ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections
TechnicalAnnextothemainprojectreport
October2016
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
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ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections
TechnicalAnnextothemainprojectreportContents
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................11.1.Backgroundtotheproject........................................................................................................11.2.TheProjectArea.......................................................................................................................21.3.StructureofthisAnnex.............................................................................................................2
2. Waterandfloodmanagement.................................................................................................52.1.Rivers,weatherandthecausesofflooding..............................................................................52.2.Thelikelihoodoffutureflooding..............................................................................................92.3.Currentpolicyandpracticetoaddressfloodriskinthecatchment.......................................122.4.Risksofdrought......................................................................................................................122.5.Theroleofnaturalfloodmanagement..................................................................................142.6.Governanceandfundingofwatermanagement...................................................................162.7.FuturefundingandgovernanceoftheSRA............................................................................18
3. ClimateChange......................................................................................................................203.1.Introduction............................................................................................................................203.2.Thelikelyimpactsofclimatechange......................................................................................213.3.HowactivityintheCatchmentiscontributingtoclimatechange..........................................223.4.Currentactiontomitigateandadapttoclimatechange.......................................................23
4. Landscape,wildlifeandnaturalresources..............................................................................254.1.Landscape...............................................................................................................................254.2.Wildlife...................................................................................................................................264.3.Soils.........................................................................................................................................294.4.Energyproduction..................................................................................................................304.5.TheconditionoflandscapeandnatureintheCatchment.....................................................32
5. Farmingandfoodproduction.................................................................................................345.1.Farmingatthepresenttime...................................................................................................345.2.Recentchangesinfarminglanduseandmanagement..........................................................365.3.Environmentalmanagementonfarms...................................................................................37
6. CommunitiesandEconomy....................................................................................................396.1.Peopleandcommunities........................................................................................................396.2.Economy.................................................................................................................................406.3.Bioregionalism........................................................................................................................446.4.CommunityengagementandKnowledgeco-production......................................................44
7. Thehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagement.....................................................................468. Bibliography...........................................................................................................................51
ReportpreparedbyRobertDeaneofRuralFocuswww.rural-focus.co.ukforthe‘ReimaginingtheLevels’group,withfinancialsupportfromtheWessexReinvestmentTrust.Forprojectreportsandupdatessee:www.reimaginingthelevels.orgCitation:Deane,R.(2016).ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex.Forfurtherinformation,contact:RobinMewes([email protected])
Versioncontrol:FinalversionoftheTechnicalAnnex,completed,18thOctober2016.
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1. IntroductionThisdocumentprovidesbackgroundevidenceandanalysistosupportthemain‘ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections’projectreport.ThatreportassessesthemaindriversofchangeaffectingtheCatchmentoftheSomersetLevelsandMoors,proposesasetofthematicandspatialobjectivesandmakes11recommendationsforconsiderationbylocalorganisationsandcommunities.
ThisTechnicalAnnexadoptsadifferentstyle,usingmaps,graphs,tablesandtexttosetouttheanalysisthattheReimaginingtheLevelsgrouphasusedtodrawuptheirobjectivesandrecommendationsforthearea.Sourcesofinformationarereferencedinfootnotesandlistedinabibliography.
1.1.BackgroundtotheprojectThe‘ReimaginingtheLevels’projectemergedfollowinganOpenSpaceeventheldinGlastonburyinJune2014,exploringasustainablefuturefortheSomersetLevels.TheprojectwasestablishedbyasmallgroupofindividualswholiveontheLevelsandMoorsandwho,asmembersofcommunityorganisationssuchasRedBrickEnterprise(Glastonbury),TransitionAthelneyandGreenWedmore,haveaninterestindevelopingwhattheyseeasasustainablelongtermfutureforthearea.
Earlyin2016,thegroupweresuccessfulinraisingabudgetfromtwosmallgrantstoundertakeashortresearchprogrammeandpublishanddisseminateitsfindings.ThegroupengagedRobertDeaneofRuralFocusLtdtoundertakenbackgroundresearchandconsultationanddrafttheprojectoutputs.ThepurposeoftheprojectandtheresearchtopicsithassoughttoaddressaredescribedinFigure1.
Figure1.Purposeandscopeoftheproject
• ToinvestigateprecedentsinbothpolicyandpracticewhichwouldhelpimplementthevisionforwaterandlandmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentsupplyingtheLevelsandMoors,whichwouldreconciletheneedsforconservationandlivelihoodandalsocontributetoglobalsustainabilityobjectives.
• Topresentinformationontheseissuesinanaccessibleformatthatinformsandstimulatesdialoguebetweencommunities,landownersanddecision-makersaboutprioritiesforfutureaction.Note:TheprojecttookthevisionpreparedinJanuary2014bytheLevelsandMoorsTaskForceasitsstartingpoint,andrevieweditscurrentrelevanceandachievability.
1. Theprojectwasguidedbythefollowingresearchquestions:1. Whatiscurrently
happening/known?2. Whatarethe issuesfacingthefutureoftheareaandwhatresearchandother
informationisavailabletoshedlightonthese?
2. Whatneedstohappen?
3. What are the practical solutions, in terms of land use and water/landmanagement,thatare likelytobebestatproducinganappropriatebalanceofconservation, farming and flood risk management? (these are listedalphabeticallynotnecessarilyinprecedence)
3. Whatwillitlooklike?4. Where will these practical solutions be most effective and how might theychange the existing patterns of land use and management across thecatchment?
4. Whodecides? 5. Who needs to be involved to reach agreement and what decision-makingmechanismswillbeneeded?Areexistingdemocraticstructuressuitableorwillnewapproachesbeneeded?
Attheoutsetoftheproject,itwasintendedthatthekeyfocusoftheworkshouldbethegrowingriskoffloodingtopeopleandtheenvironmentontheLevels,andtheapproachesthatshouldbeadoptedtoaddressthisinasustainablemanner,takingaccountoftheneedtoinfluenceclimatechange,asakeycausesof
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flooding.Halfwaythroughtheproject,theUKreferendumvotetoleavetheEUinevitablybroadenedthescopeofthework.Whilenotwishingtodilutetheattentiontheprojectgavetoflooding,itwasdecidedtowidenitsremittoconsiderthepotentialimpactsofBrexittothelandscapeandcommunitiesofthearea.
1.2.TheProjectAreaThefocusonflooding,andthegroups’firmbeliefthatactiontoreducefloodriskmusttakeplaceacrossthewholecatchment,meantthattheprojectareawasdefinedbythewatershedoftheriversParrett,Tone,AxeandBruethatdrainintoBridgwaterBay(Figure2onthefollowingpage).AstheinsetonFigure2shows,thereisarelativelystrongcoincidencebetweentheserivercatchmentsandthecountyofSomerset,withtheexceptionofWestSomersetDistrictwhichhasonlyasmallareainthecatchmentandMendipDistrict,thesouthernhalfofwhichisinthecatchment.
Figure4onpage5showshowthefullcatchmentcanbesub-dividedintothewatershedsofthemainrivers,basedonthecatchmentboundariesdevelopedbytheEnvironmentAgencyfortheEUWaterFrameworkDirective.ThelowercatchmentsoftheParrett,Tone,BrueandAxeoccupyjustoverathirdofthearea(35%).
Keylandusedataforfullcatchmentanditssub-catchments,alongwithcomparabledataforEnglandasawhole,areshowninFigure3.Theseshowthatthesouthernhalfofthecatchmentisdominatedbyarablecropping,particularlytheLowerParrettandTone,andUpperIsles,CaryandYeo,whereastheBrueandAxecatchmentsnorthofthePoldenHillstendtobepasturedominated.
1.3.StructureofthisAnnexAspartofitsworktopreparedthemainreport,theprojectgroupchosetosubdividetheissuesandopportunitiesfacingthecatchmentoftheSomersetLevelsandMoorsintosixtopics.Eachofthesetopicshasaseparatesectioninthisdocument.
• Section2summarisestheissuesrelatingtowaterandfloodriskmanagementintheCatchment.Itdescribestheriversandweatherpatternsoftheareaandthefactorsthatleadtoflooding.Itreviewsthelikelihoodoffuturefloodingandthedevelopmentofflooddefencemeasuresandlooksathowtheriskoffloodingiscurrentlymanaged.
• Section3examinestheeffectsthatthechangingclimate,particularlysealevelrise,arelikelytohaveontheCatchment.ItalsolooksatwhattypesofactivityintheCatchmentarecontributingtoclimatechangeandthetypesofmitigationandadaptationactionsthataretakingplace.
• Section4describesthenaturalenvironmentoftheLevelsCatchment,coveringitslandscapes,wildlifeandnaturalresourcesandsourcesofenergy.Itexaminestheircurrentconditionandhealthasawayofidentifyingopportunitiesforbetterprotectingthearea’snaturalcapital.
• Section5reviewsagriculturallanduseandproductionintheCatchment,looksbackatrecentchangesinfarmingandexaminesthetypesofenvironmentalmanagementtakingplaceonfarms.
• Section6describesthesocio-economiccharacteristicsoftheCatchment,lookingatthecharacteristicsofthepeopleandcommunitieswholiveintheareaandalsoitseconomy.Itfocussesontheland-basedsectorsoffarmingandforestryandonthetourismandhospitalitysectorsaskeydriversinthearea’sruraleconomy.
• Section7providesabriefdescriptionofthehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors.
Finally,abibliographylistssourcesofinformationwhichhavebeenreferencedinthemainreportandthisannexorwhichprovidevaluablebackgroundinformation.
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(SeeFigure4onpage5forlocationmap)
LowerBrue/Axe
LowerParrett/Tone UpperAxe
UpperSheppey UpperBrue UpperCary UpperYeo
UpperParrett UpperIsle UpperTone
QuantockStreams
Proportionofwholecatchment 17.8% 17.3% 4.9% 3.4% 7.4% 3.5% 14.0% 6.3% 6.1% 15.1% 4.2% 100.0% n/a
DOMINANTLANDCOVERbasedonaggregateddatain1kmsquares(LandCoverMap2007)Arable 16.2% 56.8% 10.5% 31.5% 27.8% 68.9% 45.7% 62.2% 74.5% 39.7% 60.7% 42.2% 48.6%Improvedgrassland 72.4% 39.4% 81.6% 63.1% 69.5% 24.3% 45.0% 30.8% 19.5% 50.4% 20.5% 49.7% 27.6%Otherlandcover 11.5% 3.8% 7.9% 5.4% 2.7% 6.8% 9.3% 7.0% 6.1% 9.9% 18.9% 8.1% 23.9%
PRIORITYHABITATS(NaturalEngland)Coastalandfloodplaingrazingmarsh 45.2% 28.2% 6.7% 0.0% 1.5% 2.2% 1.7% 1.2% 1.5% 1.7% 9.5% 14.5% 1.6%Deciduouswoodland 1.3% 2.3% 5.8% 6.0% 2.8% 4.9% 4.7% 2.6% 4.3% 5.9% 5.3% 3.7% 5.6%Goodqualitysemi-improvedgrassland 0.5% 0.3% 3.6% 0.4% 0.7% 0.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.6% 0.7% 0.4% 0.6% n.a.Lowlandcalcareousgrassland 0.5% 0.4% 3.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.5%Lowlanddryacidgrassland 0.0% 0.0% 2.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1%Lowlandheathland 0.1% 0.0% 2.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4%Lowlandmeadows 0.5% 5.3% 0.5% 0.3% 0.2% 1.0% 0.3% 0.7% 0.3% 0.2% 0.0% 1.2% 0.3%Purplemoorgrassandrushpastures 0.5% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1%Traditionalorchards 0.7% 0.9% 0.3% 0.7% 1.0% 0.5% 0.4% 1.1% 0.4% 0.4% 0.2% 0.6% 0.1%Allpriorityhabitats(inclsomenotlistedabove) 53.6% 38.5% 27.2% 8.5% 7.1% 9.7% 8.6% 6.5% 8.1% 10.0% 22.5% 23.2% 14.1%
WOODLAND(NationalForestryInventory2014)Broadleaved 2.0% 2.5% 7.0% 6.5% 3.1% 6.0% 5.2% 3.0% 4.5% 6.6% 5.4% 4.2% 5.9%Conifer 0.1% 0.4% 1.3% 0.7% 1.2% 0.7% 1.7% 0.6% 1.3% 1.6% 5.9% 1.1% 2.4%Mixed 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.5% 0.3% 0.2% 0.6% 0.7% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4%Otherwoodland 0.3% 0.3% 1.0% 0.3% 0.7% 1.0% 0.6% 0.3% 0.4% 0.7% 1.2% 0.5% 1.1%Allwoodland 2.4% 3.3% 9.6% 7.9% 5.4% 8.2% 7.9% 4.1% 7.0% 9.7% 13.0% 6.3% 9.8%
AREASATRISKOFFLOODINGFROMRIVERSANDTHESEA(EnvironmentAgency)High(>1in30yearrisk) 1.9% 26.7% 6.9% 0.9% 3.8% 7.0% 4.4% 3.4% 4.4% 3.4% 11.0% 7.9% 4.8%Medium(1in30to1in100yrrisk) 9.4% 7.6% 2.8% 1.5% 3.5% 3.0% 2.1% 1.6% 2.7% 1.9% 5.8% 4.6% 3.9%Low(1in100to1in1,000yrrisk) 23.0% 8.3% 1.0% 0.8% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.0% 1.1% 1.6% 2.7% 6.4% 3.8%
BUILTUPAREAS(ONS,2011) 10.1% 6.0% 5.6% 8.7% 3.2% 8.8% 6.8% 6.2% 4.9% 7.2% 1.7% 6.8% 10.4%
Weston-S-M Bridgwater Cheddar Wells Somerton Yeovil Crewkerne Chard Taunton
Highbridge&Burnham
SheptonMallet Sherborne Ilminster Wellington
Street
Glastonbury
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LARGESETTLEMENTS
DatafromGISanalysis.Percentagesshowproportionofsubcatchmentareaineachlandusecategory.Shadingindicateshighvalueswithineachdataset.
Figure3.KeyLandUseDatabySub-catchments
Englandcomparison
LevelsandMoors MiddleandUpperCatchments WholeCatchment
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2. WaterandfloodmanagementThissectionsummarisestheissuesrelatingtofloodingandfloodriskmanagementintheCatchment.Itdescribestheriversandweatherpatternsoftheareaandthefactorsthatleadtoflooding.Itreviewsthelikelihoodoffuturefloodingandthedevelopmentofflooddefencemeasuresandlooksathowtheriskoffloodingiscurrentlymanaged.Section7ofthisAnnexsummarisesthehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors.
2.1.Rivers,weatherandthecausesoffloodingTheriversthatflowthroughtheSomersetLevelsdrainacatchmentthatis2,464km2insize.SouthofthePoldenHills,theRiverParrettanditstributariestheTone,IslesandYeoreachtheseaatBridgwaterandtheRiverCaryflowsoutatDunball.NorthofthePoldens,theRiverBrueanditstributariestheSheppey,RedlakeandWhitelake,andtheRiverAxe,reachtheseaatWeston-super-MareandHighbridgerespectively.Asexplainedfurtherbelow,thelowersectionsoftheserivershavebeenmodifiedwithnewcutsandrhynestoimprovedrainageandtheParrettisnowconnectedtotheCary/King’sSedgemoordrainviatheSowyRiver.TheParrett/CaryriversystemcoverstwothirdsoftheCatchment,carryingabout750millionm3ofwaterayear,comparedtothe375millionm3carriedbytheBrueandAxe.
Figure4.Majorsub-catchmentswithintheSomersetLevelsWatershed
Rainfall
AnnualrainfallacrosstheCatchmentisaround750mmayear,withabout80mmmonthlyinthewinterand50mmmonthlyinthesummer1.TheseaverageamountsareoftenexceededbyperiodsofheavyrainandtherecordskeptatYeoviltonshowthattherehavebeen37monthsinthelast50yearswheremonthlyrainfallhasexceeded120mm(whichistwicethemonthlyaverageof60mm)(Figure5).Oftenitisaperiodofseveral
1MetOfficeonlinedataforCannington,YeoviltonandWeston-super-Mare.www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climateaccessed23/05/16.
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monthsofhighrainfallwhichleadtotheworstfloodevents,suchasbetweenDecember2013andFebruary2014whentheYeoviltonrecordsshowthat419mmofrainfallfell,whichwasmorethanhalfoftheannualaverage.
Figure5.MonthlyrainfalltotalsatYeovilton1965to2015,highlightingpeakmonths
Source:HistoricalmonthlydataformeteorologicalstationYeovilton,MetOffice.Accessedatwww.data.gov.uk,April2016
Floodingis,andhasalwaysbeen,anaturalphenomenonoftheLevels.Nearlyaquarter(22%)oftheCatchmentislessthan10mabovemeansealeveland8%isclassifiedasbeingathighrisk(1in30annualrisk)offloodingfromriversortheseabytheEnvironmentAgency.Theareasclassifiedasbeingathigh,mediumandlowriskoffloodingareshowninFigure6.
Figure6.AreasintheCatchmentatriskoffloodingfromriversorthesea
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Oct1976:188mm
May1979:171mm Dec1989:166mm
Nov2002:192mm
Jan2014:166mmSept1974:161mmJuly1965:155mmOct2000:162mm
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Causesofflooding
Floodingoccursfromacombinationoffoursourcesofwater:
• Firstly,rainfallingontothelandsaturatestheuppersurfacesofthesoilandliesonthesurfaceorruns-offdownslope.Thissurfacewaterfloodingisexacerbatedbyurbandevelopmentthatreplacesporoussoilwithlessporoussurfacessuchastarmacandconcreteandalsobydamagetothesoilstructurewhichcanoccurfromintensivefarmingpractices.
• Secondly,thechannelsofwatercoursesandriversbecomefullandwaterover-topstheriverbanksandspreadsoutovertheavailablefloodplain.Thisfluvialfloodingcanbeexacerbatedbyabuild-upofsiltintheriverchannel(fromsoilerodedhigherupthecatchment)andreductionsintheareaofthefunctionalfloodplain(fromfloodprotectionschemesofurbanareasorfarmland).
• Thirdly,highseatidesandwavescancausemarinefloodingatthecoastand,mostsignificantlyontheLevels,restrictingtheamountofwaterthatdischargesfromtheriverstotheseaandbacking-upwaterinland.Thisisdiscussedfurtherbelow.
• Finally,prolongedperiodsofhighrainfallcanraisethewatertabletothelevelofthegroundsurface,causinggroundwaterflooding.Thisalsosignificantlyincreasestheriskofsurfacewaterflooding.
TheinfluenceofsealevelonfloodingoftheLevelsissignificant.ThetidesatBridgwaterregularlyriseto6.4mabovemeansealevelandatmosphericpressureandwindcanincreasethisto8m(levelsthatareprojectedtoincreasewiththechangingclimate).Althoughseawallsandtidalsluices/locks(calledclysesonthelevels)acrossmostoftheriverspreventseawaterfromflowinguptherivers(onlytheRiverParrettistidalinlandtoOathLockontheParrettandtoNewBridgeonCurryMoorontheTone),theheightofthetidestilldeterminestheoutflowfromalltherivers.‘Tide-lock’occurswhenthesealevelpreventsthelevelofwaterinriversfromdischargingtotheseaandallthewaterflowingdowntheriversmustaccumulatewithintheriverchannelor,ifthereisnoroomforit,mustfloodovertheriverbankstothesurroundingland.Thevolumesofwaterinvolvedduringtide-lockcanbeenormous.Iftide-lockoccursfor4.5hoursaroundeachhightide,theriverchannelmustbeabletoaccommodate16,200timesitsnormalriverflowinordertoavoidflooding2.
