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*SELF
*The conscious reflection of one’s own being or identify, as object separate from other or from the environment.
*Self is the collections of beliefs that we hold about ourselves
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*Self have 2 distinct meaning:*Self as an object
*Self as a process
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*Judgement on our own worth & the associated feelings.
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*Rosernberg Self-esteem Scale (1965)
* Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (1971/1981).
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*Pubertal development*Drug use
*Academic
*Gender differences
*Feedback from peers and adults
*SES and ethnic group
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*Body Image (BI)
*an individual’s experience of his/her body.
*Mental picture a person has of his/her body
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*HBI – when a person’s mental picture of her body is accurate and her feelings, assessment and relationship towards her body are positive, confident and self-caring
*Negative body image (clinical related problem)*Anorexia Nervosa
*Bulimia Nervosa
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*Awareness about the differences in gender
*Awareness about gender role
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*Biological explanations
*Psychoanalytic explanation
*Cognitive explanations
– A. Gender constancy (Kohlberg)
– B. Gender schema (Piaget)
*Differential socialization explanation.
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*Results on Maccoby & Jacklin’s “Differences” survey:-*Males more aggressive (Still very common, not universal)
*Females have higher verbal ability (Magnitude appears decreasing but difference remains)
*Males have higher visual-spatial ability (Still very consistent)
*Males have higher mathematical ability (Still fairly consistent, but not universal and may be
*decreasing).
*Males more hyperactive
*Females more nurturant
*Females more prone to depression
*Females more “field dependent” (as visual/spatial pattern)
*Females more viable.
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*Anxiety is state of tension *Anxiety is generally defined as a psychological
emotional state or reaction*An anxiety state consists of unpleasant feelings of
tension, apprehension, nervousness and worry and activation of the autonomic nervous system
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*Reality anxiety
*Neurotic anxiety
*Moral anxiety
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*State anxiety
*Trait Anxiety
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*Panic Disorder
*Agoraphobia
*Specific Phobias
*Social Phobias
*Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
*Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
*Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
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*Reformulated learned-helplessness theory -Martin Seligman (1975)
*Seligman
*human beings subjected to uncontrollabe negative events in life will eventually learn to be helpless and will become chronically depressed and heighten the anxiety level.
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*Anxiety – comes under the Neuroticism domain
*Anxiety, depression, nervousness, vulnerability, self-consciousness
*Negative affectivity (Watson & Tellegen, 1985)
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*People high in Neuroticism are lonelier (Stokes, 1985)
*Less satisfied with interpersonal relationships in their lives (Atkinson & Volato, 1994)
*People with depression and generalized (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985)
*College students high in N report more stress symptoms and higher levels of homesickness (Matthews & Deary, 1998)
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*Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scales (MAS-Taylor, 1953),
*Cattell’s Trait and State Anxiety Measures (Cattell and Scheier, 1963),
*Affect Adjective Check List (AACL – Zuckerman and Lubin, 1965)
*SCL-90 Symptom Check List (SCL-90 – Derogatis et al., 1973),
*Profile of Mood States (POMS-McNair et al, 1971)
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*“Any type of behavior or action aiming at destroying, damaging, injuring people and people’s effort to run away from it” Baron & Byrne (1981)
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*Aggression
*Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
*De individuation
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*Biological Groups.
*Evolutionary theory.
*Cultural Influences
*Multicultural Perspectives
*Frustration
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*Aggression as a Response to Aggression
*Physical Pain
*Heat
*Arousal
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*Hostile (emotional) aggression*Instrumental aggression
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*Aggression may lead to violence
*Forsyth (1995) listed forms of aggression cum violence
*Criminal violence
*Sexual assault
*Domestic violence
*Family Violence
*Adolescent violence
*Collective violence
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*Why aggression occurs?
*Why violence occurs?
*Three major lines of thoughts:
*Psychoanalytic perspective
*Instinct (Naluri)
*Social learning perspective