Reimagining the Levels,reimaginingthelevels.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/... · Reimagining the Levels – Making the Connections. Technical Annex i Reimagining the Levels – Making

ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections

TechnicalAnnextothemainprojectreport

October2016

ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex

i

ReimaginingtheLevels–MakingtheConnections

TechnicalAnnextothemainprojectreportContents

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................11.1.Backgroundtotheproject........................................................................................................11.2.TheProjectArea.......................................................................................................................21.3.StructureofthisAnnex.............................................................................................................2

2. Waterandfloodmanagement.................................................................................................52.1.Rivers,weatherandthecausesofflooding..............................................................................52.2.Thelikelihoodoffutureflooding..............................................................................................92.3.Currentpolicyandpracticetoaddressfloodriskinthecatchment.......................................122.4.Risksofdrought......................................................................................................................122.5.Theroleofnaturalfloodmanagement..................................................................................142.6.Governanceandfundingofwatermanagement...................................................................162.7.FuturefundingandgovernanceoftheSRA............................................................................18

3. ClimateChange......................................................................................................................203.1.Introduction............................................................................................................................203.2.Thelikelyimpactsofclimatechange......................................................................................213.3.HowactivityintheCatchmentiscontributingtoclimatechange..........................................223.4.Currentactiontomitigateandadapttoclimatechange.......................................................23

4. Landscape,wildlifeandnaturalresources..............................................................................254.1.Landscape...............................................................................................................................254.2.Wildlife...................................................................................................................................264.3.Soils.........................................................................................................................................294.4.Energyproduction..................................................................................................................304.5.TheconditionoflandscapeandnatureintheCatchment.....................................................32

5. Farmingandfoodproduction.................................................................................................345.1.Farmingatthepresenttime...................................................................................................345.2.Recentchangesinfarminglanduseandmanagement..........................................................365.3.Environmentalmanagementonfarms...................................................................................37

6. CommunitiesandEconomy....................................................................................................396.1.Peopleandcommunities........................................................................................................396.2.Economy.................................................................................................................................406.3.Bioregionalism........................................................................................................................446.4.CommunityengagementandKnowledgeco-production......................................................44

7. Thehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagement.....................................................................468. Bibliography...........................................................................................................................51

ReportpreparedbyRobertDeaneofRuralFocuswww.rural-focus.co.ukforthe‘ReimaginingtheLevels’group,withfinancialsupportfromtheWessexReinvestmentTrust.Forprojectreportsandupdatessee:www.reimaginingthelevels.orgCitation:Deane,R.(2016).ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections.TechnicalAnnex.Forfurtherinformation,contact:RobinMewes([email protected])

Versioncontrol:FinalversionoftheTechnicalAnnex,completed,18thOctober2016.


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1. IntroductionThisdocumentprovidesbackgroundevidenceandanalysistosupportthemain‘ReimaginingtheLevels,MakingtheConnections’projectreport.ThatreportassessesthemaindriversofchangeaffectingtheCatchmentoftheSomersetLevelsandMoors,proposesasetofthematicandspatialobjectivesandmakes11recommendationsforconsiderationbylocalorganisationsandcommunities.

ThisTechnicalAnnexadoptsadifferentstyle,usingmaps,graphs,tablesandtexttosetouttheanalysisthattheReimaginingtheLevelsgrouphasusedtodrawuptheirobjectivesandrecommendationsforthearea.Sourcesofinformationarereferencedinfootnotesandlistedinabibliography.

1.1.BackgroundtotheprojectThe‘ReimaginingtheLevels’projectemergedfollowinganOpenSpaceeventheldinGlastonburyinJune2014,exploringasustainablefuturefortheSomersetLevels.TheprojectwasestablishedbyasmallgroupofindividualswholiveontheLevelsandMoorsandwho,asmembersofcommunityorganisationssuchasRedBrickEnterprise(Glastonbury),TransitionAthelneyandGreenWedmore,haveaninterestindevelopingwhattheyseeasasustainablelongtermfutureforthearea.