Rainfalltendstobeconcentratedinthewintermonthsand,assoilsintheCatchmentbecomesaturated,floodingismuchmorelikelytooccurbetweenNovemberandFebruarythanduringthedriersummermonths.Figure7showsthemonthlyfrequencyoffloodwarningsissuedbytheEnvironmentAgencyintheCatchmentsince2006.
Anotherkeyinfluencethataffectsfloodingisthespeedwithwhichrainfalliscarriedintotheriversandflowsdownstream(knownasthe‘flashiness’oftheCatchment)andalsothewaythatpeakflowsoffloodwaterfromdifferenttributariescombinewheretheriversjoin.Figure8comparesriverflowsfromtwo
theoreticalriversystemsoverafour-weekperiod,bothofwhichreceivethesameamountofrain.GraphAontheleftshowsriverswitharelativelyfast(‘flashy’)responsewheremostoftheirpeakflowsoccuratthesame
2Williams(1970).TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels.CambridgeUniversityPressPage10.
Figure7.MonthlyfrequencyoffloodwarningsfortheCatchment2006to2015
Source:HistoricFloodWarningsdatafromtheEnvironmentAgency.www.data.gov.uk
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time(‘synchronised’))whilethegraphontherightshowsriverswithslowerresponsesanddesynchronisedpeakflows.Theoveralleffectonfloodingisshownwiththedashedredline,showinghowfloodingoccursinGraphAbutisavoidedinGraphB.
Figure8.Theoreticalgraphscomparingresponsesofdifferentriverssystemstothesameamountofrain
TheriversandcatchmentsflowingthroughtheSomersetLevelshaveresponsecurvesthataretypicalofthoseinlowlandfarmedcatchmentsandthepeakflowstendtobesynchronised,similartothesituationinGraphAabove.Thespeedwithwhichcatchmentsrespondtorainfalldependsonarangeoffactorsincludingtheunderlyinggeologyandtopographyandtheuseandmanagementofland.Run-offoccursmuchfasteroncompactedsoilswithsparsevegetation,comparedtosoilswithopenstructuresandclosedvegetation.ThescopeformanagementinterventionstomovefromGraphAtoGraphBarediscussedbelow.
DataonthedailymeanflowofriversinEnglandhasbeencollectedataseriesofflowstationssincethemid1960s,nowavailableonlineattheNationalRiverFlowArchive3,andthisprovidesameansofexamininghowoftenhighriverflowsoccur.Figure9presentsdatafromriverstationsontheRiverParrettanditstributaries,showingtheannualfrequencywithwhichparticularlyhighriverflows(tentimesthemeandailyflow)havetakenplace.Itshowsthatthesehighriverflowevents,whichusuallyleadtoflooding,haveoccurredmuchmorefrequentlyinthefifteenyearssince2000thantheydidinthe15yearsbetween1970and1985.Whetherthisisevidenceofalongtermtrendwhichwillcarryoninthefuture,orwhetherthehighriverflowsin2001,2001,2013and2014arechanceevents,isnotknown.
ItisinterestingthatasimilartrendintheincreasedfrequencyofsevererainfalleventsisnotevidentfromFigure5,above.Thisposesthequestionofwhetherchangesinlanduseandmanagementinrecentdecades,particularlyinthemiddleanduppercatchment,haveplayedaroleinthegrowingfrequencyofhighpeakflowsoftheParrett.Itispossible,evenlikely,thattrendssuchasdecliningorganicmattercontentanddecliningsoilstructureinarablesoilsandcompactionofpasturesoils4,couldbeincreasingthe‘flashiness’ofcatchments.Whilethisissuehasbeenraisednationallybyacknowledgedexpertsandresearchers5thelinkbetweenlanduseandmanagementandtheresponseofriverflowsatawholecatchmentscalehasnotbeenestablishedconclusively.Theroleoflandmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentinfloodriskmanagementiscoveredfurtherlaterinthissection(2.5.NaturalFloodManagementonpage14)
3See:http://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk4TrendshavebeendemonstratednationallybytheNationalSoilsInventoryhttp://www.landis.org.uk/data/nsi.cfm.TrendsintheSouthWestareanalysedinPalmerRCandSmithRP(2013).SoilstructuraldegradationinSWEnglandanditsimpactonsurface-waterrunoffgeneration.SoilUseandManagement,DOI:10.1111/sum.12068.5SeeforinstancethepaperbyHowardWheaterfromImperialCollegeLondon,analysisingdatafromfloodingthattookplacein2001:WheaterH(2006).Floodhazardandmanagement:aUKperspective.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.Lond.A.,365:2135-2145.
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Bank-full capacity- flooding occursabovethisline
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Figure9.EstimatedfrequencyofhighriverflowsintheRiverParrett1970to2015
Source:AnalysisbythisprojectofdatafromtheNationalRiverFlowArchive
Theeconomicimpactsofflooding
Floodeventscanhavesignificantandfar-reachingeconomicimpacts.Astudyoftheeffectsofthe2013/14floodingoftheLevelscommissionedbySomersetCountyCouncilputthetotalcostoftheimpactsat£118million(thecentralestimate),with£75millionofthisbeingincurredindirectimpacts,£9millioninindirectimpactsand£35millioninqualitativelyassessedimpacts.Directimpactsincluded£17millionofcoststolocalgovernmentandtheemergencyservices,£16milliontoresidentialpropertyownersortheirinsurancecompanies,£12milliontobusinessesandindividualsasaresultofhighwayandothertraveldisruption(plus£17millionforrailrepairs)and£6millionlossestofarmers.6Thesefiguresacknowledgethewiderregionalimpactsthattheeventhad.Withthewatertakingupto12weekstorecede,therewassignificantimpactontransport(roadandrailclosures),businessandtourismataregionallevel.TheA361wasclosedforalmostthreemonthsandthemainlinerailwayfromTauntontoBristolwasclosedatFordgateforthreeweeks,causingsignificantdisruptiontothemillionsofjourneysthattakeplacethroughtheLevelsandMoors.
Inrecentyears,otherpartsoftheUK,suchasTewkesbury,YorkandCarlisle,haveexperiencedsevereflooding.Thesehavecausedeconomicandsocialimpactsthathavebeenjustasharmful,ifnotmoreso,thanthosewhichhaveoccurredintheCatchmentinrecentyears.
2.2.ThelikelihoodoffuturefloodingAsalreadystated,floodingisanaturalphenomenon,particularlyontheLevelsandMoors.Itisnotacaseof‘if’severefloodingoccursagaininSomerset,but‘when’,for‘howlong’and‘howsevere’.
Itisestimatedbythisstudythataround120,000peopleliveinareasthatarelessthan10mabovecurrentmeansealevel,thelargemajorityoftheminthetownsofWeston-super-Mare,BridgwaterandBurnham-on-Sea,andaround20,000invillages,hamletsandopencountryside.Floodbanksandotherinfrastructurecurrentlyprovideprotectionbut,asoccurredmostrecentlyin2013/14,thesecanbeoverwhelmedfollowingsevererainfallandhightides.
SomersetCountyCouncilstatesthatthereare“approximately19,000propertieswhichareatriskfromsurfacewaterflooding”7.ThetownwiththegreatestnumberofpropertiesatriskpropertiesfromsurfacewaterfloodingisTaunton(1,300households)butsignificantnumbersofpropertieshigherupthecatchmentarealsothreatenedincluding1,100inYeovil,900inSheptonMalletand500inIlminster8.
Marineandtidalfloodingposesathreattocommunitiesalongthecoast,particularlyBurnham-on-SeaandHighbridge.Theriskstothesecommunitiesmaybecompoundedbybottlenecksintheevacuationroutesin
6ParsonsBrinkoff(2015)SomersetEconomicImpactAssessmentofthewinter2013/14Flooding.ReportcommissionedbySomersetCountyCouncilonbehalfoftheSomersetRiversAuthority.February2015.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/useful-info/7http://www.somerset.gov.uk/environment-and-planning/flooding/preparing-for-flood/8SomersetCountyCouncil.FloodMapforSurfaceWater.PreliminaryFloodRiskAssessment.
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theeventofaseriousstormsurge.Floodingfromriversovertoppingtheirfloodbanks,exacerbatedbyhightides,isathreattoothercommunitiessuchasLangportandBurrowbridge.TownslikeBridgwaterandTauntonareatriskfromacombinationofsurfacewater,marineandfluvialflooding.FloodingcanalsohaveseriousimpactonthewiderregionaleconomybydisruptingtransportnetworkssuchastheTauntontoBristolraillineandtheM5motorway.
Theriskoffloodingoccurringinfutureisaffectedbyanumberofissues,someofwhichwehavecontrolover(suchastherolethatsoilsandvegetationplayinslowingwaterrunoffandfloodgeneration)andotherswhichwedonot(suchastherateatwhichthelandsurfaceisfallinginresponsetothelasticeage–around5cmeverycenturyinSomerset9).Thechangingclimate,whichiscoveredinmoredetailinthefollowingsection,isundoubtedlythemostsignificantfactor,bothasaresultofrisingglobalsealevels(aswarmingtemperaturescauseglaciersandicesheetstomelt)andmoreextremeweatherconsistingofperiodsofmoreintenserainfallandstormsurgesofsealevel.
TheMetOffice’sUKClimateProjections2009(UKCP09)indicatethataveragesealevelinBridgwaterBaywillincreaseby36cmoverthenext70yearsandbynearlyhalfameterby2100(althoughrecentresearchsuggeststhesemaybeconservativeestimates10).UKCP09estimatesthataverageannualrainfallintheSouthWestofEnglandwillstayroughlythesamebutwithsignificantlymorefallinginthewinterandlessinthesummer.Critically,thenumberofdaysofheavyrain(exceeding25mm)areprojectedtoincreasebyafactorofbetween2and3.5inwinter,and1to2insummerbythe2080s.Asaresult,one-in-100yearfloodeventsarelikelytobecometwiceasfrequentbythe2050sandthreetofivetimesmorefrequentbythe2080s11.Therecentlypublished‘Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk’preparedfortheforthcomingUKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017,identifiedtheSomersetcoastasbeingoneofareasmostvulnerabletoa1mriseinsealevel(with22,000propertiesinWeston-super-Mareand11,000propertiesinBridgwateratriskfroma1-in-200yearevent)12.
AspartoftheSomersetWAVEproject,JBAConsultingundertookhydraulicmodellingoffloodriskcoveringfluvial,tidalandsurfacewaterflooding.Existingmodelswereusedtogeneratenewfloodextentandflooddepthmapsunderdifferentscenariosforthepresentday(2010)andforthefutureyear2060takingaccountofprojectedclimatechange.Thescenariosmodelledincludedbothdefended(withtheexistingflooddefencesinplaceandmaintainedtothepresentdaylevels),andundefended(withtheexistingflooddefencesbreached)situations.
Theresultsofthemodellingareillustratedthroughaseriesofphoto-visualisationsfromdifferentlocations.Figure10showstheviewlookingsouthfromBrentKnoll.Itcomparestwo1-in-200yearevents(a0.5%chanceofoccurrenceinanyyear).Thetopphoto-visualisationshowsrelativelylittlefloodinginthisareaunderthecurrentclimatecharacteristicswithcurrentflooddefencesinplace.Thebottomphoto-visualisationshowstheextensivefloodingthatwouldtakeplaceiftheclimateprojectionsfor2060takeplaceandifthecurrentflooddefencesfailed(forinstancebybreachestoseawalls)13.
Thelessonofthefloodriskmodellingscenariosisthatitisthecombinationofextremeweatherevents(suchasatidalsurgeintheBristolchanneloraperiodofunusuallyintenserainfallintheuppercatchment),comingontopofthelongtermrisesinsealevelandwinterrainfall,thatposesthegreatestriskofoverwhelmingflooddefencesandcausingcatastrophicfloodinginthefuture.
9Bradley,S.,Milne,G.A.,Teferle,F.N.,Bingley,R.M.,&Orliac,E.J.(2008).GlacialisostaticadjustmentoftheBritishIsles:NewconstraintsfromGPSmeasurementsofcrustalmotion.GeophysicalJournalInternational,doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2008.04033.x.10Forinstance,analysisofhistoricsealevelsshowsthatsealevelswerearound6mhigherwhenglobaltemperatureswere2oChigherthantheyarenow.2oCisthetargetforlimitingglobalaveragetemperaturerise.ADutton,AECarlson,AJLong,GAMilne,PUClark,RDeConto,BPHorton,SRahmstorf,MERaymo.(2015).Sea-levelriseduetopolarice-sheetmasslossduringpastwarmperiods.Science10Jul2015:Vol.349,Issue6244,DOI:10.1126/science.aaa401911UnitedKingdomClimateProjections2009(UKCP09).TheseareaverageUKestimatesbasedonthemediumemissionsscenarioand50%probabilityestimate.12SayersandPartnersLLP(2015).UKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017:Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk.ReporttotheClimateChangeCommittee.October201513Seehttp://www.somersetwave.co.uk/managing-flood-risk.php
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
11
Figure10.Visualisationsof‘200year’tidalfloodingeventslookingsouthfromBrentKnolloverthecoastalareasoftheLevelsandMoors
Source:http://www.somersetwave.co.uk/managing-flood-risk.php
1-in-200yearfloodeventundercurrentsituation,Defended
1-in-200yearfloodeventunder2060scenario,Undefended
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
12
2.3.CurrentpolicyandpracticetoaddressfloodriskinthecatchmentTheapproachofpublicbodiestofloodprotectionanddealingwithfloodriskissetoutinanumberofpolicydocuments.TheseincludetheEnvironmentAgency’sCatchmentFloodManagementPlans(thosefortheParrettandNorth/MidSomersetcatchmentswerelastrevisedin2011);theCountyCouncil’sSurfaceWaterManagementPlans(includingTauntonin2013andWeston-Super-Marein2014);andothertechnicaldocumentssuchasthe2014FloodRiskManagementReviewforBridgwaterandtheLevelsandMoors14.However,duringthelasttwoyearsmostofthestrategicplanningbybodiessuchastheEnvironmentAgency,CountyCouncilandDrainageBoardshasgoneintodevelopingtheSomersetLevelsandMoors20YearFloodActionPlan.
Duringthefloodingin2013/14,theEnvironmentSecretary,OwenPatterson,challengedorganisationsworkinginSomersettoprepareasingleoverarchingplanthatwillguidewaterandlandmanagementpoliciesandinvestmentintheParrett,Tone,AxeandBruecatchmentsforthenexttwentyyears.
Theresulting20YearFloodActionPlandescribestheworkthatisneededtoaddresssixobjectives.Theseobjectivesarereducingflooddurationandfrequency;maintainingaccessforaffectedcommunities;ensuringregionaltransportconnectivity;maintainingthespecialcharacteristicsoftheLevelsandMoors;increasingresiliencetoflooding;andenhancingbusinessconfidenceandgrowth.
TheactionsintheFloodActionPlanaregroupedunderfivethemes,thefirstthreeofwhichaimtoreducefloodriskandthefinaltwotomitigatetheimpactoffloodingthatdoesoccur.TheactionsproposedunderthesethemesandtheobjectivestowhichtheyrelatearesummarisedinFigure11.Theworkofco-ordinatingthedeliveryoftheFloodActionPlanhasfallentotheSomersetRiversAuthority,formedin2015(describedfurtherbelow).
AnotherimportantinitiativethatiscurrentlytakingplaceinthecatchmentistheHillstoLevelsProject.ThisisapartnershipbetweenSomersetfarmingandnaturecharitiesthatishelpinglandownersandfarmerstofarminawaythatreducesfloodriskthroughoutthecountywhileenhancingwildlifeandproducinghighqualityfood.TheprojectisadministeredbytheRoyalBathandWestSocietyandiscurrentlyfundedbyplayersofPeople'sPostcodeLottery.TheprojectisbeingdeliveredbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB),FarmingandWildlifeAdvisoryGroup(FWAGSW)andSomersetWildlifeTrust.TheirworkiscontributingtothelandmanagementstrandoftheSomersetRiversAuthority'sFloodActionPlan.
OnethreadoftheHillstoLevelsprojectisexploringtheestablishmentofaLandTrusttoown,leaseorotherwiserentlandathighriskofflooding,andtosupportthemanagementofsimilarlandbyothers,sothattheseareascanbringawiderangeofbenefitstothelocalcommunities,businessesandtheenvironmentoftheLevelsandMoorsforyearstocome.ThisworkisbeingtakenforwardbyafarmeratPawlett,WillBarnard.
2.4.RisksofdroughtAlthoughthemainissueofconcernintheLevelsandMoorshasunderstandablybeenflooding,itisimportantnottoforgetthatperiodsoflowrainfallandhightemperaturescanalsocauseproblems.TheUKCP09projectionsofclimatechangesuggestthatby2080(underthemediumemissionsscenario),summertemperatureswillbenearly4oChighercomparedtotheaveragebetween1961and1990andthatsummerrainfallwillbelessbynearlyaquarter,withmoreperiodsofextremehotdryweather.Thisislikelytohaveimpactsonagriculturalproductivity(causingperiodsofheatanddroughtstresstocropsandlivestock)andtowetlandhabitatsandsoils(particularlyonpeatwhichdecomposeswhenitdriesout).Infuture,itwillthereforebeevenmoreimportanttomaintainwaterlevelsinsummeraswellasdealwithfloodingwhichoccursmainly,butnotexclusively,inthewinter.
14BlackandVeatch(2014).ProtectingBridgwaterandtheSomersetLevels&MoorsfromTidalFlooding-FloodRiskManagementReview.ReportfortheEnvironmentAgencyandSedgemoorDistrictCouncil.November2014
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
13
Figure11.Summaryofactionproposedinthe20YearFloodActionPlan
ThemesandActions
Objectives(seetextabove)Reduceflooding
LocalAccess
Connect-ivity
Specialcharacter
Resilience Economy
DREDGINGANDRIVERMANAGEMENT Riverdredgingandotherchannelmaintenance ● ● ● ● Enhancingpumpingcapacity(DunballSluice,Northmoor,BridgwaterTauntonCanal) ● Repairandreinstateriverandfloodbanksandspillways ● ●
Localriparianmaintenance ● Sowy/KingsSedgemoorDrainCapacityImprovements ● ● ● ● DesignandevaluateaBridgwatertidalbarrier ● ● ● ● ●Evaluation,research,strategydevelopmentandgovernance ● ●
● ●
LANDMANAGEMENT Pilotadvice,grantsandothermeasurestodelivernaturalfloodmanagement ● ● ● Installwoodydebrisdamsinwatercoursestoslowtheflow ● Reviewcurrentandinfluencefutureagri-environmentagreements ●
●
Introducesimplifiedapprovalsprocessforworksonminorwatercoursesbylandowners ● PilotalocalPaymentforEcosystemServicesscheme(floodrisk,peatsoilsandwaterquality) ● ● Examinefurtherinnovativemechanisms(e.g.CommunityLandTrust) ● ● URBANWATERMANAGEMENT
Increasetheuseofsustainabledrainagesystems(SuDS)byplannersanddevelopers ● Deliverfloodalleviation/mitigationschemesinhotspots ● Reviewplanningpolicieswithregardtoflooding,incl.developmentinfloodplainsandmitigationmeasures ● ImprovestormwaterinfrastructureinBridgwater ●
RESILIENTINFRASTRUCTURE Maintainandenhancestormwaterinfrastructure ● ● Repairsandimprovementstoroadsandkeyrightsofway ● ● Assessriskandimplementmeasurestoprotectelectricitysupplies
● ●
Assessriskandimplementmeasurestoprotectmainswatersupplies ● BUILDINGLOCALRESILIENCE Improveonlinesourcesofinformationforthepublic ● Supportlocally-ledactiontoincreaseresilience,preparednessandadaptation
● ●
Ensurehouseholds,businessesandneighbourhoodscanobtainaffordableandcomprehensiveinsurance ● PromoteSomersetasagoodplaceforbusinessandtourism ●
Source:SummarisedfromTheSomersetLevelsandMoors20YearFloodActionPlan
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
14
2.5.Theroleofnaturalfloodmanagement
ThehistoryofthedrainageandfloodprotectionoftheSomersetLevels(coveredinmoredetailinSection7of
thisAnnex)hasbeendominatedby‘hardengineering’solutionstomanagingwater.Theseincluderaisingthe
heightofriverbankstopreventwaterfloodingadjoinland,pumpdrainagetoevacuatewaterfromlowlying
landintothehighwaterlevelsinrivers,creatingnewriverchannelstoallowwatermoredirectaccesstothe
sea,andbuildingtidalsluicestostophightidesbackingwaterupintherivers.Theseinterventionshave
successfullyturnedwhatwas(forhumans)aninhospitablewetlandintoaproductivefarmedandinhabited
landscape.
