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Problems and Solutionsby Tom Gibsonwww.camaspermaculture.org
All over the country [some soils are] worn out,depleted, exhausted, almost dead. But here is
comfort: These soils possess possibilities and may berestored to high productive power, provided you do a
few simple things. C.W. BURKETT, 1907
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Definition of Soil*SOILthe natural medium in which plants grow.
This definition, however, may be a little too simple. Heres a better one:
SOILa natural body that develops in profile form from a mixture ofminerals and organic matter. It covers the earth in a very thin layer and
supplies plants with air, water, nutrients, and mechanical support.
Our definition is, of course, the one we prefer:
SOILa living, dynamic system atthe interface between air and rock.Soil forms in response to forces ofclimate and organisms that act onparent material in a specific landscape over a long period oftime.
*Oregon State University Extension Service-Manual for Judging
Oregon Soils.
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Soil Components
MineralMatterPore Space
OrganicMatter
Making a poor garden better often begins with the soil. If yourgarden soil is poor, consider giving it some help. Adding organicmaterials to sandy soils improves their nutrient- and water-holdingcapacity. Adding organic materials to clay soil improves drainageand aeration, and helps the soil dry out and warm up more quicklyin the spring.
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Conventional
AgricultureIntensive tillage, soil erosion and insufficient
added residuesSoil organic matter decreasesSurface becomes compacted, crust formsMost soil organic matter is lostCrop yields decline
Aggregates break downErosion by wind and water increasesLess soil water storage, less diversity of soil
organism, fewer nutrients for plants
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The soilecosystem
Residue decompositionNutrient cyclingAggregation and porosityEnhance plant growthBreak down contaminants
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Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa, nematodes, arthropods, earthworms
Pictures courtesy M. Fauci and D. Bezdice
Soil Organisms
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Energy and nutrition in soils starts with organic matter. Maintaining organic
matter helps soils release other nutrition through chemical action of humic acids
and chemicals created by life forms that depend on organic matter.
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Many plants develop a beneficial relationship with fungi that increases the contact
of roots with the soil. Fungi infect the roots and send out root like structures calledhyphae. The hyphae of these mycorrhizal fungi take up waterand nutrients that
can then feed the plant. This is especially important for phosphorus nutrition of
plants in low-phosphorus soils. The hyphae help the plant absorb water and
nutrients and in return the fungi receive energy in the form of sugars, which the
plant produces in its leaves and sends down to the roots.
Root heavily infected with mycorrhizal fungi
(note round spores at the end of some hyphae).
Photo by Sara Wright.
The Soil Food Web
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Water MovementHow quickly water moves through soil
Water Holding CapacityHow much water a soil can holdavailable for plant growth
Soil air and water
The plow is one of the most ancient and
most valuable of mans inventions; but long
before he existed the land was in fact
regularly ploughed, and continues to
be thus ploughed by earthworms.
CHARLES DARWIN, 1881
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Pore space and air-water relationsSoil acts like a sponge
Macro pores control infiltration and drainage
Capillary pores control water holding capacity
Micro pores hold unavailable water
Why are soils which in our fathers hands
were productive now relatively impoverished?
J. L. HILLS, C. H. JONES, AND C. CUTLER, 1908
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Soil properties thataffect porosity
Soil textureSoil structure
Compaction and disturbance
Organic matter
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Soil Particle
SizesSand .05-2 mm
Silt.002-.05 mmClay 2 mm
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Approximate surface areas of
1 gram samples
Coarse sand Half Dollar
Fine clay Basketball court
Under the microscope, clay particles resemble playing cards inform. They are flat, hexagonal, and thin, like cards. Whenwet, the particles can 'slip' across each other, as in a deck ofcards.
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with methods of farming in which grasses form an important part of the
rotation, especially those that leave a large residue of roots and culms, the
decline of the productive power is much slower than when crops like wheat,
cotton, or potatoes, which leave little residue on the soil, are grown
continuously. HENRY SNYDER, 1896
Soil Minerals
W t K S D I
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W at K n o So Do Ihave?TextureStructure
Compaction
Organic matter
The soil-fist test can be used to determine soil type. Compact wet soil in your fist to
determine whether it is sandy, loam, or clay/silt. If it is sandy soil, it will refuse to form
itself into a ball in your fist. If it is loamy, it will form itself into a ball, but remain friable
so that it will crumble when poked with your finger. Clay/silty soil will form into a ball
that has sufficient plasticity that it will remain a ball when poked with a finger. The more
clay you have in your soil the longer the ribbon you can squeeze out.