Earlyin2016,thegroupweresuccessfulinraisingabudgetfromtwosmallgrantstoundertakeashortresearchprogrammeandpublishanddisseminateitsfindings.ThegroupengagedRobertDeaneofRuralFocusLtdtoundertakenbackgroundresearchandconsultationanddrafttheprojectoutputs.ThepurposeoftheprojectandtheresearchtopicsithassoughttoaddressaredescribedinFigure1.

Figure1.Purposeandscopeoftheproject

• ToinvestigateprecedentsinbothpolicyandpracticewhichwouldhelpimplementthevisionforwaterandlandmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentsupplyingtheLevelsandMoors,whichwouldreconciletheneedsforconservationandlivelihoodandalsocontributetoglobalsustainabilityobjectives.

• Topresentinformationontheseissuesinanaccessibleformatthatinformsandstimulatesdialoguebetweencommunities,landownersanddecision-makersaboutprioritiesforfutureaction.Note:TheprojecttookthevisionpreparedinJanuary2014bytheLevelsandMoorsTaskForceasitsstartingpoint,andrevieweditscurrentrelevanceandachievability.

1. Theprojectwasguidedbythefollowingresearchquestions:1. Whatiscurrently

happening/known?2. Whatarethe issuesfacingthefutureoftheareaandwhatresearchandother

informationisavailabletoshedlightonthese?

2. Whatneedstohappen?

3. What are the practical solutions, in terms of land use and water/landmanagement,thatare likelytobebestatproducinganappropriatebalanceofconservation, farming and flood risk management? (these are listedalphabeticallynotnecessarilyinprecedence)

3. Whatwillitlooklike?4. Where will these practical solutions be most effective and how might theychange the existing patterns of land use and management across thecatchment?

4. Whodecides? 5. Who needs to be involved to reach agreement and what decision-makingmechanismswillbeneeded?Areexistingdemocraticstructuressuitableorwillnewapproachesbeneeded?

Attheoutsetoftheproject,itwasintendedthatthekeyfocusoftheworkshouldbethegrowingriskoffloodingtopeopleandtheenvironmentontheLevels,andtheapproachesthatshouldbeadoptedtoaddressthisinasustainablemanner,takingaccountoftheneedtoinfluenceclimatechange,asakeycausesof


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flooding.Halfwaythroughtheproject,theUKreferendumvotetoleavetheEUinevitablybroadenedthescopeofthework.Whilenotwishingtodilutetheattentiontheprojectgavetoflooding,itwasdecidedtowidenitsremittoconsiderthepotentialimpactsofBrexittothelandscapeandcommunitiesofthearea.

1.2.TheProjectAreaThefocusonflooding,andthegroups’firmbeliefthatactiontoreducefloodriskmusttakeplaceacrossthewholecatchment,meantthattheprojectareawasdefinedbythewatershedoftheriversParrett,Tone,AxeandBruethatdrainintoBridgwaterBay(Figure2onthefollowingpage).AstheinsetonFigure2shows,thereisarelativelystrongcoincidencebetweentheserivercatchmentsandthecountyofSomerset,withtheexceptionofWestSomersetDistrictwhichhasonlyasmallareainthecatchmentandMendipDistrict,thesouthernhalfofwhichisinthecatchment.

Figure4onpage5showshowthefullcatchmentcanbesub-dividedintothewatershedsofthemainrivers,basedonthecatchmentboundariesdevelopedbytheEnvironmentAgencyfortheEUWaterFrameworkDirective.ThelowercatchmentsoftheParrett,Tone,BrueandAxeoccupyjustoverathirdofthearea(35%).

Keylandusedataforfullcatchmentanditssub-catchments,alongwithcomparabledataforEnglandasawhole,areshowninFigure3.Theseshowthatthesouthernhalfofthecatchmentisdominatedbyarablecropping,particularlytheLowerParrettandTone,andUpperIsles,CaryandYeo,whereastheBrueandAxecatchmentsnorthofthePoldenHillstendtobepasturedominated.