Thisapproachtolanddrainageandfloodprotectionhastendedtoresistoropposethenaturalhabitsofrivers
andfloodplainsanditpaidlittleattentiontothewaywaterandlandwasmanagedhigheruptheriver
catchments.However,concernhasbeengrowingabouttherisingcostofmaintainingthis‘hardengineering’
infrastructureandaboutwhetherincreasinginvestmentinthisinfrastructurecan,onitsown,keepupwith
increasingfloodrisk.
Themeritsofharnessingthewaysthatsoils,vegetation,floodplainsandestuariesnaturallycopewithwater,
(‘naturalfloodmanagement’–seeFigure12)hasreceivedgrowingattentionintheUKsince2000.The
ParrettCatchmentProjectandits2001reportsubtitled‘AFuturewhenitRains’15wasoneofthefirst
initiativesintheUKtoidentifynaturalfloodmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentasanessentialpartof
thesolutiontoflooding16.Sincethen,anumberofnationalpolicydocumentshaverecognisedtheroleofa
catchmentbasedapproachandnaturalfloodmanagement.TheseincludetheForesightFutureFlooding
Report(2004),Defra’sMakingSpaceforWaterstrategy(2005)andthePittReviewintothe2007flood.The
FloodandWaterManagementAct2010,whichestablishedprimaryfloodriskmanagementpolicyforEngland
andWales,lists“maintainingorrestoringnaturalprocesses”asawayofmanagingfloodrisk,andpermitsthe
designationofnaturalfeaturesthatcanreducethisrisk.
Figure12.ThecomponentsofNaturalFloodManagement
NaturalFloodManagementseekstoworkwiththefollowingnaturalprocesses:
• Increasingsoilinfiltration,reducingperiodswhensurfacerunoffandsoilerosionoccurs.
• Slowingthemovementofwateroverlandandalongwatercoursesbyincreasingresistancetoitsflow
• Temporarilyholdingbackwaterinwetlands,ponds,ditches,channelsandfloodplains
KeytechniquesinNaturalFloodManagementinclude:
• Blockingdrainagechannelsinuplandbogsandmires,reducingthe‘flashiness’ofheadwaterstreams
• Maintainingvegetationcoveronarablesoilstoslowrunoffanderosionandenhancesoilstructureand
infiltration
• Adoptingbestmanagementpracticesonallsoilstomaintainandenhancesoilstructure,soimproving
infiltration
• Maintainingmarginsofroughvegetationbesidewatercoursesandplantinghedgesacrossslopestostopor
slowoverlandflow
• Plantingwoodsonsteepslopesandfloodplainstostoporslowoverlandflow
• Increasetheresistancetowaterinthechannelsabovefloodriskareasbyleavingmarginalvegetationand
woodydebrisinplaceandencouragingnaturalmeanders
• Reconnectingriverswiththeirfloodplains,allowingwatertospilloutoverawidearea,reducingthepeak
flowthatmovesdownstream
15LUC(2001).Afuturewhenitrains:TheParrettCatchmentProjectStrategy.
16ItisnotablethattheParrettCatchmentProjectpredatednationalpolicydocumentssuchastheForesightFutureFloodingReport(2004),Defra’s
MakingSpaceforWaterstrategy(2005)andthePittReporttotheflooding
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
15
Therehasbeengrowingscientificresearchintotheeffectivenessofnaturalfloodmanagementtechniques.
Atissuehasbeentheextenttowhichsmallchangesinlanduseandmanagementoverlargeareascanhave
measurableimpactsonfloodriskatacatchmentscale.
Ontheonehandthereisastrongconsensusthatreconnectingriverstolargeareasoffloodplain(previously
separatedbylanddrainageschemes)cansignificantlyreducedownstreamflooding17.ProjectsintheUKthat
havepursuedthisincludetheKneppCastleFloodplainRestorationProjectontheRiverAdurinWestSussex18
andtheMiltonKeynesfloodplainforestontheRiverGreatOuse19.Ontheotherhand,thelargescaleeffects
ofmiddleanduppercatchmentworkonthechannelsofwatercoursesorconditionofsoilsaremoredifficult
todetect.ProjectssuchasthePontbrenexperimentinWestWales20(inwhichfarmersfencedoffand
planteduplandbesidesteepstreams)andtheExmoorMiresprojectintheheadwatersoftheRiverExe21
(wheredrainageditchesinuplandbogshavebeenblocked)haveshownlocaleffects.
ThereareinterestinglessonsfromthePontbrenexperimentonhownaturalfloodmanagementcanbe
undertaken22.Theprojectwasinitiatedbyagroupoffarmerswhodecidedthatactionwasneededtore-
establishalocallandscapestructurewhichtheyfeltwouldhavemultiplebenefitstotheirfarmingpractice.
TheresultsoftheworkweremonitoredbyateamofscientistsatImperialCollegeLondonandBangor
Universities.Basedmainlyonfencingoffnarrowstripsoflandthathadlittleagriculturalvalue,theresulting
interceptionofwaterrun-offandincreasedpercolationintosubsoilafterlessthantenyearswasdramaticand
moresignificantthanthefarmersandresearchershadanticipated.Alltheplanningandtheworkitselfwas
carriedoutbythegroupoffarmerswithlittleornoadviceorfinancialhelpfromthevariousauthorities.
Althoughlimitedintheareaitcovered,itshowswhatcanbeachievedbysmall-scale,low-costmeasures
whicharebasedonlocalknowledgeandcommonsense.
Therehavebeenanumberofreviewsofpublishedresearchwhichhaveexaminedevidenceontheimpacts
onfloodgenerationacrosswholecatchmentsarisingfromchangestolandandwatercoursemanagement23.
Thesereviewshavefoundlittleevidencethatrelativelymodestadjustmentstolanduseormanagementhave
amaterialbenefitonlarge-scalefloodeventsaffectingwholeriversystems.However,computermodelling
hassuggestedthatmajorlandusechangecandoso.Arecentpaperusedhydrologicalmodellingtoshow
thatextensivelandusechange(plantingbetween20%and40%ofacatchmentwithwoodland)wouldbe
neededtoreducethemagnitudeoffloodpeaksby19%,andonlywherethissucceededindesynchronising
thetimingofpeaksfromtributaries24.Thelackofevidenceaboutlessradicalchangesinlanduseand
managementisatleastpartlyduetothecomplexityofthewatercycleatlargescalesandthedifficultyof
provingcauseandeffect.Itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatsucheffectsdonottakeplace.
Morerecentresearch25hasfocussedonthewider‘ecosystemservice’benefitsthatnaturalflood
managementcanprovide,includingconservationofbiodiversityandlandscapefeatures,improvementsin
waterquality,aquiferrechargeandprotectionofsoilorganiccarbon.Itisthesebroadandholisticbenefits
thatnaturalfloodmanagementiscapabletoprovidingthatarethestrongestjustificationforitsuse,rather
thanexpectingittodramaticallycuttheriskofflooding.InanareasuchastheSomersetLevelscatchment,
theresearchandguidancesuggeststhatfloodriskmanagementstrategiesshouldincludeboth‘hard
17ThisisthefocusofmuchworkintheMississippiintheUnitedStates.See:OppermanJJ,GallowayGE,FargioneJ,MountJF,RichterBDandSecchi
S(2009)SustainableFloodplainsThroughLarge-ScaleReconnectiontoRivers.Science11Dec2009:Vol.326,Issue5959,pp.1487-1488.AlsoChristine
A.Klein,SandraB.Zellmer.MississippiRiverTragedies:ACenturyofUnnaturalDisaster.NewYorkUniversityPress,2014.ISBN978-1-4798-2538-718Seehttp://www.ecrr.org/Portals/27/Knepp%20Castle%20Floodplain%20Restoration.pdf
19EnvironmentAgency(2013).RiversByDesign–Rethinkingdevelopmentandriverrestoration.AguideproducedbytheRESTOREproject.
20WheaterHetal(2008).Impactsofuplandlandmanagementonfloodrisk:multi-scalemodellingmethodologyandresultsfromthePontbren
experiment.FRMCResearchReportUR16.21UniversityofExeter(2016),MiresMonitoringResults,March2016.
http://www.southwestwater.co.uk/media/pdf/l/7/Mires_Monitoring_Results_Annual_Report_2016_University_of_Exeter.pdf22WheaterHetal(2008)(above)
23Forinstance,EnvironmentAgency(2007).R&DUpdatereviewoftheimpactoflanduseandmanagementonflooding
24DixonSJ,SearDA,OdoniNA,SykesTandLaneSN(2016)Theeffectsofriverrestorationoncatchmentscalefloodriskandfloodhydrology.Earth
SurfaceProcessesandLandformsDOI:10.1002/esp.391925ForinstanceDixonSJ,SearDA,OdoniNA,SykesTandLaneSN(2016)Theeffectsofriverrestorationoncatchmentscalefloodriskandflood
hydrology.EarthSurfaceProcessesandLandformsDOI:10.1002/esp.3919
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
16
engineering’worksatcriticallocationsinthehydrologicalpathway,togetherwithnaturalflood
managementtechniquesadoptedasthenormforlandandwatermanagementacrossthewhole
catchment.
Naturalfloodmanagementisincreasinglybeingacceptedasanessentialcomponentoffloodrisk
managementstrategies.In2013,theEnvironmentAgencyinitiatedanewresearchanddevelopment
frameworkcalled‘Workingwithnaturalprocessestoreducefloodrisk’toidentifyfutureresearchpriorities
whichshouldattractfundinginfuture.26InDecember2015,theScottishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
(SEPA)publisheditsguidetoNaturalFloodManagement27,describingthedifferenttechniquesavailableand
emphasisingthemultiplebenefitsthatmanyofthesecanprovide.
2.6.Governanceandfundingofwatermanagement
Overthelast150years,therehavebeenaseriesofchangestotheorganisationalresponsibilitiesforland
drainageandwaterlevelmanagementontheSomersetLevels.ThemedievalCourtofSewers,withitsadhoc
interventions,hasbeenreplacedbythenational,regionalandlocalbodiesthatexisttoday,underpinnedbythe
legislationsuchastheWaterAct1989,theLandDrainageAct1991andFloodandWaterManagementAct
2010.Throughoutthisprocess,criticalissueshavebeenthedemocraticaccountabilityofthebodiesthat
makedecisionsandtheresourcesandpowersavailabletothem.Figure13summarisestheresponsibilitiesof
theorganisationsthatcurrentlyplayaroleinflooddefenceandriskmanagementinSomerset.
Figure13.ThefloodriskmanagementresponsibilitiesofbodiescoveringtheLevelsCatchment
Organisation Keyresponsibilities
Environment
Agency
• Providesthestrategicoverviewofthemanagementofsourcesofflooding&coastalerosion
• Hasoperationalresponsibilityformanagingtheriskoffloodingfrommainrivers,reservoirs,
estuariesandthesea
• Actsasacoastalerosionriskmanagementauthority
Somerset
CountyCouncil
IstheLeadLocalFloodAuthorityresponsiblefor:
• Developing,maintainingandapplyingastrategyforlocalfloodriskmanagement
• Maintainingaregisteroffloodriskassets
• Managingtheriskoffloodingfromsurfacewater,groundwater&ordinarywatercourses
• AdministerstheSomersetWaterManagementPartnership
District
Councils
Sedgemoor,Mendip,SouthSomerset,TauntonDeaneandWestSomersetDistrictCouncils:
• ArepartnerswiththeEAandSCCinplanninglocalfloodriskmanagement
• Cancarryoutfloodriskmanagementworksonminorwatercourses
• PreparetheLocalPlanandcontroldevelopmenttoensureeffectiveriskmanagement
• Actascoastalerosionriskmanagementauthorities(wheretheyhaveacoast)
Highways
Authorities
TheHighwaysAgencyareresponsibleformaintainingdrainageditchesontheirnetwork.The
responsibilitiesofSomersetCountyCouncilformaintainingotherroadditchesarelessclear.
Somerset
Consortiumof
Drainage
Authorities
TheAxeBrueandParrettInternalDrainageBoardsarelocalpublicauthoritieswithpermissive
powerstomanagewaterlevelswithintheirInternalDrainageDistricts,undertakingworksto
reducefloodrisktopeopleandpropertyandmanagewaterlevelstomeetlocalneeds.
Waterand
Sewerage
Companies
WessexWaterandotherlocalwatercompaniesareresponsibleformanagingtherisksof
floodingfromwaterandseweragesystemsdrainingbuildingsandyards.Theyalsohave
responsibilityforwaterqualityemanatingfromsewagetreatmentworks.
Somerset
Rivers
Authority
Isnot(yet)astatutorybody.ActingthroughthepowersoftheCountyCouncil,itwas
establishedinJanuary2015toworkwithotherFloodRiskManagementAuthoritiesasan
unincorporatedassociation.
Source:Adaptedfromhttps://www.gov.uk/guidance/flood-risk-management-information-for-flood-risk-management-authorities-asset-owners-and-local-
authorities#managing-flood-risks-who-is-responsible
26http://evidence.environment-agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/Default/FCRM/Project.aspx?ProjectID=4A57166C-F63F-46BC-B179-
E01E92B6D8D4&PageId=a0fe6dfc-506a-452c-9bff-a7ec06b4e6b027SEPA(2015).SEPA(2015.)NaturalFloodManagementHandbook.ISBN:978-0-85759-024-4https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/163560/sepa-natural-
flood-management-handbook1.pdf
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
17
Thisshowsacomplexsituationwithatleastsixdifferentlevelsoforganisationsthathavestatutory
responsibilityforfloodriskmanagement(theEnvironmentAgency,CountyCouncil,DistrictCouncil,Highways
Agencies,InternalDrainageBoardsandutilitycompanies).Inaddition,thesebodiesmeetinavarietyof
differentforumstoco-ordinatetheirwork,asfollows:
• TheWessexRegionalFloodandCoastalCommitteecoversSomerset,Dorset,WiltshireandtheAvon
UnitaryAuthorities.IthasastatutoryroletooverseeandadviseontheworkoftheEAandothersby
ensuringtherearecoherentplanstoaddressfloodandcoastalerosionrisksandencouraging
efficient,targetedandrisk-basedinvestmentinfloodandcoastalerosionriskmanagement.Ithasa
votingmembershipof23consistingoftheChairman,EnvironmentAgency(9members)andthe
countyorunitarylocalauthorities(13members)
• TheSomersetRiversAuthority.Asnotedabove,itisnotyetastatutorybodybutworksby
agreementoftheconstituentbodieswhicharetheCountyandDistrictCouncilsandEnvironment
Agency(oneseateach)andthetwoInternalDrainageBoards(twoseatseach).Itspurposeisto
providethestrategicoverviewandcoordinationofthedeliveryofthe20YearFloodActionPlan,and
toidentifyandprioritisefurtherworkacrossthewholeofSomerset,wherepossiblesecuringthird-
partyfundingforthiswork.
• TheSomersetWaterManagementPartnershipisaforumadministeredbytheCountyCouncilwhich
hasmetsince2007toactasaninformalsoundingboardanddebatingchamberonwater
managementissuesintheParrett,BrueandAxecatchments.Thefollowingbodiesarerepresented
SomersetCountyCouncil,theEnvironmentAgency,TauntonDeaneDistrictCouncil,Sedgemoor
DistrictCouncil,SouthSomersetDistrictCouncil,NationalFarmersUnion,FarmingandWildlife
AdvisoryGroup,SomersetWildlifeTrust,RoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds,Somerset
ConsortiumofDrainageBoards,SouthWestAssociationofDrainageAuthorities,Somerset
WaterwaysDevelopmentTrust,WessexWater,NaturalEnglandand'catchmentreps'representing
localcommunities.
• TheSomersetCatchmentPartnership(SCP)comprisesarangeoforganisationsdedicatedto
advancingtheCatchmentBasedApproach.Thisapproachwaslaunchednationallyin2013withthe
supportofDefrawithtwomainaims;toworkinpartnershipandworkatthecatchmentscale.Each
catchmentinEnglandisrepresentedbyaCatchmentPartnership.TheSCPishostedbyFWAGSWand
alsoincludestheSomersetConsortiumofDrainageBoards,SomersetWildlifeTrust,RSPB,Wessex
Water,AreasofOutstandingNaturalBeauty(AONBs),EnvironmentAgency,NationalTrust,West
CountryRiversTrust,SomersetCountyCouncil,WestCountryRiversTrust,ForestryCommission,
NationalFarmers’UnionandtheCountryLandandBusinessAssociation(CLA).
• TheMulti-AgencyProjecttoachievefavourablestatusontheSitesofSpecialScientificInterestonthe
LevelsandMoors.ThisisledbyNaturalEnglandandincludestheEnvironmentAgencyandInternal
DrainageBoards.
FundingforfloodriskmanagementinSomersetcomesfromavarietyofsourceswhichcanbesummarisedas
follows28:
• TheEnvironmentAgencyreceivesmostofitsfundingfromcentralgovernment(Defra)initsgrant-in-
aidsettlement,whichring-fencesspendingonflooddefenceprojectsandfloodandcoastalrisk
management.TheAgencyalsoco-ordinatespartnershipfundingforprojects(withfundingfrom
Defra,localauthoritiesandothers)andraisesotherincomefromIDBpreceptsandGeneralDrainage
Charges.
28Source:Defra(2015)CentralGovernmentFundingforFloodandCoastalErosionRiskManagementinEngland.December2015
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
18
• TheWessexRegionalFloodandCoastalCommitteereceivesfundingfromalevyonlocalauthorities.
• SomersetCountyCouncilreceivesfundingforitsworkastheLeadLocalFloodAuthorityfromcentral
governmentthroughtheLocalServicesSupportGrant(viaDefra)andtheSettlementFunding
Assessment(DCLG)andalsoallocatespartsofitsgeneralincometofloodriskmanagementwork
• TheSomersetConsortiumofDrainageAuthoritiesisfundedfromdrainagechargespaidbyoccupiers
ofagriculturallandandaspeciallevypaidbytheDistrictCouncilsinrespectofnon-agriculturalland.
ItalsoreceivesfundingfromtheEnvironmentAgencyandothersources.