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Texture
Structure
Compaction
Organic
matterThe depletion of the soil humus supply is apt to be
a fundamental cause of lowered crop yields.
J.H. HILLS, C.H. JONES, AND C. CUTLER, 1908
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Aggregation of sand, silt, and clay particles
Structure affects:Macro porosityInfiltration
Aeration
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Formation of soil structureGrowth of roots and movement of organisms create pores
and aggregates
Soil organisms break down organic residues, producingglues that stabilize aggregates
Fungi provide structural support to aggregates
Physical, chemical processes also involved
Moisture, warmth, and aeration; soil texture; soil fitness; soil organisms; its tillage,
drainage and irrigation; all these are quite as important factors in the make up
and maintenance of the fertility of the soil as are manures, fertilizers, and soil
amendments. J.L. HILLS, C.H. JONES, AND C. CUTLER, 1908
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Structure FactorsTexture
Structure
CompactionOrganic matter
Because organic matter is lost from the soil through decay, washing, and leaching,
and because large amounts are required every year for crop production, the necessity
of maintaining the active organic-matter content of the soil, to say nothing of the
desirability of increasing it on many depleted soils, is a difficult problem.
--A. F. GUSTAFSON, 1941
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Human compaction:
ClearingConstructionTrafficLivestock
Natural compaction:
Basal glacial tillVery compact.Nearlyimpermeable.
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Improving SoilsTexture
Structure
Compaction
Organic
matterWhere no kind of manure is to be had, I think the cultivation of lupines will be foundthe readiest and best substitute. If they are sown about the middle of September in
a poor soil, and then plowed in, they will answer as well as the best manure.
COLUMELLA, 1st Century, Rome
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Using animal manure
safelyIncorporate manure intosoil before planting.
Wait AT LEAST 120 days
between application offresh manure and harvest.
Well aged (>six months)and thoroughly compostedmanure do not havepathogen risk.
Dont use cat, dog or swinemanure.
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Why is organic
matter important?Structure andmacropores
Water holdingcapacityInfiltration
Nutrient supplyBiological activity
Improved root environment
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How does topography affect soil
water?
generally, the type of soil management that gives the greatest immediate
return leads to a deterioration of soil productivity, whereas the type that
provides the highest income over the period of a generation leads to the
maintenance or improvement of productivity.
CHARLES KELLOGG, 1936
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MicronutrientsBoron
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Copper
Chloride
Molybdenum
Plant NutrientsMajor NutrientsNitrogen
Phosphorus
PotassiumCalcium
Magnesium
Sulfur
About 90 nutrients found in soils are thought to affect health of
animals and humans.
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Bern Kohler, Ohio State Univ.
Chlorophyll -photosynthesis
Plant and Soil Sciences, UNebraska
Amino acids andproteins
DNA
Amino Acid
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Nutrient Deficiencies
Reduce plantgrowth, health, and
yield.Nutrient deficienciescan sometimes be
identified byobserving symptoms.
P deficiency in corn
Mg deficiency in corn
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Problems with excess
nutrientsNitrogen:
Plant health, fruit yield andquality
Groundwater qualityBoron:Toxicity
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Mineral Matter
Organic Matter
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Mineral Matter
KMgCa
Organic Matter
N
S P
Nutrient
sGenerallyNot
availabl
e
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Notavailable
N
SP
soluble,available
KMgCa
K+ Ca++
Weathering
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KMgCa
K+
Ca++
soluble, available
WeatheringN
SP
Notavailable
Biological release
NH4+
SO4-2
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Fertilizer Labels 5 - 10 - 10
% N - % phosphate -% potashPhosphate = units of P
1 lb P = 2.3 lb phosphate (P2O
5)
Potash = units of K
1 lb K = 1.2 lb potash (K2O)
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How much fertilizer do I use?
Fertilizer should be added after determiningwhat the available amount of nutrition is.
The available amount is often less than thetotal amount.
Available phosphorous in the spring is oftenhigher than the input amount after adding
manure in the fall. Manure increases thebiological activity in soil which liberatesphosphate and other minerals that arelocked up.
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Soil pHIndicates relative acidity or
alkalinitypH 7 = neutral; less than 7 = acid;
more than 7 = alkaline or basic
Logarithmic scale
Adapted from library.thinkquest.org
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Why is pH important?Nutrient availability
Availability of toxic metals
Microbiological activity
Acids in soils generally result in higher levels of metals
being available to plants like copper, a necessary
nutrient for blueberries. Can also cause heavy metals
that are toxic to humans and other animals to be more
available. The widest amount of biological activity is
seen in soils that have a near neutral pH.