1.3.StructureofthisAnnexAspartofitsworktopreparedthemainreport,theprojectgroupchosetosubdividetheissuesandopportunitiesfacingthecatchmentoftheSomersetLevelsandMoorsintosixtopics.Eachofthesetopicshasaseparatesectioninthisdocument.

• Section2summarisestheissuesrelatingtowaterandfloodriskmanagementintheCatchment.Itdescribestheriversandweatherpatternsoftheareaandthefactorsthatleadtoflooding.Itreviewsthelikelihoodoffuturefloodingandthedevelopmentofflooddefencemeasuresandlooksathowtheriskoffloodingiscurrentlymanaged.

• Section3examinestheeffectsthatthechangingclimate,particularlysealevelrise,arelikelytohaveontheCatchment.ItalsolooksatwhattypesofactivityintheCatchmentarecontributingtoclimatechangeandthetypesofmitigationandadaptationactionsthataretakingplace.

• Section4describesthenaturalenvironmentoftheLevelsCatchment,coveringitslandscapes,wildlifeandnaturalresourcesandsourcesofenergy.Itexaminestheircurrentconditionandhealthasawayofidentifyingopportunitiesforbetterprotectingthearea’snaturalcapital.

• Section5reviewsagriculturallanduseandproductionintheCatchment,looksbackatrecentchangesinfarmingandexaminesthetypesofenvironmentalmanagementtakingplaceonfarms.

• Section6describesthesocio-economiccharacteristicsoftheCatchment,lookingatthecharacteristicsofthepeopleandcommunitieswholiveintheareaandalsoitseconomy.Itfocussesontheland-basedsectorsoffarmingandforestryandonthetourismandhospitalitysectorsaskeydriversinthearea’sruraleconomy.

• Section7providesabriefdescriptionofthehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors.

Finally,abibliographylistssourcesofinformationwhichhavebeenreferencedinthemainreportandthisannexorwhichprovidevaluablebackgroundinformation.


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(SeeFigure4onpage5forlocationmap)

LowerBrue/Axe

LowerParrett/Tone UpperAxe

UpperSheppey UpperBrue UpperCary UpperYeo

UpperParrett UpperIsle UpperTone

QuantockStreams

Proportionofwholecatchment 17.8% 17.3% 4.9% 3.4% 7.4% 3.5% 14.0% 6.3% 6.1% 15.1% 4.2% 100.0% n/a

DOMINANTLANDCOVERbasedonaggregateddatain1kmsquares(LandCoverMap2007)Arable 16.2% 56.8% 10.5% 31.5% 27.8% 68.9% 45.7% 62.2% 74.5% 39.7% 60.7% 42.2% 48.6%Improvedgrassland 72.4% 39.4% 81.6% 63.1% 69.5% 24.3% 45.0% 30.8% 19.5% 50.4% 20.5% 49.7% 27.6%Otherlandcover 11.5% 3.8% 7.9% 5.4% 2.7% 6.8% 9.3% 7.0% 6.1% 9.9% 18.9% 8.1% 23.9%

PRIORITYHABITATS(NaturalEngland)Coastalandfloodplaingrazingmarsh 45.2% 28.2% 6.7% 0.0% 1.5% 2.2% 1.7% 1.2% 1.5% 1.7% 9.5% 14.5% 1.6%Deciduouswoodland 1.3% 2.3% 5.8% 6.0% 2.8% 4.9% 4.7% 2.6% 4.3% 5.9% 5.3% 3.7% 5.6%Goodqualitysemi-improvedgrassland 0.5% 0.3% 3.6% 0.4% 0.7% 0.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.6% 0.7% 0.4% 0.6% n.a.Lowlandcalcareousgrassland 0.5% 0.4% 3.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.5%Lowlanddryacidgrassland 0.0% 0.0% 2.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1%Lowlandheathland 0.1% 0.0% 2.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4%Lowlandmeadows 0.5% 5.3% 0.5% 0.3% 0.2% 1.0% 0.3% 0.7% 0.3% 0.2% 0.0% 1.2% 0.3%Purplemoorgrassandrushpastures 0.5% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1%Traditionalorchards 0.7% 0.9% 0.3% 0.7% 1.0% 0.5% 0.4% 1.1% 0.4% 0.4% 0.2% 0.6% 0.1%Allpriorityhabitats(inclsomenotlistedabove) 53.6% 38.5% 27.2% 8.5% 7.1% 9.7% 8.6% 6.5% 8.1% 10.0% 22.5% 23.2% 14.1%