• TheSomersetRiversAuthorityhasreceivedinitialfundingfor2015/16,mostlyfromDefraandthe
CountyCouncil,andispursuingmoresecurelongtermfundingthatislikelytorequireprimary
legislation(seebelow).
• Inaddition,TheCatchmentSensitiveFarmingInitiativeprovidescapitalgrantsforsmall-scalework
onfarms,primarilytoreducewaterpollutionbutwhichmayalsoreducefloodgenerationsuchas
watercoursefencingandrainwaterstoragetanks.
2.7.FuturefundingandgovernanceoftheSRA
In2014,areviewoflongertermfundingoptionsfortheSRAwasdraftedbyDefra,DCLGandtheSRA29.These
includedthelocalauthoritiesfundingtheSRAfromtheCouncilTax,thecreationofanewlevyingbody,
extendingtheboundariesorlevyoftheIDBs,andcreatinganewpreceptingauthority.
InNovember2014,membersoftheSomersetLevelsandMoorsFloodActionPlanLeaders’Implementation
Groupagreedthattheirpreferredoptionwasthepreceptingauthority.ThiswouldestablishtheSRAasan
independenttax-raisingauthority(requiringprimaryparliamentarylegislation),allowingittoraisefunds
directlyfromhouseholdsthroughtheCouncilTax(inthesamewayasthepoliceandfireservice).
Parliamentarytimemustbefoundtopassthenecessaryprimarylegislation.ItishopedthattheGovernment
willdraftandsupportthelegislationalthoughparliamentarytimeandcivilserviceexpertisemaybeata
premiumfollowingtheBrexitreferendum.Defraisconsideringlegislationtoenabletheestablishmentof
RiversAuthoritiesinEnglandanditislikelythattheSomersetRiversAuthoritywouldbeamongstthefirst.
NochangetothemembershipoftheSRABoardwasconsideredinthe2014review.Thepaperstates:“Under
theproposalputforwardbylocalauthoritiesinSomersetitwouldnotbedirectlyelected,relyingonthelocal
authorityrepresentationontheSRAboardforitsdemocraticaccountability”.ItisunderstoodthattheSRAis
currently(Summer2016)consideringonlyminorchangestoitsBoardmembershipif/whenitbecomesa
preceptingauthorityandexpectsthatoversightofitsdecisionsandactivitieswillbeundertakenbyan
independentScrutinyCommittee,asdefinedundertheLocalGovernmentAct.Themembershipofthe
ScrutinyCommitteewillbetwonomineesfromeachlocalauthorityandtwofromtheInternalDrainage
Boards,withthechairanddeputychairtakenbylocalauthoritymembers30.
Inviewofthenewtax-raisingpowersthattheSRAisexpectingtotakeon,thereisanimportantissueof
whetherthegovernancestructurebeingproposedwillgivetheSRAthenecessarylegitimacyand
accountability.TheconstitutionoftheSRA,adoptedwhenitwascreatedinJanuary2015,makesclearthatits
Boardmembersrepresenttheorganisationstheyarenominatedbyandthattheseorganisationsareparties
totheSRAbecauseoftheirroleasFloodRiskManagementAuthorities(FRMAs).Tobeclear,thismeansthat
SRABoardmembersnominatedbytheCountyandDistrictCouncilsarethereprimarilytoupholdtheir
authorities’statutoryroleasFRMAsandnottorepresentthecommunitieswhoshouldbenefitfromtheSRA’s
workandwho,infuture,arelikelytobepayingforit.
29SRAFundingReviewOptions.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=103441
30Item11ofthemeetingoftheSRAheldon27July2016.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/about-us/board-meetings-and-
papers/somerset-rivers-authority-board-meeting-27-july-2016/
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
19
ThereareothergovernancemodelsforlocallydevolvedpublicbodiesliketheSRAthatprovideclearer
democraticaccountability.ThebestexampleisprovidedbyNationalParkAuthorities.Themembersof
NationalParkAuthoritiesaredrawnfromthreedifferentgroups.
• Amajorityarenominatedbytheconstituentlocalauthorities(equivalenttothelocalauthority
membersontheSRA).
• AsecondgrouparenominatedtotheAuthoritybytheSecretaryofStateforEnvironment,Foodand
RuralAffairsfortheirtechnicalexperienceandexpertise(similartotheEnvironmentAgencyroleon
theSRA).
• AthirdgroupareParishCouncilmemberswhoareelectedfortheirlocalknowledgeandtoensure
thattheviewsofalllocalcommunitiesacrosstheNationalParkarerepresentedandconsidered.
TheseparishcouncillorsarechosenfollowinganelectionprocessbytheappropriateAssociationof
LocalCouncilswhorecommendstheseappointmentstotheSecretaryofStateforapproval.
Figure14.StructureofExmoorNationalParkAuthority ThestructureoftheExmoorNationalPark
AuthorityisshowngraphicallyinFigure14.
CityMayorsandPoliceandCrime
Commissionersareotherexamplesofpublic
institutionswhicharenowdirectlyelected.
ThecreationofMayorshasbeenencouraged
byGovernmentbecause,asDavidCameron
remarked,theyare“accountable”andcan
“galvaniseaction”31,twoqualitieswhichcould
describetheSRA.
Source:http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/about-us/who-we-are-and-what-
we-do
31BBCNews,16April2010.Manchester‘shouldhaveelectedmayor’.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/election_2010/england/8624987.stm
CountyCouncilnominees: 6
(27%)
DistrictCouncilnominees: 6
(27%)
SecretaryofState
appointees: 5(23%)
ElectedParishCouncil
members: 5(23%)
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
20
3. ClimateChange
Thissectionexaminestheeffectsthatthechangingclimate,particularlysealevelrise,arelikelytohaveonthe
Catchment.ItalsolooksatwhattypesofactivityintheCatchmentarecontributingtoclimatechangeandthe
typesofmitigationandadaptationactionsthataretakingplace.
3.1.Introduction
Climatechange,alongwithbiodiversitylossandthenitrogencycle,hasbeendefinedbytheStockholm
ResilienceCentre(JohanRockstrometal)asoneofthe“EarthBoundaries”whichhumanityhastransgressed,
therebythreateningbothhumancivilisationandtheglobalecosystem.Anysuggestionsofalarmism
emanatingfromclimatesciencearethereverseofthetruth,withnumerousobservationsnowdemonstrating
thatactualchangeisoccurringfasterthanconsensusforecasts.
Humanresponsibilityforthistrend,primarilythroughtheburningoffossilfuelsanddeforestation,isbeyond
reasonabledoubt.Barringadramaticbreakthroughinunprovennegativeemissionstechnology,reversing
thetrendisasinequanonforsustainablelivingonourplanet.
The2015Parisaccordhastransformedthediplomaticbackdrop,butnationalcommitmentstodateleaveus
oncoursefor2.7to3.5oCofheating,farabovethe1.5to2.0
oCtargettogiveahighchanceofaverting
catastrophicchange.Atcurrentheatingofaround1.0oC,wearealreadywitnessingwidespreadand
damagingdisruptiontotheclimatesystem.Furtherheatingis“lockedin”(duetothetimelagbetween
emissionsandheating)andvariousfeedbackloops(methanerelease,Arcticalbedo)havealreadybeen
activated.Adaptationmeasuresaswellasmitigationoffurtherheatingarethereforebeyondurgent.
Thescience-policydisconnectalludedtoaboveandthecomplexityofpoliticalprocessescreatesan
imperativeformobilised,carefullydirectedactionwithincivilsociety,ratherthanrelyingsolelyonatop-down
responsetobringaboutthechangesneeded.
Afterpowergeneration,agriculturehasbeenidentifiedasthesecondbiggestsourceofemissionsgloballyand
farmingisobviouslyrelevanttoalloftheboundariesmentionedabove.Aswithpowergeneration,thereis
demonstrablyscopeforagriculturetoloweritscarbonfootprintandundertherightcircumstancesand
techniquesthelandcaninfactbeturnedbackintoanetsequestererofcarbon.Thereisthereforescopefor
farmingandagriculturetoplayamajorpartincreatingasustainablefuture.
Visibleconsequencesofglobalheatingaresealevelrise(duetothermalexpansionandmeltinglandice)and
extremeweather(duetoincreasedevaporationandprecipitation,alsomoreenergytrappedintheclimate
system).
TheSomersetlevelsareanexceptionallyvulnerableareainthefaceofclimatechange,duetotheircloseness
tosealevelandthevolumeofwatertheirriversarerequiredtocarryattimesofhighrainfall.TheSummer
2012andWinter2013-14floodsdemonstratedthisvulnerabilityinstarkterms.Flooding,stormsandsevere
droughtsareoccurringwithincreasedfrequencyglobally.Whilstitisimpossibletopredictthetiming,
durationorseverityofeventsinourarea,whatwedoknowisthattheoddsofsucheventsoccurringare
shortening.Objectively,thereisthereforeapowerfulincentivetoplayourpartinmitigationandtoexplore
allpossiblemeasurestoalleviatetheconsequencesofextremeweatherwhenitdoesoccur.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
21
3.2.Thelikelyimpactsofclimatechange
Thereiswidespreadagreementamongsttheworld’sscientiststhattheclimateischangingandthathuman
activity,intheformofemissionsofgreenhousegases,arethemaincause32.TheIntergovernmentalPanelon
ClimateChange(IPPC)hasstatedthat“Humaninfluenceontheclimatesystemisclear,andrecent
anthropogenicemissionsofgreenhousegasesarethehighestinhistory…Continuedemissionofgreenhouse
gaseswillcausefurtherwarmingandlong-lastingchangesinallcomponentsoftheclimatesystem,increasing
thelikelihoodofsevere,pervasiveandirreversibleimpactsforpeopleandecosystems”.33Ateamledbythe
MetOffice’sHadleyCentrehascalculatedaseriesofprojectionsonthechangesthatarelikelytotakeplacein
theUK.TheUKClimateProjections2009(UKCP09forshort)takeaccountoftheuncertaintyandnatural
variabilityoffuturechangeandpresentarangeoffiguresaccordingtodifferentlevelsoffuturegreenhouse
gasemissionsanddifferentprobabilities.The‘central’setofprojections(mediumemissionsscenarioand
50%probability)fortheSouthWestRegionareshowninFigure15.Averageannualtemperaturesare
projectedtoriseby3.5oCoverthenext70years,witha3.9
oCriseinaveragesummertemperatures.Average
annualrainfallisprojectedtostayroughlythesamebutwithsignificantlymorefallinginthewinterandlessin
thesummer.Averagesealevelisprojectedtoincreaseby36cmoverthenext70yearsandbynearlyhalfa
meterby2100(somesourcesanticipateariseofcloserto1moverthisperiod).
Figure15.ProjectedchangestotheSouthWest’sclimate(mediumemissionsscenarioand50%probability)
Changecomparedto1961-1990baseline 2020s 2050s 2080s
Meanwintertemperature +1.3oC +2.1
oC +2.8
oC
Meansummertemperature +1.6oC +2.7
oC +3.9
oC
Meanwinterprecipitation +7% +17% +23%
Meansummerprecipitation -8% -20% -24%
SeaLevels +10cm +22cm +36cm
©CrownCopyright2009.TheUKClimateProjections(UKCP09)havebeenmadeavailablebytheDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra)
andtheDepartmentofEnergyandClimateChange(DECC)underlicensefromtheMetOffice,UKCIP,BritishAtmosphericDataCentre,NewcastleUniversity,
UniversityofEastAnglia,EnvironmentAgency,TyndallCentreandProudmanOceanographicLaboratory.Theseorganisationsgivenowarranties,expressor
implied,astotheaccuracyoftheUKCP09anddonotacceptanyliabilityforlossordamage,whichmayarisefromrelianceupontheUKCP09andanyuseof
theUKCP09isundertakenentirelyattheusersrisk.
Whattheseaveragefiguresdon’trevealistheoccurrenceandeffectofextremeweatherandclimateevents.
CriticallyfortheLevelsCatchment,extremeeventsareprojectedtobecomemorefrequentandsevere,
increasingtheriskofbothfloodingfromrainfallandfromtheseaandalsoincreasingtheriskofdroughtand
heatstress.UKCP09projectionsareforthenumberofdaysofheavyrain(exceeding25mm)toincreasebya
factorofbetween2and3.5inwinter,and1to2insummerbythe2080s.One-in-100yearfloodeventsare
likelytobecometwiceasfrequentbythe2050sandthreetofivetimesmorefrequentbythe2080s34.The
recentlypublished‘Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk’preparedfortheforthcomingUKClimateChangeRisk
Assessment2017,identifiedtheSomersetcoastasbeingoneofareasmostvulnerabletoa1mriseinsea
level(with22,000propertiesinWeston-super-Mareand11,000propertiesinBridgwateratriskfroma1-in-
200yearevent)35.
TheoutcomesforpeopleandtheenvironmentintheSouthWestofEnglandasaresultofthechanging
climatewereexaminedinareportpreparedtocoincidewiththepublicationofthe2012UKClimateChange
RiskAssessment.Figure16summarisesthekeythreatsthatarelikelytooccurintheCatchment,basedon
thatreport.
32IPPC(2014).ClimateChange2014SynthesisReport.SummaryforPolicyMakers.https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf33Ibid.
34TheseareaverageUKestimatesbasedonthemediumemissionsscenarioand50%probabilityestimate.
35SayersandPartnersLLP(2015).UKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017:Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk.ReporttotheClimateChangeCommittee.
October2015
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
22
Figure16.LikelythreatstotheCatchmentarisingfromclimatechange
Humanhealth • AnincreaseinUVBradiationincreasestheincidenceofskincancersbyupto20%by
theendofthecentury
• Floodingfromsewersrisksspreadofpathogens
Theeconomy • Floodingoftransportincreases,affectingbothurbanandruralaccessroutes.
• Lostproductiondoublesbythe2020s
Thenatural
environment
• Lowriverbaseflowsandwatertablesinthesummerharmwetlandhabitatsand
species
• Stormierweatherlikelytoincreasepeakriverflowsby20%bythe2050sleadingto
greaterchannelerosionandturbidity
• Naturalrangesofspeciesmovenorth,meaningthatsomewillbelostfromthe
Catchment
Farmingand
forestry
• Driersummerconditions(andrestrictionsonagriculturalabstraction)causeheat
stressincropsandforestry
• Newpestsanddiseasesbecomeacclimatised,threateningcropsandlivestock
Source:AdaptedfromClimateUK(2012),extractingfindingsfromtheUKClimateChangeRiskAssessment.Alltheprojectionsrelatetothemedium
emissionsscenarioand50%probability.
ThechangingclimatewouldalsobelikelytoproducesomeopportunitiesintheCatchment,includinglower
cold-relatedwinterdeaths,amorefavourablesummerclimatefortouristsandincreasesintheyieldsofsome
cropsduetothelongergrowingseason.However,theoverallmessageisthatthefuturewillhavegreater
uncertaintiesandthepotentialforsignificantharmtothethingswevaluemostnow.
3.3.HowactivityintheCatchmentiscontributingtoclimatechange
Itistheemissionofgreenhousegasesintotheatmospherethatisresponsiblefortheclimatechangethatis
nowtakingplace.Thethreemostsignificantgreenhousegasesarecarbondioxidewhichaccountfor82%of
UKemissions,methane(10%ofUKemissions)andnitrousoxide(5%)36.Thechlorofluorocarbon(CFC)
refrigerants,thatwereresponsiblefortheholeintheozonelayerinthe1980sand90s,arenowarelatively
minorsourceofemissions.
• Themainsourceofcarbondioxideemissionsistheburningoffossilfuelsanddeforestation.Ninety-
sixpercentofUKemissionsin2013camefromtheenergysupply,transportandresidentialsectors.
Minorsourcesarefromindustrialprocessesandchangesinlanduse(wherecarbonstoredinsoilsor
vegetationisoxidised).ThecarbondioxideemittedwithintheUKdecreasedby22%from1990to
201337,butthistakesnoaccountofemissionsinothercountriessuchasChinafromthemanufacture
ofgoodsimportedintoandconsumedintheUK.
• ThemainsourcesofmethaneintheUKarefromlivestockandagriculturalwaste,landfillwasteand
leaksfrompressurisedgassupplies.Whereasemissionsfromlandfillandgassupplieshavebeen
fallingsince1990,emissionsfromfarminghavestayedthesame38.‘Exported’emissionsarisingfrom
UKconsumption,suchasoverseaslivestockproductionandfromglobalwarmingofarctictundra,are
significantexclusionsfromtheUKdata.
• Themainsourcesofnitrousoxideemissionsareagricultural(69%comesfromcultivatedsoilsand7%
fromagriculturalwastes)andelectricityproduction(4%).Untilthe1990s,thechemicalindustrywas
36DECCGHGInventoryoverviewfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets
37DECCCarbonDioxideGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets
38DECCMethaneGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
23
asignificantsourcebutthisisnolongerthecase.Emissionsfromagriculturehavebeenfallingbutby
asmalleramountthanothersources39.
ThenowsupersededDepartmentofEnergyand
ClimateChangeproducedabreakdownofthe
emissionsofcarbondioxidebyUKlocalauthority,
distinguishingbetweendifferentsourcesofemissions.
Figure17showsthelatestdata(2013)forSomerset.It
shouldbenotedthatthisdoesnotincludeemissionsof
methaneandnitrousoxideandsounder-represents
emissionsformagriculture.Vehiclesaccountedfora
thirdofCO2emissions(withtheM5being8%ofthe
total),andelectricityusedbybusinessesandhomes
30%,followedbytheuseofgasforheating.Other
sourcesincludedotherfuels(mainlyoil)andemissions
fromlanduse.
WhencomparedtoequivalentfiguresforEnglandasa
whole,Somersetuseslessgasandmore‘otherfuels’
(probablyreflectinggreaterrelianceonoilinruralareas
offthenaturalgasgrid)andhashigherCO2emissions
fromlanduse.Thislatterdifferenceisalmostcertainly
duetotheareasofpeatsoilsunderagricultureontheLevelsandMoors,theoxidationofwhichreleasesCO2.
3.4.Currentactiontomitigateandadapttoclimatechange
TheGovernmentisasignatorytotheKyotoProtocolwhichcommits192countriesacrosstheglobe,including
theUK,toreductionsingreenhousegasemissions.TheGovernmenthasrecentlycommittedtoratifying,
beforetheendof2016,theinternationalagreementthatwasmadeinParisinDecember2015underthe
KyotoProtocol.WithintheGovernment,theDepartmentforBusiness,Energy&IndustrialStrategy(which
tookovertheworkoftheDepartmentforEnergyandClimateChangeinJuly2016)leadsonpolicytoreduce
emissions,whiletheDepartmentforEnvironmentandRuralAffairs(Defra)leadsontheadaptationpolicy.
TheGovernmentpassedtheClimateChangeActin2008,thenaworld-leadinginitiative.ThiscommitstheUK
toreducingemissionsbyatleast80%in2050from1990levelsandrequirestheGovernmenttosetlegally
binding‘carbonbudgets’whichsetacapontheUK’sgreenhousegasesemissionoverafive-yearperiod.