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Soil AcidificationA natural process in humid areas
Accelerated by fertilizersSulfur and ammonium sulfate arestrong acidifiers
Has a tendency to leach calcium andother rock minerals from soil
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Desirable pH RangesVegetables 6 to 7.5
Pastures 5.5 to 8Acid loving plants 4.5 to 5.5
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Increasing pHLime (CaCO3) neutralizes acidity
Lime supplies Ca, which is oftendeficient in acid soils
Dolomite lime also supplies MgMagnesium may raise pH six times
faster than calcium
Apply lime based on soil test, andlime only those crops that need it.For gardens without soil test: 50
lb/1000 sq ft/year
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Taking a Sample1. Dont wait until the last minute. The best time to sample for a general soil
test is usually in the fall. Spring samples should be taken early enough to
have results in time to properly plan nutrient management for the crop
season.
2. Take cores from at least 15 to 20 spots randomly over the field to obtain a
representative sample. One sample should not represent more than 10 to
20 acres.
3. Sample between rows. Avoid old fence rows, dead furrows, and other
spots that are not representative of the whole field.
4. Take separate samples from problem areas, if they can be treated
separately.
5. In cultivated fields, sample to plow depth.
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Taking a Sample6. Take two samples from no-till fields: one to a 6-inch depth for lime and
fertilizer recommendations, and one to a 2-inch depth to monitor surface
acidity.
7. Sample permanent pastures to a 3- to 4-inch depth.
8. Collect the samples in a clean container.
9. Mix the core samplings, remove roots and stones, and allow to air dry.
10. Fill the soil-test mailing container.
11. Complete the information sheet, giving all of the information requested.
Remember, the recommendations are only as good as the information
supplied.
12. Sample fields at least every three years. Annual soil tests will allow youto fine-tune nutrient management and may allow you to cut down on
fertilizer use.
MODIFIED FROM THE PENNSTATE AGRONOMY GUIDE, 1999.
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A & L Labs
Complete Soil Test - 503-968-9225
http://www.al-labs-west.com
Kinsey Agricultural Services
Soil fertility problems/Albrecht Method (feed the soil)
http://www.kinseyag.com/
WyEast Environmental Services
Soil Lead Test - 503-231-9320http://www.wyeastlab.net
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Many soils require irrigation for
maximum productivity. Both theamount of
irrigation water needed and the proper
method of applying it depend on asoils permeability rate and water-
holding capacity.
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Installing an irrigation system can save money/water and increase yields. It
can also mitigate pest and disease problems caused by over or improper
watering.
Drip or weep hose irrigation will maximize delivery of water and nutrients to
the root zone while minimizing splashing and watering that causes disease.
You can build simple effective systems with off the shelf components from
hardware stores. A typical drip system can easily recapture the entire cost in a
single season by limiting excessive watering while ensuring plants get the
needed resources.
Best results will occur with the use of some kind of mechanical or electronic
control system that measures the water or the amount of time the water is
allowed to run.
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Thank YouMaterial provided by:Dr. Craig Cogger-WSU/NRCS, Puyallup
Dr. Charles Brun-WSU Extension Clark County
Kinsey Agricultural ServicesNational Center for Appropriate Technology
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Additional ResourcesUSDA National Agricultural Library
http://www.nal.usda.gov/Building Soils for Better Crops
http://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdf
http://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdfhttp://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdfhttp://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdfhttp://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdf7/30/2019 Soil Problems & Solutions
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Soil Survey of Clark County
http://soildatamart.nrcs.usda.gov/Manuscripts/WA011/0/wa011_text.pdfNRCS Soil Survey Explorerhttp://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey.aspx
Guide to Soil Survey Reportshttp://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Soil_survey_brochure.pdf
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE)http://www.sare.org/index.htm
Clayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service
http://attra.ncat.org/soils.htmlOSU Extension Service-Improving Garden Soilhttp://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/html/grow/grow/soil.html
Soil and Health Libraryhttp://www.soilandhealth.org
Additional Resources
http://www.sare.org/index.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayhttp://attra.ncat.org/soils.htmlhttp://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/html/grow/grow/soil.htmlhttp://www.soilandhealth.org/http://www.soilandhealth.org/http://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/html/grow/grow/soil.htmlhttp://attra.ncat.org/soils.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayhttp://www.sare.org/index.htm