WOODLAND(NationalForestryInventory2014)Broadleaved 2.0% 2.5% 7.0% 6.5% 3.1% 6.0% 5.2% 3.0% 4.5% 6.6% 5.4% 4.2% 5.9%Conifer 0.1% 0.4% 1.3% 0.7% 1.2% 0.7% 1.7% 0.6% 1.3% 1.6% 5.9% 1.1% 2.4%Mixed 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.5% 0.3% 0.2% 0.6% 0.7% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4%Otherwoodland 0.3% 0.3% 1.0% 0.3% 0.7% 1.0% 0.6% 0.3% 0.4% 0.7% 1.2% 0.5% 1.1%Allwoodland 2.4% 3.3% 9.6% 7.9% 5.4% 8.2% 7.9% 4.1% 7.0% 9.7% 13.0% 6.3% 9.8%

AREASATRISKOFFLOODINGFROMRIVERSANDTHESEA(EnvironmentAgency)High(>1in30yearrisk) 1.9% 26.7% 6.9% 0.9% 3.8% 7.0% 4.4% 3.4% 4.4% 3.4% 11.0% 7.9% 4.8%Medium(1in30to1in100yrrisk) 9.4% 7.6% 2.8% 1.5% 3.5% 3.0% 2.1% 1.6% 2.7% 1.9% 5.8% 4.6% 3.9%Low(1in100to1in1,000yrrisk) 23.0% 8.3% 1.0% 0.8% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.0% 1.1% 1.6% 2.7% 6.4% 3.8%

BUILTUPAREAS(ONS,2011) 10.1% 6.0% 5.6% 8.7% 3.2% 8.8% 6.8% 6.2% 4.9% 7.2% 1.7% 6.8% 10.4%

Weston-S-M Bridgwater Cheddar Wells Somerton Yeovil Crewkerne Chard Taunton

Highbridge&Burnham

SheptonMallet Sherborne Ilminster Wellington

Street

Glastonbury

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LARGESETTLEMENTS

DatafromGISanalysis.Percentagesshowproportionofsubcatchmentareaineachlandusecategory.Shadingindicateshighvalueswithineachdataset.

Figure3.KeyLandUseDatabySub-catchments

Englandcomparison

LevelsandMoors MiddleandUpperCatchments WholeCatchment


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2. WaterandfloodmanagementThissectionsummarisestheissuesrelatingtofloodingandfloodriskmanagementintheCatchment.Itdescribestheriversandweatherpatternsoftheareaandthefactorsthatleadtoflooding.Itreviewsthelikelihoodoffuturefloodingandthedevelopmentofflooddefencemeasuresandlooksathowtheriskoffloodingiscurrentlymanaged.Section7ofthisAnnexsummarisesthehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors.

2.1.Rivers,weatherandthecausesoffloodingTheriversthatflowthroughtheSomersetLevelsdrainacatchmentthatis2,464km2insize.SouthofthePoldenHills,theRiverParrettanditstributariestheTone,IslesandYeoreachtheseaatBridgwaterandtheRiverCaryflowsoutatDunball.NorthofthePoldens,theRiverBrueanditstributariestheSheppey,RedlakeandWhitelake,andtheRiverAxe,reachtheseaatWeston-super-MareandHighbridgerespectively.Asexplainedfurtherbelow,thelowersectionsoftheserivershavebeenmodifiedwithnewcutsandrhynestoimprovedrainageandtheParrettisnowconnectedtotheCary/King’sSedgemoordrainviatheSowyRiver.TheParrett/CaryriversystemcoverstwothirdsoftheCatchment,carryingabout750millionm3ofwaterayear,comparedtothe375millionm3carriedbytheBrueandAxe.