TheUKhasalsosigneduptotargetssetbytheEuropeanUnion.TheEUEmissionsTradingSystemsetsa
degressive(falling)caponemissionsfromkeyindustryandenergysectorsandusesa‘cap-and-trade’scheme
thatallowsbusinessestobuyandsellallowancesinordertomeettheircap.Emissionstradingshowslittle
signofdeliveringthedeepcutinemissionsthatarerequired,toavoidcatastrophicclimatechange.Acarbon
pricingsystem(suchascarbonfeeanddividendasproposedbyJimHansen)isalmostcertainlynecessary,
despitethepoliticalhurdles.TheEURenewableEnergyDirectivesetstargetsatthelevelofMemberStates
fortheproportionofenergyforheat,transportandpowerthatshouldbegeneratedfromrenewablesources
by2020.TheUK’srenewablestargetis15%.
Measuresdesignedtomeetthesetargetsincludesubsidiestopromotegenerationofrenewableenergy(such
astheFeedInTarrifspaidbyenergycompaniestomembersofthepublicandbusinesseswhogenerate
renewableelectricity)andschemestoreduceemissionssuchastheGovernment’sGreenDeal.Inrecent
years,theGovernmenthasremovedorreducedthefundingfortheseSchemes.Despitethesemeasures(or
perhapsbecauseofthepoorfunding),in2014theUKwaslessthanhalfwaytomeetingits15%target,with
39DECCNitrousOxideGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets
Figure17.CO2emissionsinSomerset,2013
Source:https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-local-authority-
and-regional-carbon-dioxide-emissions-national-statistics-2005-2013
Petrolanddieselusedfortransport,33%
Electricitygeneration-industry,17%
Electricitygeneration-domestic,
12%
Gas(industry&domestic),15%
Othersources,22%
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
24
only5%ofenergyusedforheatingandtransportcomingfromrenewablesources40.Althoughtheuseof
renewableenergyforelectricitygenerationrosesharplyin2015(to25%ofelectricitygeneration),theUKisat
significantriskofmissingthe2020target.
ThisstudyestimatesthatrenewableenergygenerationintheCatchment(mostlyfromsolarphotovoltaics–
seeSection4.4)hasanoperationalorconsentedcapacityof286MWwhichcontributes0.8%oftheUK’s
renewableenergy41andisenoughtopoweraround40,000homes.
ANationalAdaptationPlanhasbeenpreparedwhichrequiresthe
GovernmenttoassesstheUK’srisksfromclimatechange,preparea
strategytoaddressthem,andencouragecriticalorganisationstodo
thesame.TheGovernmenthasplacedtheonusonpublicservice
organisationstoproducereportsonwhattheyaredoingtoadaptto
climatechange,arequirementwhichisnowvoluntary.
SomersetCountyCouncilpreparedastrategyandactionplanin2008
entitled‘RespondingtoClimateChangeinSomerset’.Theactionsin
theplanfocussedontheco-ordinatingandleadershiproleofthe
Councilwithotherpublicbodiesandopportunitiestoreduce
emissionsarisingfromitsownactivities.Cutstostaffanda
reorderingofprioritiesintheEnvironmentDirectoratemeantthat
mostoftheactionshavelapsed.Furthermore,inviewofthe
internationalagreementsonactiontocombatclimatechangereached
since2008,mostrecentlyattheParisclimateconferenceinDecember
2015,theseactionshaveaverylimitedscopeandcanbeconsidered
unambitiousandout-of-date.
40DigestofUKEnergyStatistics(DUKES)2015.Table6.7Renewablesourcesdatausedtoindicateprogressunderthe2009EURenewableEnergy
Directive.41BasedonanalysisbythisstudyoftheDepartmentofEnergyandClimateChange’sRenewableEnergyPlanningDatabaseforMay2016.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
25
4. Landscape,wildlifeandnaturalresources
ThissectiondescribesthenaturalenvironmentoftheLevelsCatchment,coveringitslandscapes,wildlifeand
naturalresourcesandsourcesofenergy.Itexaminestheircurrentconditionandhealthasawayof
identifyingopportunitiesforbetterprotectingthearea’snaturalcapital.
4.1.Landscape
Thecharacterofthelandscapeinwhichpeopleliveisanessentialelementinwhatgivesthemtheirsenseof
placeandbelonging.ThelandscapesoftheCatchmentarevariedanddistinctive,fromtheflatwetlandsof
theLevelsandMoorstotherollingmixedfarmingtotheeastandsouth,risingtotheprominentridgesand
hillsoftheMendips,QuantockandBlackdownHills.Figure18showsthedifferentareasoflandscape
characterthataredefinedbyNaturalEngland’sNationalCharacterAreas42.ThelargestpartoftheCatchment
iscoveredbytheYeovilScarplands,followedbytheLevelsandMoors,theMidSomersetHillsandtheValeof
TauntonandQuantockFringes.ThedistinctivefeaturesofthemainlandscapeareasaredescribedinFigure
19.
Figure18.NationalCharacterAreascoveringtheSomersetLevelsWatershed
42Seehttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-character-area-profiles-data-for-local-decision-making
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
26
Figure19.DistinctivefeaturesofthemainlandscapeareasoftheCatchment
SomersetLevels
andMoors
• Flatgrazingmarshpopulatedbycattleandsheepandasummersoundtrackofcalling
wadingbirdssuchascurlewandlapwing
• Chequer-boardpatternofrectilinearfields,ditches,rhynes,&engineeredrivers,often
borderedbylinesofpollardwillows(withies)andsometimesbyroadsanddroves
• Distinctiveskylineviewstohills(e.g.BurrowMumpandGlastonburyTor)andridges
(e.g.PoldenHills)
MidSomersetHills • Aseriesoflowhills,islandsandridgesdividingtheMoorsandLevelscharacterisedby
mixedfarmland
• Astrongwoodedfeelfromhedgerows,smallwoodsandorchards,althoughwoodland
coverislowoverall
• Smallvillages,witholderbuildingsconstructedoflocallyquarriedblueLiaslimestone
YeovilScarplands • Contrastingpatternofscarpsandvalesrunningwest(mainvalleys)andnorth-south
(tributaries)
• Amixtureofpastoralandarablelandusewithdairyfarmingpredominantinmanyareas
• Windingrurallanesconnectingvillagesandhamletsconstructedoflimestoneand
sandstone(hamstoneinthesouth)
ValeofTaunton
andQuantock
Fringes
• Amixed-farminglandscape,dominatedbyarableinmanyplaces,risingtothe
Blackdown,BrendonandQuantockHills
• Astrongtraditionofciderorchardsandmarketgardening
• SunkenlaneswindbetweenvillagesconstructedofredsandstoneorgreyLiasstone
Source:NaturalEngland’sNationalCharacterAreaProfiles
4.2.Wildlife
TheLevelsandMoorsincludeoneofthelargestandbiologicallyrichestareasoftraditionally-managedwet
grasslandandfenhabitatsfoundanywhereintheUK.Elsewhere,inthemiddleandupperpartsofthe
Catchment,thereisamoredispersedbutalsomorevarieddistributionofhabitats.
Figure20mapstheareasrecordedonNaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitatandAncientWoodlandInventories.
Thismapshowsthefollowingconcentrationsofhabitats:
• Seasonally-wetgrasslandandassociatedwetlandhabitatssuchasfens,raisedbogsandreedbeds
makeupthemajorityoftheLevelsandMoorslandscapecharacterarea(Figure18)andoccupyover
37,300haor15%ofthewholeCatchment.Asnotedfurtherbelow,manyofthesesitesare
designatedasbeinginternationallyimportantforwildlifebecauseoftheirlargepopulationsof
waterfowlandwadingbirds.
• Species-richdriergrassland(notsubjecttoregularflooding)alsooccursontheLevelsandMoorsand
inotherareassuchastheMendipHills,theslopesoftheBlackdownHillsandPoldenRidgeandat
locationssuchasHamHillCountryPark,anironagehillfortnearYeovil.
• Woodlandthatisclassifiedasbeingancient(havingexistedsinceatleast1600)ordeciduousoccupies
4,800haandoccursthroughouttheCatchmentwithlargeblocksontheQuantocks(oakwoodland),
theslopesoftheBlackdownHills(theancientForestofNeroche),CopleyWoodsnorthofSomerton
andonancientparklandsitessuchasMelburyParknearYetminsterinthesouthofCatchment.
WoodlandcoverovertheCatchmentasawholeislowat6%(comparedto10%forEngland)and
manyofthesmallerwoodlandsundermanaged(habitatssuchascoppiceneedingregular
management).Thereisscopeforsensitivewoodlandmanagementtobenefitwildlifeandalso
providejobsandproductssuchasfirewood.
• TraditionalorchardsarecommonthroughoutmostoftheCatchmentbutmostaresmall,often
occurringontheedgesofvillagesandhamletswheretheyareavaluedfeatureofthelocallandscape.
Thereare2,440separateorchardsintheCatchmentrecordedonNaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitat
Inventory,occupyingatotalareaofover1,500ha.Manyoftheseorchardscontainoldandlocally
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
27
distinctivevarietiesofciderandeatingapplesandtheycansupportmanyspeciesofbirdsandinsects.
Thelocationoforchardsaroundtheedgeofsettlementshasmadethemvulnerabletobeinglostto
development.Theyear-roundavailabilityofapplesfromoverseashasunderminedthemarketfor
seasonalSomersetapples.Mostcommercialciderproductioncomesfromlargeplantationsof‘bush’
treesnotthetraditionalstandardtrees.
• CoastalhabitatsarefoundontheedgeofBridgwaterBay,includingsaltmarshalongtheStert
Peninsula,sanddunesbetweenBurnhamandBreanandmudflatsintheParrettestuary.
• Heathland,withitscharacteristicsvegetationofheatherandgorse,occursontheQuantockand
MendipHills
Themapdoesnotshowhedgerows,buttheseareavaluablehabitatandlandscapefeatureinmuchofthe
Catchment(withfieldsizesvaryingconsiderablybetweendifferentareas).Hedgerowremovalisnowfarless
commonthanitwas(regulationslimitingremovalhavingbeenintroducedin1997).However,hedgerow
trees,whichcontributegreatlytotheappearanceofthefarmedlandscape,havelittleprotectionfromfelling
andmanyarelikelytobethreatenedbyashdiebackdisease.
Figure20.PriorityHabitatsandAncientWoodlandintheCatchment
Source:NaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitatInventoryandAncientWoodlandInventory.CategoriesofPriorityHabitatshavebeencombinedtoproduceasimpler
andmoreeasily‘readable’map.Thesizeoftraditionalorchardshasbeenenhancedtomakethemmorevisible.
Legallyprotectedsites
Manyoftheseareashavelegalprotectionbecausethewildlifethatlivesthereisnationallyorinternationally
rare.Nearly6,400haisregardedasbeingofinternationalimportanceandisdesignatedasTheSomerset
LevelsandMoorsSpecialProtectionArea(SPA).Thisareaisrecognisedforitslargeoverwintering
populationsofwaterfowlincludingBewick'sswan,goldenplover,shovelerduck,teal,wigeon,snipeand
lapwing.
Offshore,largepartsofBridgwaterBayarepartoftheSevernEstuarySpecialAreaofConservationand
SpecialProtectionArea,ofinternationalimportanceforthemudflatsandsaltmarshhabitatsandlarge
populationsofoverwinteringwadingbirdssuchascurlew,anddunlin.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
28
OtherlargedesignatedsitesintheCatchmentareaarefoundontheMendips(limestonegrassland,woodland
andcavesystemsincludingrarebats),QuantockHills(woodlandandheathland)andalongtheeasternsideof
thePoldens(meadowsandpastures).Figure21mapsthedesignatedsites.
Figure21.Areasdesignatedfortheirinternationalornationalnatureconservationinterest
Onallthesedesignatedsitestherearelegalrestrictionsonwhatlandownersareabletodoinorderto
maintaintheconditionsthatthewildlifeneed.OnthewetgrasslandsitesontheLevelsandMoorsthis
includesretainingarelativelyhighwatertableclosetothesurfacewhichisoftenmuchhigherthanthe
agriculturallydrainedlandsurroundingit.These‘summerpen’waterlevelsareimplementedthroughWater
LevelManagementPlanspreparedbytheInternalDrainageBoardswiththelandownersandNaturalEngland.
ManyofthedesignatedsitesaremanagedaspubliclyaccessiblenaturereservesbybodiesliketheRSPB(e.g.
WestSedgemoorandHamWallreserves)andSomersetWildlifeTrust(e.g.CatcottHeathandLows).Several
ofthesewetlandreserveshavebeencreatedfromrestoredpeatworkingssuchasShapwickHeath(managed
byNaturalEngland)andWesthayMoor(managedbytheSomersetWildlifeTrust).Theareasunder
conservationprotectionandmanagementaresummarisedinFigure22.
Figure22.Areasunderconservationprotectionandmanagement
Designation/type Area(ha) %ofcatchment
SitesofSpecialScientificInterest(SSSIs) 12,528 5.1%
Natura2000sites(SpecialProtectionAreasandSpecialAreasofConservation) 9,557 3.9%
PlusSevernEstuarySAC(outsidecatchment) 46,945 N/A
NationalNatureReserves 1,742 0.7%
PlusBridgwaterBay(outsidecatchment) 2,639 N/A
RSPBReserves 2,902 1.2%
SWTReserves 1,720 0.7%
HoldingswithHigherLevelEnvironmentalStewardshipagreements 34,085 13.8%
Note:Landmaylieinmorethanonedesignation/type
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
29
4.3.Soils
Theimportanceofsoilstoournationalwellbeing(foragriculturalproductivity,thenutritionalcontentoffood,
thewaterandcarboncyclesandforbiodiversity)isreceivingincreasingattention43.Therearetwoimportant
aspectsofthesoilsoftheCatchmentthatdeserveattentioninthisstudy.Thefirstisthepresenceof
significantareasofpeatsoilsinthelowerCatchment.Thesecondistheabilityofsoilsthroughoutthe
Catchmenttostorerainfall,reducingtheriskoffloodingdownstream.
Peatsoils
ThelonghistoryoftheLevelsandMoorsasamarshywetland,beforetheyweredrainedfromthemedieval
periodonwards,ledtotheaccumulationofpartly-decayedorganicmatterfromfenlandvegetationsuchas
sedges,reedsandmoss,formingpeatsoils.Thegreatestaccumulationsofpeatysoils,whichcanbemore
than4mthick,occurintheLowerBrueandAxecatchment(around12,500haofdeeppeatysoils,covering
aboutaquarterofthisarea)andtheLowerParrettcatchment(around7,500haor15%ofthisarea)–See
Figure23.ThetotalvolumeofpeatintheLevelsandMoors(includingsmallerareasinthenorthernLevels
whicharenotcoveredbythisstudy)isestimatedtobeover200millioncubicmetres.44
PeathasbeenusedasasourceoffuelbypeoplelivingontheLevelsforhundreds(probablythousands)of
years.Inthe20thcentury,anextractionindustrydeveloped,centredintheBrueValleybetweenStreetand
Burtle,tosupplypeatasagrowingmediumtothehorticulturalindustryandgardeners.Extractioncontinues
atafewsitesunderexistingpermissions(estimatedat9%ofannualUKpeatproduction)butthequantityof
peatextractedissmallcomparedtothetotalresource(about0.01%oftheresourceintheLevelsisextracted
ayear)45.Theenvironmentalvaluethatisnowattachedtopeatasastoreofatmosphericcarbonmeansthat
thepeatproductionzonedefinedinplanningpolicyisveryunlikelytobeextended.Asnotedabove,several
worked-outareasarenownaturereserves,providingdiversewetlandhabitats.Astheremainingareasinthe
peatproductionzoneareworkedout,manyarelikelytoberestoredaswetlandnaturereserves.
ThepeatsoilsoftheLevelsandMoorsareasignificantstoreoforganiccarbon(estimatedat3.7million
tonnes46).Ifthepeatwasallowedtodryoutanddecompose,itwouldreleasehugeamountsofcarbon
dioxideintotheatmospherewhichwouldcontributetoclimatechange.OvertheLevelsasawholeitislikely
thatdrainageandcultivationbyagricultureiscurrentlyamoresignificantcauseofpeatlossthanits
extractionforhorticultureandgardening.
43Seeforinstance,theHouseofCommonsEnvironmentalAuditCommittee’recentInquiryintosoilhealthandtheGovernment’sresponse(HC650,
published13September2016).http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/environmental-audit-
committee/inquiries/parliament-2015/soil-health/44Brown,A.G.(2009)CarbonstorageandsequestrationintheSomersetLevels.Desk-basedAssessmentandReportfor
SomersetCountyCouncil.November2009.Theexactamountquotedinthatpaperis202.32millioncubicmetres.45Ibid.
46Ibid.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
30
Figure23.TheapproximateextentofpeatysoilsintheCatchment
Source:NaturalEngland(2010).England'speatlands:carbonstorageandgreenhousegases.NaturalEnglandResearchReportNE257.
http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/30021
Theeffectofsoilsonflooding
Soil,andtherockbeneathit,haveanessentialroleinthewatercycle.Soilsthathaveanopenstructureand
rocksthatareporous‘soakup’rainfallwhichfiltersthroughintothewatertablewhereitisreleasedslowly
intotheriversystem.Ontheotherhand,rainthatfallsonsoilsthatareimpermeableduetotheir
compositionorcompactiontendstorun-offstraightintotheriversystem,causingpeakriverflowsandthe
riskofflooding,aswellaserosionofsoilwhichisdepositedinriverchannels,reducingtheircapacitytocarry
water.
ThesoilsandbedrockundernearlyathirdoftheCatchmentarecapableofstoringhighamountsofwinter
rainfall.AresearchpaperonsoilwaterstoragecapacityintheCatchment,preparedfortheHillstoLevels
ProjectandNaturalEngland47,showsthatsoilswith‘veryhigh’winterstoragecapacityare“widespreadin
areasunderlainbyTriassicsandstonesinthewestandassociatedwiththeYeovilSandsinthesouthandeast”
(makingup13%ofthecatchment).Soilswith‘highcapacity’“occurchieflyontheMendipHills,intheeastand
ontheQuantockHillsandfringesofExmoorinthewest”(makingup17%ofthecatchment).Allthesesoils
overlieimportantaquiferswhichareusedtosupplyourwater.
4.4.Energyproduction
Somersethascontributedtwosignificantsourcesofenergytothenation:CoalfromtheSomersetCoalfield
northoftheMendips(productionceasedinthe1970s);andnuclearpowerfromtheHinkleyPointpower
station(HinkleyB,withacapacityof1250MW,isduetobedecommissionedinorafter2023andreplacedby
the3,200MWHinkleyC).BothoftheseareoutsidetheLevelsCatchment.
47Palmer,R.C.(2015).SoilwaterstoragecapacityintheSomersetLevelsandMoorscatchment.ReportcommissionedbyNaturalEnglandaspartof
the20-yearFloodActionPlanforSomerset.April2015.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
31
InthelasttenyearstherehasbeenmajorgrowthinrenewableenergygenerationintheCatchment,mostof
itfromsolarfarms,withsmallercontributionsfromanaerobicdigestionandlandfillgas(seeFigures24and
25).ThetotaloperationalelectricitygeneratingcapacityfromrenewablesourcesinMay2016was209.4
MW,withafurther76.6MWunderconstructionorconsented.Althoughthiscapacityislessthanaquarterof
thatofHinkleyB,itisstillcapableofpowering40,000homesoraround18%ofthefamiliesintheCatchment.
