehicles. This system was introduced to prevent/monitor rural permit vehicles from plying on
urban routes. Most locations within the city are in proximity to an Auto-rickshaw stand (less than 500 m). The
availability of Auto-rickshaws is significantly less during nighttime; however, Auto-rickshaws drivers make
themselves available in case of need (medical emergencies).
The Auto-rickshaw operators mostly avoid following the metering system. They charge the passengers not
according to the fares stipulated by the RTO. While negotiations with the passengers are common practice
among the operators, the unions play an important role in fare fixing. Auto-rickshaws followed by Tata Magic
secured high rating among users for their convenience, accessibility and availability. Nevertheless, these two
paratransit modes charges high fare and follow poor safety standards.
The PTS vehicle union representatives indicated about 3000 unauthorized Auto-rickshaws (without permits)
plying in the city. The fuel station survey indicates that there may be more than 500 vehicles without valid
permits plying the city.
The route permit vehicles and Auto-rickshaws operate about 12 hours or more in a day with minimum breaks
compared to taxis. The PTS operators have to struggle hard to break even with their investment and earn a
living. The uncertainty in incomes across seasons makes this situation further precarious. Under this
constrained environment, the PTS operators are forced to overcrowd or bypass the safety regulations
wherever possible to increase their earnings. On the other hand, overcrowding along with lack of basic safety
equipments increases the risk to the passengers.
Overcrowding is also one of the reasons that limit middle and upper segments of the society as well as older
people and women from choosing route permit paratransit vehicles. Poor education and dangerous behavior of
PTS drivers along with lack of enforcement of traffic rules results in lack of passenger safety.
In the current environment, the effective implementation of public transportation is constrained due to
financial availability, road width availability and lack of parking spaces for the passengers.
The acceptance of any public transportation system would depend upon a variety of social and economic factors
as well as effective integration of the multiple systems including paratransit, so that, regular commuters can
travel efficiently from their point of origin to destination without having to use their private vehicles.
The particular case study which I did being in Pune where I travelled across the city & outskirts of city the
particular place in Pune name Hinjewadi where I interviewed Auto drivers & came cross to daily commuters.
When I spoke to auto drivers came to know why they chose this profession.
Mainly when I spoke to auto drivers among one of them when I spoke to him the tears rolled out in my eyes
because, they choose this profession not by default but they were constrained to choose this profession. Being
a graduate or being a student some have choose this profession.
Our India is an agrarian country so one of the family members to earn i.e. to support their family one has to opt
other profession. Their financial status is highly poor. They drive their auto in night & continue their
education. Some have chosen this profession has a part time.
The place in Hinjewadi where paratransit is used for schools, colleges to come to city but still they face many
hurdles they have certain restrictions they can take their vehicle in particular limit only. Beyond that if they
take they are fined for same. The people are heavily depending on paratransit because public transport in Pune
is highly better than other modes i.e. private vehicles.
It has been observed that people who are affordable to buy they buy their own two wheelers because the
frequency of buses to commute from one place to another is highly poor. The fare charges are almost equal to
buses. The halts of paratransit are less than compare to bus.
The only disadvantage with paratransit I observed is of safety, no first aid in paratransit vehicle. The auto
drivers are not skilled compare to bus drivers because proper training after completing certain training the bus
driver gets a job but which is not in same as paratransit because, mainly their education level they are hardly
matriculate. The fuel which they use i.e. maintenance of vehicle is highly poor. As it is rightly said, there are
two sides of a coin. There are advantages as well as disadvantages in paratransit.
Way Forward:
Detailed GIS assisted origin to destination (OD) survey needs to be mapped. This will throw light on the
travel needs, pattern and choice of modes of transportation. This may be supported by socio-economic
survey to understand the current mobility patterns, costs and salient features across SECs.
Origin to destination solution is necessary to solve the problem of increasing private vehicles and ensuring last
mile connectivity. In order to achieve this, integrated transportation system will be required. Concerns raised
by passengers include safety and affordability issues.
Currently unions provide support in rate fixing and legal support. RTO need to work in tandem with unions
and increase their responsibilities to include issues such as ensuring passenger safety and providing
awareness to the operators at more regular intervals.
The police department is currently carrying out awareness program only once every year, especially during
traffic week. This should be a regular activity and safety certificates should be made mandatory to enforce the
implementation process.
Bibliography
1}www.embarq.org/en/a-study-para-transit-system-indore-city EMBARQ Report 2011, 03,January 2011.
2}http://www.embarq.org/en/sustainable-urban-transport-india-role-auto-rickshaw-sector
3}http://embarqindia.org/node/209
4}http://www.ltaacademy.gov.sg/doc/J10Nov-p13Singal_UrbanTransportIndia
5}http://www.itpi.org.in/pdfs/jan01_08.
6}http://www.globalride-sf.org/paratransit/Guide
7}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/16.2_mccormick.pdf
8}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/2013/07/paratransit-business-strategies-a-birds-eye-view-of-matatus-in-nairobi/
9}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/16.3_jiao.pdf
10}http://www.unep.org/transport/lowcarbon/Pdf's/BRT_Casestudies_India_fullreport.pdf
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