Figure4.Majorsub-catchmentswithintheSomersetLevelsWatershed

Rainfall

AnnualrainfallacrosstheCatchmentisaround750mmayear,withabout80mmmonthlyinthewinterand50mmmonthlyinthesummer1.TheseaverageamountsareoftenexceededbyperiodsofheavyrainandtherecordskeptatYeoviltonshowthattherehavebeen37monthsinthelast50yearswheremonthlyrainfallhasexceeded120mm(whichistwicethemonthlyaverageof60mm)(Figure5).Oftenitisaperiodofseveral

1MetOfficeonlinedataforCannington,YeoviltonandWeston-super-Mare.www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climateaccessed23/05/16.


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monthsofhighrainfallwhichleadtotheworstfloodevents,suchasbetweenDecember2013andFebruary2014whentheYeoviltonrecordsshowthat419mmofrainfallfell,whichwasmorethanhalfoftheannualaverage.

Figure5.MonthlyrainfalltotalsatYeovilton1965to2015,highlightingpeakmonths

Source:HistoricalmonthlydataformeteorologicalstationYeovilton,MetOffice.Accessedatwww.data.gov.uk,April2016

Floodingis,andhasalwaysbeen,anaturalphenomenonoftheLevels.Nearlyaquarter(22%)oftheCatchmentislessthan10mabovemeansealeveland8%isclassifiedasbeingathighrisk(1in30annualrisk)offloodingfromriversortheseabytheEnvironmentAgency.Theareasclassifiedasbeingathigh,mediumandlowriskoffloodingareshowninFigure6.

Figure6.AreasintheCatchmentatriskoffloodingfromriversorthesea

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Oct1976:188mm

May1979:171mm Dec1989:166mm

Nov2002:192mm

Jan2014:166mmSept1974:161mmJuly1965:155mmOct2000:162mm


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Causesofflooding

Floodingoccursfromacombinationoffoursourcesofwater:

• Firstly,rainfallingontothelandsaturatestheuppersurfacesofthesoilandliesonthesurfaceorruns-offdownslope.Thissurfacewaterfloodingisexacerbatedbyurbandevelopmentthatreplacesporoussoilwithlessporoussurfacessuchastarmacandconcreteandalsobydamagetothesoilstructurewhichcanoccurfromintensivefarmingpractices.

• Secondly,thechannelsofwatercoursesandriversbecomefullandwaterover-topstheriverbanksandspreadsoutovertheavailablefloodplain.Thisfluvialfloodingcanbeexacerbatedbyabuild-upofsiltintheriverchannel(fromsoilerodedhigherupthecatchment)andreductionsintheareaofthefunctionalfloodplain(fromfloodprotectionschemesofurbanareasorfarmland).

• Thirdly,highseatidesandwavescancausemarinefloodingatthecoastand,mostsignificantlyontheLevels,restrictingtheamountofwaterthatdischargesfromtheriverstotheseaandbacking-upwaterinland.Thisisdiscussedfurtherbelow.

• Finally,prolongedperiodsofhighrainfallcanraisethewatertabletothelevelofthegroundsurface,causinggroundwaterflooding.Thisalsosignificantlyincreasestheriskofsurfacewaterflooding.