Figure24.RenewableenergygenerationcapacityintheCatchment,May2016
Technology Operational
capacity(MW)
Capacityunder
construction(MW)
Otherconsented
capacity(MW)
Totalcapacity
(MW)
AnaerobicDigestion 8.9 3.0 11.9
LandfillGas 8.2 8.2
SolarPhotovoltaics 192.3 23.8 49.8 265.9
Totalcapacity 209.4 23.8 52.8 286.0
Source:DatageneratedfromDECC’sRenewableEnergyPlanningDatabase,May2016
Figure25.LocationofconsentedrenewableenergygenerationplantsintheCatchment,May2016
Woodfuelfromwoodsandhedgesisatraditionalformofrenewableenergyusedfordomesticheatingin
ruralpartsoftheCatchment.BiomasscropssuchasMiscanthus(popularlyknownaselephantgrass)have
beenplantedrecentlyinsomeareas,suchasaroundTaunton,butrelativelylittleofthisisprocessedinto
pelletsforburninginbiomassboilers.Thereispotentialforharvestingwoodandotherunwantedbiomass
fromnaturereservesintheCatchment,suchastheShapwickHeathNationalNatureReserve,foruseaswood
fuel.DiscussionsaretakingplaceovertheestablishmentofaCommunityBenefitSocietytodevelopthisasa
socialenterprise.
TherocksunderthewesternpartsoftheCatchmentmayholdreservesofshalegasthatcouldbeexploitedby
hydraulicfracturing(‘fracking’).InDecember2015,theGovernmentissuedlicensesgivingrightsof
explorationovertheseareastoWales-basedSouthWesternEnergyLtd.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
32
4.5.TheconditionoflandscapeandnatureintheCatchment
Thelossofhabitatssuchaslowlandmeadows,hedgerowsandheathlandinEnglandoverthelasteightyyears
hasbeenwell-documented48.Thesamecausesofchange,intheformofimprovementsinagricultural
productivity,pollutionandurbanisation,havebeenpresentintheCatchment.Agriculturaldrainage,which
wasgranted-aidedbyGovernmentuntilthe1980s,hasreducedtheareaofwetgrasslandandflower-rich
meadows.Otherformsofagriculturalimprovementsuchastheploughingofpermanentpasture,theuseof
chemicalfertilisersandpesticidesandremovalofhedgerowstoenlargefields,havechangedthelandscape
acrosstheCatchment.Peatextractiontosupplythehorticulturalindustryanddomesticgardenershas
reducedtheareaoffensintheLowerBrueValley.Traditionalorchardshavebeenremoved(againwith
Governmentsubsidies)orbeenneglectedasthemarketfortheciderandtableappleshasdeclined.
Someofthesethreatshavediminishedastheforcesforchangehavereducedorasfundinghasbeen
providedfromagri-environmentschemestoencouragesympatheticmanagement.However,anumberof
negativepressuresremain.Someofthesecomefromagriculturesuchasthecultivationorfertilisationof
undesignatedflower-richgrassland,pollutionofriversfromslurry,orerosionofsoilsleftbareinwinter.
Somecomefromurbandevelopmentsuchaslossoflandorpollution;andsomecomefromneglectsuchas
theinvasionofscruborlossofdiseasedtrees.
Thehealthofwildlife
Anindicationofthecurrenthealthofhabitatsonlegallyprotected(designated)sitesisprovidedbythe
conditionassessmentsthatNaturalEnglandundertakesonSitesofSpecialScientificInterest(SSSI).Datafor
thelowlandSSSIhabitatsinSomersetshowsthat58%ofthisareaisassessedasbeinginfavourablecondition
(i.e.meetingtheconservationobjectivesthatNaturalEnglandhassetforthembasedonthereasonsforthe
SSSI’sdesignation).Athird(34%)oftheareaisassessedasinunfavourablebutrecoveringcondition
(improving,usuallyasaresultofimprovedmanagementbeingintroduced),andtheremaining8%isin
unfavourableconditionwithnochangeorwithcontinuingdeclines49.Therearemanyreasonsgivenforthe
unfavourableconditionofthesesitesbutcommonreasonsareinappropriatewaterlevelsoragricultural
pollutionforwetgrassland(usuallysummerwaterlevelsbeingtoolow)andundergrazingand/orscrub
invasionofothergrasslandsites.
Thehealthofwater
MeasurementsoftheecologicalandchemicalstatusofriversandlakesarecollectedbytheEnvironment
AgencytomeettherequirementsoftheEUWaterFrameworksDirective.Figure26showsthelatestdatafor
theSouthandWestSomersetcatchments(whichincludetheWestSomersetstreamsaswellastheLevels
Catchment).Thelefthandgraphshowsthattwothirdsofwaterbodiesarejudgedtobeinmoderate
ecologicalstatus,21%inpoorcondition,10%ingoodconditionand3%inbadcondition.Comparedtothe
wholeoftheSouthWest,theSomersetcatchmentscontainsignificantfewerwaterbodiesingoodcondition
andmoreinpoorcondition.Theseresultsreflectthetighterstandardsrequiredforthoseareasthatare
designatedundertheEUHabitatsDirective.Agriculturalandrurallandmanagementisgivenasthemain
reasonfornotachievinggoodstatus(35%ofwaterbodies),followedbydirtywatertreatmentbywater
companies(25%),andurbanandtransportpollution(10%),withotherreasonsaccountingfortherest.The
righthandgraphshowsthatthelargemajorityofwaterbodiesarejudgedtohaveagoodchemicalstatus,
whichissimilartotheSouthWestasawhole.
48Seeforinstance,RSPBetal(2016).TheStateofNature2016.http://www.rspb.org.uk/forprofessionals/science/research/details.aspx?id=363867
49Dataaccessedfromhttps://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SearchCounty.aspxon31May2016.Uplandhabitats(foundmainlyonExmoor)
havebeenexcludedsincetheyareoutsidetheCatchmentarea.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
33
Figure26.Ecologicalandchemical
classificationforsurfacewaters,
SouthandWestSomerset
catchments
Source:EnvironmentAgencyWFD(2015Cycle2)
http://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-
planning/ManagementCatchment/3080/Summary
Thehealthofsoils
AnalysisofsoilrecordsgatheredbytheEnvironmentAgencyandNaturalEnglandinSouthWestEngland
providesapictureoftheeffectthatthedegradationofsoilstructurehasonsurface-waterrunoff50.The
researchonsoilwaterstoragecapacityintheCatchmentreferredtoabove51statesthat“Structural
degradationhasbeenfoundtobewidespreadinSWEngland.Over55%ofcultivatedfieldsaredegradedby
compactionandsoilstructuralchangetosuchadegreethatsurfacerunoffbecomeslikelyduringwinterrain
unlessremediationiscarriedout.Soilsundermaize,potatoesandotherlateharvestedcropshavean80-90%
chanceofsufferingthisdegreeofdegradation.”
TheresearchonsoilwaterstoragecapacityidentifiesthesoilsintheCatchmentthataremostproneto
damage52.SoilsontheYeovilsandshaveaninherentlyfragilestructurewhichcanbreakdownfollowing
arablecultivation.Inaddition,theclay-richsoilsonthereddishTriassicmudstoneandgreyJurassicclays,
whicharefoundintheUpperToneCatchmentandQuantockFringesaswellasotherareas,areparticularly
susceptibletocompactionwhichcanoccurfromfarmingoperationsundertakeninwetperiods,suchas
ploughingandslurryspreadingandalsofromhighstockingdensities.Compactionandsurfaceslakingofsoils
thathavehighorveryhighwinterstoragecapacity(covering30%ofthecatchment–seeabove)canreduce
thiscapacitybymorethan65%,makingithighlylikelythatthesoilswillbeunabletoabsorbsustainedrainfall,
resultinginoverlandflow53.
TheresearchgoesontorecommendthatsomenaturallyheavywetsoilsintheCatchmentshouldnotbeused
forregulararablecroppingandthatothersareonlysuitedtoearlyautumnharvestandcultivation.Following
degradation,somesoilswillgraduallyrecovertheirstoragecapacitynaturally,provideddamagingoperations
donotcontinue.However,othersaremuchlesslikelytorecoverontheirown,requiringremedialaction.Itis
significantthatitisthesoilsoftheYeovilsandswhich,wheningoodcondition,canprovidetheveryhigh
winterstorageofrainfall,arealsoleastlikelytorecovernaturallyfollowingcompaction.Thesoilsthatare
likelytorequireremedialactiontorecovertheirpotentiallyhighstoragecapacityarefoundintheUpper
Parrett,UpperYeoandUpperUpperIslecatchments54.Thesearealsosoilsthathavethepotentialforhigh
agriculturalproductivity(seeFigure27–AgriculturalLandClassificationonthefollowingpage).
50PalmerRCandSmithRP(2013).SoilstructuraldegradationinSWEnglandanditsimpactonsurface-waterrunoffgeneration.SoilUseand
Management,DOI:10.1111/sum.12068.51Palmer,R.C.(2015).SoilwaterstoragecapacityintheSomersetLevelsandMoorscatchment.ReportcommissionedbyNaturalEnglandaspartof
the20-yearFloodActionPlanforSomerset.April2015.52Ibid.
53Ibid.
54Ibid.
Bad 3%
Poor21%
Moderate67%
Good10%
High0%
Ecological statusorpotential
Fail 4%
Good96%
ChemicalStatus
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
34
5. Farmingandfoodproduction
ThissectiondescribesagriculturallanduseandproductionintheCatchment,looksbackatrecentchangesin
farminglanduseandmanagementandexaminesthetypesofenvironmentalmanagementtakingplaceon
farms.
5.1.FarmingatthepresenttimeAgricultureisthedominantlanduseintheCatchment,accountingforaround79%ofthelandarea.Thereare
anestimated3,000agriculturalholdingsemployingaround7,500people,3,600ofthemfull-time.Nearly
threequartersoffarmlandispasture,grazedbyaround200,000cattleand210,000sheep.Mostoftherestis
cropped,withcereals(wheatandbarley)accountingforhalfofthecroppedarea,foragemaize(grownfor
animalfeed)aboutaquarterandotherarablecropssuchasoilseedrapeandfieldbeanstherest55.
Thetypeoffarmingvariesacrossthe
Catchment,reflectingthe
productivityofthesoilsandother
factorssuchastheriskofflooding.
AsFigure28shows,thebest
agriculturallandoccursintheUpper
ToneandUpperParrettcatchments.
Overall,theCatchmentcontainsthe
sameproportionofthebest
agriculturalland(17%ofGrades1and2)asforEnglandasawhole.Theeffectofthesegrades,andother
factors,isthatgrasslandfarmingandlivestockgrazingdominateinthenorthernandwesternparts(for
instancetheBrueandAxecatchmentsandtheQuantockHills).Arablefarmingismorecommoninthe
southernandeasternareas(forinstancetheTone,ParrettandYeocatchments).
Figure28.AgriculturalLandClassification
55Source:AnalysisofDefraJuneAgriculturalSurveydatafor2013
Figure27.SummaryoffarminglandusefortheCatchment,2013
Typeofagriculturallanduse Hectares %farmedarea
Permanentgrass&roughgrazing 106,892 55%
Temporarygrass 26,790 14%
Cereals 27,997 14%
Maize 12,417 6%
Otherarablecropsandfallow 11,278 6%
Otherlandonfarms 8,480 4%
Source:EstimatesbasedonanalysisofDefraJuneAgriculturalSurvey
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
35
Themainagriculturaloutputsaremilk
fromthe65,000dairycows(producingan
estimated450millionlitresayear),beef
fromthedairyandsucklercowsectors
(producinganestimated31,000tonnesof
beefayear),lamb(anestimated2,500
tonnes),wheat(115,000tonnes)and
barley(60,000tonnes).
Basedonthe‘farmgate’value(theprice
thatfarmersreceivewhentheyselltheir
produce)oftheseandother
commodities,farmingintheCatchment
hasanannualoutputwortharound£257
million.Thisdoesnotincludevaluethat
isaddedtothese‘raw’commoditiesby
processingandretailing(coveredfurther
inSection6.2).
Inadditiontomoneytheyearnfromagriculturalproduction,farmersalsoreceivesubstantialsumsfromthe
CommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP).TherearetwomainpartstotheCAPasfaraspaymentstofarmersare
concerned.‘Pillar1’providesbasicincomesupportthroughtheBasicPaymentSchemein2016(previously
theSingleFarmPayment)and‘Pillar2’providesruraldevelopmentpayments,includingforenvironmental
management.ReceiptsfromtheBasicPaymentSchemebyfarmersintheCatchmentin2016willamountto
around£33.3million56andin2014,farmerswerepaid£8.7million
57forundertakingenvironmental
managementthroughtheEnvironmentalStewardshipscheme(describedfurtherbelow).Manyfarmsalso
havenon-agriculturalenterprisessuchasfarmhouseB&Bs.
Despitethehigh‘farmgate’valueofwhattheysell,farmershavehighcosts(suchastherentalofland,
purchaseofmachineryandcostoffuel,cropinputsandanimalfeeds)andtheprofitabilityofmanyfarm
businessesintheCatchmentislow.Forsome,thepaymentstheyreceivefromthe‘Pillar1’BasicPayment
Schemearecurrentlyallthatpreventsthemmakingafinanciallossoraverylowprofit.
Figure30usestheresultsoftheFarmBusinessSurveyforfarmsintheSouthWestofEnglandtoshowthe
averageFarmBusinessIncomereceivedbydifferenttypesoffarminthe2014/15financialyear.Farm
BusinessIncome(FBI)isameasureofthemoneyproducedfromagriculturalactivitybythebusinessafterall
itscostshavebeenmet,butbeforeanydrawingsbythefarmer.Thetablealsoshowstheamountreceivedby
thedifferenttypesoffarmfromthe‘Pillar1’SingleFarmPayment(whichisincludedintheFBIfigure).The
finalcolumnshowsthevalueoftheFBIiftheSFPisexcluded.Thisisofinterestbecause,followingBrexit,itis
possiblethattheUKTreasurywillseektoreducefarmincomesupportpayments.
ThedatashowthattheaveragefarminthesurveyintheSWhadanFBIofalittleover£32,000butthatover
£21,000ofthiscameintheformofincomesupportfromtheSingleFarmPayment(SFP)scheme.Thefigures
forthedifferentfarmtypesshowthatsometypestendtobelarger,withmoremoneyinvestedandhigher
incomes(forinstancedairyfarms)andotherstendtobesmall,relyingonnon-agriculturalincomewhichis
notshowninthetable(forinstancegeneralcroppingfarms).Thetableshowsthattheaveragecereal,
generalcropping,grazinglivestock(i.e.beefandsheep)andmixedfarmsintheSouthWestallreliedonthe
SingleFarmPaymenttoprovideanysignificantmanagementincometothefarmer.
56Assumingthepaymentsweremadeon85%ofthefarmedarea
57Source:AnalysisofESagreementdatafromNaturalEngland.£4millioncamefromtheEntryLeveltierand£4.7millionfromtheHigherLeveltierof
thescheme.
Figure29.Estimatedvalueofprimaryagriculturalproduction,
2015
Source:Basedon2013cropareasandlivestocknumbers(DefraJune2013Agricultural
Survey)andOctober2015prices(FarmersWeekly).
£95
£23£50
£10
£45
£11£23
Farmgatevalue(£M)
Dairy
Sucklerbeef
Dairybeef
Sheep
Poultry
Pigs
Combinablecrops
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
36
Figure30.FarmincomefiguresfortheSouthWestofEnglandfromtheFarmBusinessSurvey,2014/15
FarmtypesFarmBusiness
Income(FBI)
Ofwhich,incomefrom
SingleFarmPayment(SFP)
Hence,FBI
withoutSFP
Allfarmtypes £32,119 £21,134 £10,985
Cereals £45,810 £47,825 -£2,014
Generalcropping -£6,254 £20,245 -£26,499
Horticulture £24,758 £1,926 £22,832
Dairy £86,392 £27,012 £59,380
Grazinglivestock(lowland) £16,010 £14,413 £1,597
Grazinglivestock(LessFavouredAreas) £16,973 £16,719 £253
Pigs* £49,420 £8,490 £40,930
Poultry £54,163 £7,090 £47,072
Mixed £12,972 £20,239 -£7,267
Source:FarmBusinessSurvey2014/15.http://www.farmbusinesssurvey.co.uk.©RuralBusinessResearch,DepartmentofLandEconomy,Cambridge
CB39EP.TheFarmBusinessSurveyisconductedonbehalfof,andfinancedby,DefraandthedatacollectedinitareCrownCopyright.
*Note:dataforPigfarmsarenationalsincethesampleoffarmsintheSWistoosmall.
Itisimportanttonotethat,aswellasproducingfood,farmingcontinuestoplayanessentialrolein
maintainingthecountrysidelandscapeand,particularlyonthewetgrasslandoftheSomersetLevels,
conservingwildlife.Theenvironmentalimpactsofrecentchangesinfarmingpracticearecoveredfurther
below.
5.2.Recentchangesinfarminglanduseandmanagement
Overall,agriculturallandusehasremainedrelativelystableoverthelast60years.Thechartbelow,shows
that,followingasubstantialincreaseincroppedlandduringWWII(‘DigforVictory’)whichwaspartly
reversedaftertheWar,theareaundercropshasgraduallyincreasedandtheareaofpermanentgrassland
hasreduced.
Figure31.ChangesinfarminglanduseinSomersetsince1935
Source:DefraJuneAgriculturalSurveys
Thesechangesmaskmajorchangesinfarmingpracticesandoutput.Farminghasmechanised(in1935there
werestill18,000workinghorsesonSomersetfarms),introducednewbreedsoflivestockandcropsandmade
useofchemicalfertilisersandpesticides.Thishasresultedinlargeincreasesinproductivitybuthasalso
resultedinmajorchangestothefarmedlandscapeandbiodiversity(particularlyasaresultoflanddrainage,
pastureimprovementandhedgerowremoval).Farmshavegrownlargerandmorespecialisedandthe
numberofpeopleworkingonfarmshasshrunk(from20,500inSomersetin1950toaround10,000today).
81%
53%64% 59% 60% 57% 56% 57% 55%
5%
10%
12% 15% 15% 16% 13% 12% 13%
11%
26%15% 18% 16% 18% 21% 21% 24%
3% 10% 9% 8% 9% 9% 10% 10% 8%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2013
Proportionoffa
rmedarea
PermanentGrassland Leygrassland Cropsandfallow Otherlandonfarms
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
37
Certaincropshavebecomemuchmorecommon
andothersthatwereoncecommonhave
declined.Maize,grownforanimalfeed,was
virtuallyunknowninSomersetuntilthe1980s
butnewvarietiesthatsuittheclimatearenow
grownonaquarterofcroppedland,beingmost
commonindairyfarmingareas.Thecropis
harvestedinlateautumnandthiscanleadto
compactionofthesoilstructureandtoerosion.
Ontheotherhand,appleorchards,grownfor
eatingandforcider,havedeclineddramatically
inthelast80years,asshowninthechart.
Thewayinwhichfarmersaresupportedthrough
theCommonAgriculturalPolicyhaschangedsignificantlyoverthelast20years.Directpricesupportand
productionsubsidiesthatledtounwanted‘milklakes’and‘grainmountains’inthe1980sand1990swere
phasedoutfrom2004onwards.Farmersnowreceivea‘decoupled’basicpaymentlinkedtotheareathey
farmbutmustrelyonmarketprices,whichfluctuatebasedonglobalsupplyanddemand,formostoftheir
income.Inrecentyears,thelowpricethatdairyfarmersreceivefortheirmilk,comparedtorisingfarming
costs(e.g.energyandland),hasresultedinsharpfallsintheirincome,causingsignificantnumberstogiveup
dairyfarming(retiringorchangingtootherfarmingsectors).
5.3.Environmentalmanagementonfarms
ThemajorityoffarmersintheCatchmenthavesigneduptotheGovernment’sEnvironmentalStewardship
scheme(whichreplacedtheearlierEnvironmentallySensitiveAreaSchemeandisnowbeingsucceededby
thenewCountrysideStewardshipScheme).FarmsthatwereintheEnvironmentalStewardshipschemein
May2016areshowninFigure33,onthefollowingpage.
Threequarters(74%)offarmlandintheCatchmentiscoveredbyintheEntryLeveltieroftheschemewhich
paysaflatrateareapaymentinreturnforrelativelysimpleandlowcostenvironmentalmanagementoptions.
ExamplesofthemostpopularoptionschosenbyfarmersintheCatchmentareshowninFigure34.The
managementagreementsunderthistierwillbefinishingduringthenexteightyears,afterwhichtheywillnot
berenewedsincethesuccessorscheme(CountrysideStewardship)doesnotincludeanequivalenttier.It
remainstobeseenwhatwillhappentothelandandenvironmentalfeatures(suchasfieldbufferstrips)that
arecurrentlybeingmanagedunderthisScheme.
Asmallerproportionofland(18%offarmlandor14%oftheCatchment)isalsocoveredbytheHigherLevel
tierofEnvironmentalStewardshipwhichhadacompetitiveapplicationprocess(i.e.onlyapplicationsoffering
thegreatestenvironmentalbenefitswereselected).Thistierpayshigherlevelsofannualpaymentsfor
managementoptionswhichseektodelivergreaterenvironmentalconservationorenhancements.Again,
examplesofthemostpopularoptionsadoptedintheCatchmentareshowninFigure34.Thehigh
environmentalqualityoftheLevelsandMoors(thelowerpartsoftheCatchment)meanthatalarge
proportionofthelandintheHigherLeveltierisinthisarea.Themostfrequentmanagementoptionsinthis
areaarethemaintenanceofwetgrasslandforwinteringwadersandwildfowlandthemaintenanceof
grasslandfor‘targetfeatures’(suchaswetlandhabitatsandspecies).
Figure32.Changesinmaizeandfarmedorchardareas
inSomerset,1935to2013
Source:DefraJuneAgriculturalSurveys
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2013
Proportionoffa
rmedarea Maize
Farmedorchards
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
38
Figure33.FarmsintheEnvironmentalStewardshipscheme,2016
Figure34.Themostcommonoptions(rankedindecliningorder)includedinEnvironmentalStewardship
agreementsintheCatchment
EntryLevelStewardshipoptions No.of
agreements
HigherLevelStewardshipoptions No.of
agreements
EK2:Permanentgrassland(lowinputs) 3,576 HR1:Grazingsupplementforcattle 281
EK3:Permanentgrassland(v.lowinputs) 1,547 HR6:Supplementforsmallfields 251
EC2:Protectingin-fieldtrees(grassland) 664 HK15:Grasslandmaintenancefortarget
features216
EE3:6mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 570 HK10:Maintenanceofwetgrasslandfor
winteringwadersandwildfowl205
EE1:2mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 527 HK6:Maintenanceofspecies-rich,semi-
naturalgrassland138
UX2:Grasslandandarable 489 HK7:Restorationofspecies-rich,semi-
naturalgrassland132
EK5:Mixedstocking 484 HK19:Raisedwaterlevelssupplement 113
ED5:Managementofarchaeological
featuresongrassland418
HR2:Grazingsupplementfornative
breedsatrisk88
EB2:Hedgerowmanagementfor
landscape(ononesideofahedge)408
HK9:Maintenanceofwetgrasslandfor
breedingwaders86
EE2:4mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 398 HC7:Maintenanceofwoodland 84
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
39
6. CommunitiesandEconomy
Thissectiondescribessocio-economicaspectsoftheCatchment,lookingatthecharacteristicsofthepeople
andcommunitieswholiveintheareaandalsoitseconomy.Itfocussesontheland-basedsectorsoffarming
andforestryandonthetourismandhospitalitysectorsaskeydriversinthearea’sruraleconomy.
6.1.Peopleandcommunities
TheCatchmentishometooverhalfamillionpeople,livinginover200,000households58.Threequartersof
thesepeopleliveintownsandnearlyhalfliveinthefourlargesttownsofWeston-super-Mare,Taunton,
YeovilandBridgwater.Ofthe126,000peoplewholiveinruralareas,twothirdsliveinvillagesandonethird
liveinhamletsandisolateddwellingsinthecountryside59.
ThedemographiccharacteristicsofpeoplelivingintheCatchmentaresimilartothoseinthewiderSouth
Westregion.Figure35showstheeconomicactivitylevelsofpeopleaged16to74,comparingtheCatchment
totheSouthWestregionasawhole.ItshowsthattheCatchmenthasaslightlyhigherproportionofretired
people(withconcentrationsinWeston-super-MareandBurnham-on-Sea)andfewerstudentsbutis
otherwiseverysimilartotheSouthWest.
Figure35.EconomicactivityofpeoplelivingintheCatchmentcomparedtotheSWRegion,2011
Categoriesofeconomicactivity
Percentagesofpeopleaged16-74
Levels
Catchment
SWRegion DifferenceLevels
catchmenttoSW
Alleconomicallyactivepeopleaged16-74 70.4% 70.3% +0.1%
Employees(Fullandpart-time) 53.3% 52.6% -0.1%
Self-employed 11.3% 11.2% +0.1%
Unemployed 3.1% 3.3% -0.2%
Alleconomicallyinactivepeople16-74 29.6% 29.7% -0.1%
Retired 16.9% 15.8% +1.1%
Lookingafterhomeorfamily 3.7% 3.7% +0.0%
Long-termsickordisabled 3.8% 3.6% +0.2%
Otherinactivepeople 1.6% 1.7% -0.1%
Students(botheconomicallyactiveandnot) 6.3% 8.1% -1.8%
Source:ONSDatasetQS601EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment
Justoverathird(36%)ofpeopleworkinmanagerialpositionswhichisslightlylessthanthelevelfortheSouth
Westasawhole.Concentrationsofpeopleinthese‘higher’occupationsoccurinvillagesandcountryside
aroundTaunton,WellsandYeovil.TheCatchmentalsohasitsshareofareaswhicharerecognisedas
sufferingfromsocialandeconomicdeprivation,withconcentrationsinWestonandBurnhamandpocketsin
ruralareassuchasbetweenLangportandIlminster60.Analysisbythisstudyshowsnosignificantoverall
differencesbetweenthecharacteristicsofpeoplelivingintheLevelsandMoors(thelowercatchment)
comparedtothoselivinginthemiddleandupperpartsoftheCatchment.
58Precisefigures,basedonanalysisofcensusoutputareasfromthe2011census(ONS)are516,843residentsin222,593households.
59ThesefiguresusetheGovernment’sUrban-RuralclassificationofcensusoutputareasintheCatchment.
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/rural-urban-definition60DepartmentofCommunitiesandLocalGovernment(2015).TheEnglishIndexofMultipleDeprivation2015.Analysisbythisstudyof‘File7’(All
ranks,decilesandscoresfortheIndicesofDeprivation,andpopulationdenominators)asLowerSuperOutputArealevel.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
40
6.2.Economy
ApictureoftheeconomicactivitiestakingplaceintheCatchmentcanbederivedfromthesectorsthatpeople
workin,recordedbythe2011census.Figure36showsabreakdownofemploymentintheCatchmentandin
theSouthWestregionby‘BroadIndustryGroups’61.ItshowsthattheeconomicstructureoftheCatchmentis
similartothatfortheregionasawhole,butwithslightlyhigherlevelsofemploymentinmanufacturingand
thewholesaleandretailtradesandslightlylowerlevelsofemploymentinsectorssuchasaccommodation
andfoodserviceandinformationandcommunication.
Figure36.EmploymentbyindustrialsectorintheCatchmentcomparedtotheSWRegion,2011
BroadIndustryofEmployment
Percentagesofemployedpeopleaged16-74
Levels
Catchment
SWRegion DifferenceLevels
catchmenttoSW
Wholesale&RetailTradeincludingMotorVehicles 18.2% 16.2% +2.0%
HumanHealthandSocialWorkActivities 13.6% 12.9% +0.7%
Manufacturing 11.1% 9.1% +2.1%
Education 9.6% 9.7% -0.1%
Construction 8.1% 8.0% +0.1%
PublicAdministrationandDefence 6.7% 7.1% -0.4%
AccommodationandFoodServiceActivities 5.4% 6.3% -0.9%
Professional,ScientificandTechnicalActivities 5.1% 5.9% -0.8%
AdministrativeandSupportServiceActivities 4.1% 4.4% -0.3%
TransportandStorage 3.9% 4.0% -0.2%
InformationandCommunication 2.4% 3.3% -0.9%
Agriculture,ForestryandFishing 2.1% 1.6% +0.4%
Otheractivities 9.7% 11.5% +0.4%
Source:ONSDatasetKS605EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment
Twosectorsthatareparticularinteresttothisstudy,becauseoftheirrelationshipwiththelandand
environment,areagriculture/forestryandtourism.
Agricultureandforestry
ThelatersectiononFarmingandFoodProductionexaminesthecontributionoffarminginmoredetail,
estimatingthatprimaryagriculturalproductionintheCatchmentgeneratesaround£257millionayearfrom
sales,receivesafurther£42millionayear(2014)insubsidiesandpaymentsanddirectlyemploys7,500
peopleonfarms.Althoughfarmworkaccountsforonly2%ofallemploymentintheCatchmentasawhole,it
ismuchmoresignificantinruralareas.Figure37showstheareaswhereitexceeded10%ofemploymentin
2011.Agriculturealsosupportssignificantlevelsofemploymentoff-farmsinsuppliesandservicestofarming
(e.g.machinerydealers,vetsandcontractors)andintheprocessingandsaleofproductsfromfarms(e.g.
abattoirs,cheesemakers,foodretailers)andmuchofthisislikelytotakeplaceintownsandvillagesrather
thanthecountryside.
Theforestrysectorislikelytobemuchsmallerincomparisontofarming,bothbecausewoodlandcoversonly
6%ofthelandarea,comparedto79%forfarmlandandalsobecauseforestryislesseconomicallyproductive.
61BroadIndustryGroupsareastandardclassificationusedbytheOfficeforNationalStatistics.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
41
Figure37.Concentrationsofemploymentinfarmingandhospitality,2011
Source:ONSDatasetKS605EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment
Localself-sufficiencyinfoodanddrink
Stronglocalsupplychains,whereconsumersareabletosourcemuchofwhattheyneedfromlocalproducers,
havemanyadvantages.Forinstance,peoplebecomemoreawareofhowtheirpurchasingdecisionsaffect
thelocalenvironmentandtheircommunities;moreeconomicvalueandemploymentisretainedbylocal
businesses(thelocaleconomicmultiplier);andfewernaturalresourcestendtobeused(andgreenhouse
gasesemitted)inthetransportandstorageofgoods.
Anindicationofthepotentialself-sufficiencyoftheCatchmentin‘indigenous’foods(thosewhichcanbe
growninthearea)isshowninFigure38.Thisisbasedonestimatesofcurrentfarm-basedfoodproduction
usingDefra’sannualagriculturalsurvey(excludingcerealsgrownforanimalfeed)andfromestimatesof
consumptionperheadfromtheUKFamilyFoodSurvey.ItshowsthattheCatchmentistheoreticallyself-
sufficientinmanytypesoffoodanddrink,withlargesurplusesoftheamountofmilk,cheese,poultrymeat,
barleyforbeerandlarger,apples,beef,potatoesandgreenvegetables.Thisisnotsurprisinggiventhatthe
Catchmenthasagriculturallyproductivepastureandarableandarelativelylowpopulationdensity.Sugaris
theonlymainindigenousfoodstuffthatisnotproducedintheCatchment.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
42
Figure38.Localself-sufficiencyinmajortypesoffoodsanddrink
Source:AnalysisbythisstudyusingdatafromDefra’sannualagriculturalsurveyandtheUKFamilyFoodSurvey
Figure38onlyshowsatheoreticalpositionsince,formanyofthefoodanddrinkgroups,thecomponentsof
thesupplychain(e.g.suitableprocessing,storageandretailing)donotexisttoallowconsumerstosource
whattheyneedlocally.Figure39illustratesthisbyidentifyingthelocationofthemainprocessingsitesfor
theagriculturalcommoditiesproducedintheCatchment(e.g.abattoirsanddairies).Muchofwhatis
producedintheareatravelslongdistancestobeprocessed,beforeenteringundifferentiatednationaland
internationalsupplychains.Inorderforstronglocalsupplychainstobeestablished,agreaterdiversityof
foodprocessingplantswouldbeneededinorclosetothearea.Atrulyresponsiveandsustainablelocal
supplychainwouldalsoneedtochangethetypesandamountsoffoodbeingproducedonfarmstoreflect
ecologicalefficiencyanddemandbylocalpeople.Thisissueisexaminedfurtherbelow,underthesectionon
bioregionalism.
Figure39.ThelocationofmajorsitesprocessingfarmproductsproducedintheCatchment
0%
100%
200%
300%
400%
500%
600%
700%
Prop
ortio
nofco
nsum
ptiong
rowninth
eCatchm
ent
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
43
Therearehowever,asignificantnumberoffarmsandotherfoodproducersintheCatchmentwhoprocess
andselltheirproductsdirecttothepublic.Figure40showsthelocationofFarmers’Markets,farmshopsand
businessessellingdirecttothepublicorthroughlocaloutlets.Itshowsaconcentrationoffarmhousecheese
markersinthenortheastoftheCatchment,fruitandvegetableproducersinthesouthernhalfofthe
Catchmentandfarmssellingtheirownmeatinthewest,withfarmhousecidermakersdistributedthroughout
thearea.
Figure40.Examplesoflocalfoodanddrinksales,directformtheproducer
Note:Thismapisnotcomprehensive.The‘ReimaginingtheLevels’groupwelcomesfeedbackonomissionsorerrors.
Hospitalityandtourism
AstudyontourisminSomerset’sDistrictsin2008(themostrecentyearforwhichdataisavailable)canbe
usedtoestimatetourismemploymentandspendingintheCatchment.Onapro-ratabasisbyarea,tourismin
theCatchmentaccountedfor14,000jobs,or9%oftheworkforce.Spendingbytouristsstayinginthe
Catchmentwaswortharound£230millionayearandspendingbydayvisitorsafurther£311million.
Mostofthisspendingtookplaceinthetownsandlargevillages(onthingslikeaccommodation,foodand
drink)withrelativelysmallamountsinthecountryside(althoughvisitstonaturereservesanduseof
footpaths,wherenochargeismade,alsomakeupanimportantpartofwhattheareaprovidesforvisitors).
Nevertheless,itiswidelyacceptedthatthedistinctivenessandqualityofthelandscapeinthecountrysideand
coastareamajorreasonwhymanytouristsvisitthearea62.
Thereisathereforeacloseeconomiclinkbetweentheconditionofthelandscapeandthejobsandspending
sustainedbyvisitors.However,thislinktendstobeone-way,withtourismbenefitingfromlandscapequality,
butwithlittleofthespendingbytouristsfindingsitswaybacktocoverthecostsofmaintainingthelandscape
(farm-basedtourismbeinganexception).Thisissueisaddressedagaininthenextsection.
62http://www.visitsomerset.co.uk/explore-somerset/countryside
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
44
Aswithfarming,employmentintourismtendstobeconcentratedincertainareas.Figure37onpage41
showsthepartsoftheCatchmentwhere‘accommodationandfoodserviceactivities’accountedformore
than6%ofjobsin2011.Itshowsrelativeconcentrationsintheruralareasalongthecoastandalongthe
northeasternpartoftheCatchment(intheBrueandAxecatchments).
6.3.Bioregionalism
AkeyissueforthisprojecthasbeenthedisconnectionsthatexistintheCatchmentinthefoodsupplychain
(betweenfarmingandconsumers),intheenvironment(betweenthewayland,energyandwasteare
managed)andintheeconomy(forinstancethelowprofitabilityoffarmingandthepoorreturnfromtourism
tothelandscape).
Theseareallissuesthatareaddressedbytheconceptofbioregionalism.Thisemphasisestheimportanceof
naturalboundariesandcycles(forinstancethewatercyclewithincatchments).Itemphasisesthecultural
importanceofplacestopeople.Andithighlightstheeconomicandsocialconnectionsbetweenthepeople
whoproduceandconsumegoodsandservices.Itrecognisesthehiddencostsbornebytheenvironment
(suchaspollutionofwatersuppliesorlossofbiodiversity)andadvocatesmoresustainableandequitableuse
ofnaturalresourcesbypeople.Inmanyrespectsitistheantithesisofglobalisation.
Theconceptaroseinthe1970s,fromanalysissuchasBritisheconomistEFSchumacher’sinfluentialbook
‘SmallIsBeautiful:AStudyofEconomicsAsIfPeopleMattered’63.Morerecently,aspectsoftheconceptwere
adoptedbytheWelshGovernmentinitsOneWales,OnePlanetSustainableDevelopmentScheme(2009)64.
Therelevanceoftheconceptwasbroughtuptodatein2012inabookbygreeneconomistandMEPforthe
SouthWest,MollyScottCato,entitled‘TheBioregionalEconomy:Land,LibertyandthePursuitof
Happiness’.65Advocatesoftheapproacharguethatitistheonlywaytoaddressissueslikeclimatechange,
thedecliningavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandgrowingeconomicinequalitiesinsociety.
TheLevelsCatchmentiswell-suitedtoabioregionalapproach.Itisanareathatisrecognisedasbeing
culturallydistinctand,asshownearlierinthisdocument,iscapableofprovidingmuchofthefoodandenergy
neededbyitsresidents,oftenwithsurplusesfornearbyurbanareaslikeBristol.However,asthisdocument
hasshown,thephysicalinfrastructureandpolicyframeworksneededtomakeenvironmentallyandsocially
efficientuseoftheseresourcesareweakorlacking.Theseareissuesthatthemainprojectreportseeksto
address.
6.4.CommunityengagementandKnowledgeco-production
Anotherissuethatishighlightedbythisprojectisthegapthatexistsbetweentheorganisationschargedwith
takingdecisionsaboutfloodingandwatermanagementinthecatchment,andthecommunitieswhoshould
benefitfromthesedecisions.
Mostpeoplereceivetheirinformationaboutissuessuchasflooding,andwhatisbeingdonetoreduceit,
fromthepopularmedia.Mediaattentiontendstobebrief,followingperiodsofseverefloodeventsand
focusesontheimmediate‘rescue’actionsratherthanthelongtermadaptationandsolutions.Somerset
CountyCouncil,throughtheSomersetRiversAuthority,hasrespondedtothisbyproducingregularupdates
onitswork,involvinginterestedpartiesthroughtheSomersetWaterManagementPartnership(seepage17)
andconsulting,withitspartners,onmajorprojectssuchastheBridgwaterBarrier.Nevertheless,the
opportunitiesfordialogueandexplanationwithordinarycitizensarerare.
Thewinterfloodingof2013/14ledtoanewlevelofcommunityactivismontheLevelsandMoors,withthe
creationoftheFloodingontheLevelsActionGroup(FLAG).Thisarosefromafrustrationandlackoftrustfelt
63SchumacherEF(1972)SmallIsBeautiful:AStudyofEconomicsAsIfPeopleMattered.ISBN:978-0061997761.
64WelshGovernment(2009).OneWales:OnePlanet.TheSustainableDevelopmentSchemeoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment.May2009.
http://gov.wales/docs/desh/publications/090521susdev1wales1planeten.pdf65ScottCatoM(2012).TheBioregionalEconomy:Land,LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness.ISBN:978-0-41550-082-1
http://www.greeneconomist.org/files/greeneconomist/general/1The_Bioregional_Economy_discount_flyer.pdf
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
45
bylocalpeople.BodiesliketheEnvironmentAgencyandNaturalEnglandwereperceivedasdistant,
unaccountableandtechnocratic.Fortheirpart,staffintheseorganisationsmayhavefeltfrustratedbythe
rigidlegalprocessestheywererequiredtooperatein,bytheirlimitedbudgets,andbythelackof
understandingthatmostordinarypeoplehaveofthecomplexissuestheirorganisationsweredealingwith.
Thisissueofthegapbetweentheorganisationschargedwithdeliveringpublicservicesandthepublicwho
usetheseserviceshasbeenrecognisedinothersectorsintheUK.Inthehealthandsocialcaresectors,ithas
beenrecognisedthat‘topdown’solutionsdesignedbydoctorsandsocialworkersdonotnecessarilymeet
theneedsofpeopleneedingcare66.Similarly,universitiesandotherresearchbodieshaverecognisedthat
theyneedtoengagewiththepublicaboutwhatfutureresearchprioritiesshouldbe,ratherthanallowingthe
researchcommunitytodecide67.
Thisapproachtodesigningpolicydeliveryaroundtheneedsofthe
serviceusersandbeneficiaries,ratherthanthoseoftheprovider,has
beengiventheratherambiguousterm‘knowledgeco-production’
(orjustco-production)68.Thecoreelementsoftheapproacharethat
theintendedbeneficiariesareinvolvedindesigningthesolutions
(ratherthansimplybeingconsultedonapre-preparedcourseof
action)andthatthedialogueshouldbetwo-wayandgenuine
(meaningneithertootechnicalnor‘dumbed-down’).Arangeof
differenttechniquescanbeusedincludingtheuseoffocusgroupsor
citizenpanels,pop-upexhibitionsandsurveys,andOpenSpace
meetings.
Advantagesoftheapproacharethatit:
• Improvesknowledgeandunderstanding,bothbytheprofessionalsandbycitizens,increasingtrust
andprovidingafirmfoundationthatcanbebuiltupon
• Improvesthelegitimacyandaccountabilityoftheuseofpublicresources
• Reducesadependencyculturewherepeoplelooktopublicbodiesto‘solvetheirproblems’,instead
givingthemastakeincreatingsolutions.
• Providesawayofdevelopingandtestingoutideasbeforetheyareputintoeffect,reducingtheriskof
unintendedconsequencesandwastedeffort.
• Createsmoreholisticandjoined-upinterventionswhichshouldbemorecost-effective
AlltheseadvantageswouldapplytoworkundertakenbytheSomersetRiversAuthorityanditspartnersand
shouldaddressthefrustrationsandgapsidentifiedearlier.
66Forinstance,seetheworkoftheScottishCo-productionNetworkhttp://www.coproductionscotland.org.uk
67TherecentreportpublishedbytheEconomicandSocialResearchCouncil(ESRC)demonstratesthis.http://www.n8research.org.uk/knowledge-that-
matters-realising-the-potential-of-co-production-launch-of-final-report/68AgoodintroductionandexplanationoftheconceptisprovidedinareportbytheNewEconomicsFoundationpublishedin2008entitled:‘Co-
production.AManifestoforgrowingthecoreeconomy’.http://b.3cdn.net/nefoundation/5abec531b2a775dc8d_qjm6bqzpt.pdf.Amorerecentguide
totheuseofco-productioninthehealthsectorhasbeenpreparedbyNestahttp://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/co-production_catalogue.pdf
Anexampleofco-productionatwork
locallyistheSomersetCommunity
JusticePartnershipwhichhasreceived
nationalrecognitionforitswork
promotingrestorativejustice(where
victimsandperpetratorsmeetina
controlledenvironmentfacilitatedby
trainedvolunteerstoresolvelocal
socialharms).Seehttp://scjp.org.uk
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
46
7. Thehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagement
MichaelWilliams’book‘TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels’69providesadetaileddescriptionofthehistory
oftheLevelsandMoorsandthefollowingparagraphsdrawonthisinformation,supplementedbyother
sources70.Thehistoricalrecordrevealsthatpeoplehavealwaysstruggledtokeepfloodwateratbayfromthe
landandthat,likethetide,effortstoreclaimthelandfromtheseahaveebbedandflowed.Therehavebeen
periodswheningenuityandinvestmenthaveadvancedthedrainageoftheLevelsandreducedtheriskof
flooding,butthesehavebeeninterspersedwithperiodsofinactivity,stagnationandcomplacency.
Prehistory
Untilrelativelyrecently,inhistoricalterms,theLevelswereaninhospitablewetlandthathasdiscouraged
settledoccupationbypeople.Thepositionofthecoastlinehasvariedoverthemillennia,dependingonglobal
sealevelsandtheresponseofthelandsurfacetotheiceage.Figure41showsthat6,000yearsago,the
coastlineranmanymilesinlandofwhereitdoestodayasfarasGlastonburyandMuchelney,withBrentKnoll,
PawlettandWestonzoylandbeing
islands.ThePoldenRidgeand‘Isle’
ofWedmorewerelongpromontories
extendingintoashallowseaof
mudflatsandsaltmarsh.
Theearliestevidenceofpermanent
settlementbypeoplecomesfrom
thelakevillagesandtrackwaysat
MeareandGlastonburythatwere
occupiedbetweenthethirdcentury
BCandfirstcenturyAD,laterbeing
abandonedbyrisingwaterlevels.
Thereisalsoevidenceforcoastal
settlementsatthistimenearAlstone
southofHighbridgewhichwerebuilt
onthehigherridgeofclaythatexists
nearthecurrentcoastline.
Duringthisperiod,theinlandsea
behindthisclayridgeprobablyconsistedofintertidalmudflatsandsaltmarshnearthecoast,merginginto
freshwaterreedswampandfensinland.Thesewildhabitatswouldhaveprovidedrichfishingandhunting
groundsanditislikelythatsaltwasalsoproducedandtradedwithinlandcommunities.
TheDarkAges
DuringthelateRomanperiod,embankmentswerebuiltalongthecoastandbesidethemajortidalriversto
reclaimlandaspasture.Fromthefourthcentury,thesolitudeandtranquillityoftheareaattractedtheearly
Celticchurchtoestablishmonasticcentreson‘islands’withintheLevelsfirstatGlastonburyandlaterat
AthelneyandMuchelney.Outsidethelow-lyingLevels,Saxoncolonisationandagriculturalimprovementof
thelandscapefromthefifthtoseventhcenturiesresultedinthepatternsofvillagesandmarkettownswesee
todaybuttheLevelsthemselvesremainedlargelyuntouched.Duringtheninthcentury,theLevelsprovided
KingAlfredasafehavenfromwhichtorallyhisforcesandexpeltheVikingsfromWessex,producingthewell-
69WilliamsM(1970).TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.8–9.ISBN0-521-07486-X.
70Forinstance,Rippon,S(2004).Tamingawetlandwilderness:Romano-BritishandmedievalreclamationintheSomersetLevelsandMoors.Areport
fortheSomersetArchaeologyandNaturalHistorySociety.
Figure41.TheCoastline6,000yearsago
Adaptedfrom:
www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/climateChange/general/seaLevelChangeCaseStudies.html
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
47
knownstoryofAlfredburningthecakeshewasaskedtolookafterwhilehismindwasdistractedwithmilitary
planning.
ThemedievalperiodtothemidC17th
Duringtheearlymedievalperiod,theLevelsbecameofincreasingvalueasasourceoffish,fuel(woodand
peatturves)andsummerpastureforthepeoplelivingonthe‘island’villages.AsinotherpartsofEngland,
themonasticcentreswereattheforefrontofthelandimprovement,enclosureanddrainageactivity,
acceleratingduringthe13thand14
thcenturies.FocussingonthealluvialsoilsinthelowerParrett(and
avoidingthedeeppeatsoilsinthelowerBrueValley),apiecemealprocesstookplaceinwhichthe
monasteriesorganisedrhynestobedugacrosscommonlandpastureandearthbanks(or‘walls’)tobe
erectedbesidetheriverstoextendthegrazingseasonorallowcultivation.Inafewplaces,riverswere
straightenedordivertedsuchasthelowerTonesouthofSaltMoor,andtheBrue,HartlakeandSheppeynear
Glastonbury.
Afterthedissolutionofthemonasteriesinthemid16thcentury,theCrown,throughthe‘CourtofSewers’
tooktheleadinorganisingfloodcontrolanddrainage,particularlyfollowingamajorfloodeventin1607.
Fromthe17thcenturyonwards,theuseofpumpsandothertechniquesimportedfromHollandincreasedthe
scopefordrainage,includingpeatmoors,althoughattemptstodrainKing’sSedgemoorbytheDutchengineer
SirCorneliusVermuydenwerenotsuccessful.By1638,asurveyorganisedbytheCrownshowsthatjustover
athirdofthelandliabletofloodingontheLevelshadbeenreclaimedasproductive‘meadow’,with
remainingareasclassedascommon-grazingmarshandfen.
TheshareduseoftheresourcesprovidedbytheLevels,undersystemsofcommongrazingandfuelgathering,
wereimportanttoallthecommunitiessurroundingtheLevels.Althoughthereislittlecommonlandlefton
theLevelstoday,thecomplexpatternsoflandownershipandgrazingrights,andtheshareduseofdroves
thatprovideaccessontothemoors,reflectthesemedievalsystems.
ThemidC17thtomidC18
th
IncontrasttothetransformationsthattookplacetoEngland’sotherlargelowlandwetland,theFensin
CambridgeshireandLincolnshire,littleprogresswasmadeontheLevelsbetween1640and1770andtwo
thirdsremainedunreclaimedattheendofthisperiod.Onereasonforthislackofactivitywaslocal
opposition.ThedrainageoftheLevelshasalwaysbeencontroversial,andduringthisperiod,itseemsthat
oppositionfromcommunitieswholosttheirrightsofcommongrazingwhenlandwasenclosed,andfrom
neighbouringlandownerswhoexperiencedincreasedfloodingaswatermovedfasteroffdrainedareas,wasa
significantfactorinslowingtheprocessofdrainageandreclamation.
ThemidC18thtomidC19th
In1760sand1770s,thenationalenthusiasmforagriculturalimprovementandtherisingeconomicand
technologicalincentivestodrainlandrestartedeffortsontheLevels.TheBathandWestofEngland
AgriculturalSocietywasfoundedin1777anditsmemberswereinfluential‘improvers’.TheSocietyhastaken
acloseinterestinthedrainageoftheLevelseversince.UsingParliamentaryEnclosureActs,thepeatmoors
intheBruevalleyandKing’sSedgemoorwereenclosed.DrainageActsestablishedlarge-scaleco-ordinated
schemesformanagingwaterlevels,includingtheconstructionofmajornewdrains,cutsandclyses.Steam
pumpsstartedtobeintroducedduringthefirstpartofthe18thcentury,organisedbylocaldrainageboards
andfundedbyalevyfromlandowners.Newroadswereconstructedonthespoilbesidetherhynes,enabling
thebuildingofnewfarmsteadsandcottages.
ThemidC19thto1930
Thesecondhalfofthe19thcenturyandfirsttwodecadesofthe20
thcenturysawanotherperiodofstagnation
ininvestmentinfloodmanagement,withregularandprolongedfloodingoftheLevelsbothfromriversand,
lessfrequently,fromthesea.Comparedtowhatweareusedtotoday,winterfloodingthatrenderedroads
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
48
impassableandcommunitiesisolatedwasthenorm.Particularlyseverefloodsthatinundatedthousandsof
acresformanymonthsoccurredin1853,1872-73,1891and1929.
1930tothe1970s
FollowingtheLandDrainageActof1930,newgovernanceandfundingmeasuresbroughtarevivalofactivity.
Newpowerfuldieselpumpswereinstalledinthe1940sand50sandthesewerereplacedbyautomatic
electricpumpsinthe1960s.In1940theHuntspillRiverwascreatedattheseawardendoftheRiverBrue,
dramaticallyreducingfloodingoftheLowerBrueValley.TheSowyRiverwasconstructedinthelate1960s
andearly1970stotakefloodwaterfromtheRiverParrettatLangportandAllerMoornorthtotheKing’s
SedgemoorDrainwhichwasalsoenlarged.
Thelast30years
Theperiodsince1980has,arguably,seenareversaloftheprogressoffloodriskmanagementmadeinthe
previousdecades.Anumberoffactorsarelikelyhavecontributedtothis:
• ThedredgingoftheriverchannelsintheLevelsandMoorswasnotgivenpriorityinmaintenance
budgets.Siltdepositedinthechannels(whichmayhaveincreasedduetoerosionfromcultivated
land)wasnotremovedtothedimensionsofthechannelsthathadbeendesignedinthe1960sand
thecapacityoftheriverstostorewaterduring‘floodlock’wasreduced.
• TheintensityofagriculturalmanagementacrossthewholeCatchment,particularlyadeclineinthe
structureofsoilsunderarablecultivation(withtheintroductionofcropssuchasmaize)andunder
highlivestockdensitiesmayhaveincreasedthespeedwithwhichrainfallreachestherivers,
increasingtheirpeakflows.Soilerodedfromarablelandislikelytohavecontributedtoareductionin
thecapacityoftherivers.
• Urbanandindustrialdevelopment,andtheuseofimpermeablesurfacesinthesedevelopments,is
likelytohavefurtherreducedthecapacityofthemiddleandupperCatchmenttoholdbackrainfall,
leadingto‘flashier’riverresponses.
Today
Startinginthe2000s,followingaseriesoffloodeventsontheRiverParrett,therehasbeengrowinginterest
in‘wholecatchment’planning.TheParrettCatchmentProject,whichwasoneofthefirstsuchprojectsinthe
UK,ranfrom2000until2007andidentified12objectivesorprioritiesforaction(Figure42).Theseobjectives
havecontinuedtoguidepolicyandaseriesofprojectssuchasWiseUseofFloodplains,WAVE(Water
AdaptationisValuableforEverybody)andtheBrueValleLivingLandscapesProjecthavetakenplace.
Figure42.The12objectivesidentifiedbytheParrettCatchmentProject
• Changestoagriculturallandmanagement
• Woodlanddevelopment
• Temporaryfloodstorageonfarmland
• Controllingrun-offfromdevelopment
• Creatingnewwetlandhabitats
• Spreadingfloodwateracrossthemoors
• Upgradingchannelstoenhancegravitydrainage
• Restrictingnewdevelopmentonthefloodplain
• Dredgingandmaintainingriverchannels
• Raisingriverbanks
• Upgradingpumpingstations
• BuildingatidalsluicedownstreamofBridgwater
However,progressonthegroundwasslowuntiltheseverefloodeventsofNovember2012andDecember
2013toMarch2014.ThesereceivednationalattentionandledtorenewedGovernmentcommitmentsand
funding.Asdescribedearlier(Section2.3onpage12),a20YearFloodActionPlanwaspreparedandfunding
wasprovidedtoestablishanewSomersetRiversAuthoritytoimplementtheActionPlan.Severalofthe
ambitionssetoutintheParrettCatchmentProject,includingthetidalsluiceacrosstheParrettatBridgwater
andenlargementoftheSowyRiverandKing’sSedgemoorDraintoincreasethegravitydrainagefromthe
Parrett,arenowbeingtakenthroughtheplanninganddesignstages.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
49
Anoveralltimelineofthedifferentphasesofactivity,showingthoseinwhichmostprogresstowardsland
drainageandfloodcontrolwasmade,isshowninFigure43.
Figure43.Timelinesummarisingkeyperiodsofactivity
1540s-1640s:Followingthedissolution oftheMonasteries,theCrown takeschargeofdrainagethrough theCourt ofSewers.Pumpsandother techniques areintroduced fromHolland.By1640,athird offlooding landhasbeenreclaimed asproductive meadow.
1650s-1760s:Lackofleadershipandlocalopposition leadstostagnationindrainageandreclamation
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
C13th andC14th:TheMonasteriesstarttotransform thelandscapebydiggingrhynes,buildingbanksandstraightening rivers.
1770s-1840s:ParliamentaryEnclosure andDrainageActs,coupled withperiod ofprosperityandinnovationleadstoconversionofmostofremainingreedmarshtoproductive pasture
1850s-1920s:Lackofinvestmentandpoororganisation meanlittleprogressismadeandexistingstructures fallintodisrepair
1930s-1970s:IDBsestablished,Huntspill andSowy Riversdug,Useofdieselthen electric pumps
1980s-2000s:Riversnotdredged;urbandevelopment andagricultural intensification failtoaddressfloodrisk
Now: Renewedfocusonmaintenance, andinterest inwholecatchment management
Presentday
DarkAges
Periods ofprogress Periods ofstagnation
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
50
Changesingovernanceandadministration
Overthelast150years,therehavebeenaseriesofchangestotheorganisationalresponsibleforland
drainageandwaterlevelmanagementontheSomersetLevels,graduallyproducingthestructureoflocal,
regionalandnationalbodiesthatexisttoday71(Figure44).Throughoutthisprocess,criticalissueshavebeen
thedemocraticaccountabilityofthebodiesthatmakedecisionsandtheresourcesandpowersavailableto
them.
Figure44.ThehistoryofgovernanceofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors
• TheLandDrainageActof1861replacedthemedievalCourtofSewerswithInternalDrainageDistricts
inmostoftheLevels;andtheSomersetDrainageActof1877introducedanewsystemoffunding
fromratespaidbythebenefitinglandowners.
• TheLandDrainageActof1930establishedaSomersetCatchmentBoardtocontrolthemainriversand
InternalDrainageBoardstomanagementwaterlevelsoffthemainrivers,providingfundingforboth
throughenforceablepreceptsorlevies.
• TheSomersetCatchmentBoardwasreplacedbytheSomersetRiversBoardin1948andthenthe
SomersetRiversAuthorityin1963(eachchangeaddingtotheresponsibilitiesoftheorganisations).
• In1974theRiverAuthoritywasreplacedataregionallevelbytheWessexWaterAuthorityandlocally
bytheSomersetLocalLandDrainageCommittee.
• The1989WaterActledtotheWaterAuthoritiesbeingprivatisedtocreatetheregionalwaterutility
companies,withtheirstatutoryresponsibilitiespassedtoanewNationalRiversAuthority(NRA)which
wasinturnreplacedbytheEnvironmentAgencyin1996.
• The1989WaterActalsoreplacedtheSomersetLocalLandDrainageCommitteewiththeSomerset
LocalFloodDefenceCommittee.ThiswasreplacedbytheWessexRegionalFloodDefenceCommittee
in2005.
• Mostrecently,in2016,theSomersetRiversAuthoritywascreatedtooverseedevelopmentand
deliveryofthe20YearFloodActionPlanfollowingthefloodingof2013/14.
• Atthetimeofwriting,theSomersetRiversAuthorityanditspartnersareworkingwithDefrawitha
viewtoestablishingtheAuthorityasastatutorypreceptingauthority(Section2.7onpage18).
71Williams,M(1970),Porter,E(1978).WaterManagementinEnglandandWales,CambridgeUniversityPressandEnvironmentAgency(2005).
SomsersetLocalFloodDefenceCommittee,HandoverDocumentMarch2005.
ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex
51
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