TheinfluenceofsealevelonfloodingoftheLevelsissignificant.ThetidesatBridgwaterregularlyriseto6.4mabovemeansealevelandatmosphericpressureandwindcanincreasethisto8m(levelsthatareprojectedtoincreasewiththechangingclimate).Althoughseawallsandtidalsluices/locks(calledclysesonthelevels)acrossmostoftheriverspreventseawaterfromflowinguptherivers(onlytheRiverParrettistidalinlandtoOathLockontheParrettandtoNewBridgeonCurryMoorontheTone),theheightofthetidestilldeterminestheoutflowfromalltherivers.‘Tide-lock’occurswhenthesealevelpreventsthelevelofwaterinriversfromdischargingtotheseaandallthewaterflowingdowntheriversmustaccumulatewithintheriverchannelor,ifthereisnoroomforit,mustfloodovertheriverbankstothesurroundingland.Thevolumesofwaterinvolvedduringtide-lockcanbeenormous.Iftide-lockoccursfor4.5hoursaroundeachhightide,theriverchannelmustbeabletoaccommodate16,200timesitsnormalriverflowinordertoavoidflooding2.

Rainfalltendstobeconcentratedinthewintermonthsand,assoilsintheCatchmentbecomesaturated,floodingismuchmorelikelytooccurbetweenNovemberandFebruarythanduringthedriersummermonths.Figure7showsthemonthlyfrequencyoffloodwarningsissuedbytheEnvironmentAgencyintheCatchmentsince2006.

Anotherkeyinfluencethataffectsfloodingisthespeedwithwhichrainfalliscarriedintotheriversandflowsdownstream(knownasthe‘flashiness’oftheCatchment)andalsothewaythatpeakflowsoffloodwaterfromdifferenttributariescombinewheretheriversjoin.Figure8comparesriverflowsfromtwo

theoreticalriversystemsoverafour-weekperiod,bothofwhichreceivethesameamountofrain.GraphAontheleftshowsriverswitharelativelyfast(‘flashy’)responsewheremostoftheirpeakflowsoccuratthesame

2Williams(1970).TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels.CambridgeUniversityPressPage10.

Figure7.MonthlyfrequencyoffloodwarningsfortheCatchment2006to2015

Source:HistoricFloodWarningsdatafromtheEnvironmentAgency.www.data.gov.uk

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FloodAlert

FloodWarning

Severe FloodWarning


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time(‘synchronised’))whilethegraphontherightshowsriverswithslowerresponsesanddesynchronisedpeakflows.Theoveralleffectonfloodingisshownwiththedashedredline,showinghowfloodingoccursinGraphAbutisavoidedinGraphB.

Figure8.Theoreticalgraphscomparingresponsesofdifferentriverssystemstothesameamountofrain

TheriversandcatchmentsflowingthroughtheSomersetLevelshaveresponsecurvesthataretypicalofthoseinlowlandfarmedcatchmentsandthepeakflowstendtobesynchronised,similartothesituationinGraphAabove.Thespeedwithwhichcatchmentsrespondtorainfalldependsonarangeoffactorsincludingtheunderlyinggeologyandtopographyandtheuseandmanagementofland.Run-offoccursmuchfasteroncompactedsoilswithsparsevegetation,comparedtosoilswithopenstructuresandclosedvegetation.ThescopeformanagementinterventionstomovefromGraphAtoGraphBarediscussedbelow.

DataonthedailymeanflowofriversinEnglandhasbeencollectedataseriesofflowstationssincethemid1960s,nowavailableonlineattheNationalRiverFlowArchive3,andthisprovidesameansofexamininghowoftenhighriverflowsoccur.Figure9presentsdatafromriverstationsontheRiverParrettanditstributaries,showingtheannualfrequencywithwhichparticularlyhighriverflows(tentimesthemeandailyflow)havetakenplace.Itshowsthatthesehighriverflowevents,whichusuallyleadtoflooding,haveoccurredmuchmorefrequentlyinthefifteenyearssince2000thantheydidinthe15yearsbetween1970and1985.Whetherthisisevidenceofalongtermtrendwhichwillcarryoninthefuture,orwhetherthehighriverflowsin2001,2001,2013and2014arechanceevents,isnotknown.

ItisinterestingthatasimilartrendintheincreasedfrequencyofsevererainfalleventsisnotevidentfromFigure5,above.Thisposesthequestionofwhetherchangesinlanduseandmanagementinrecentdecades,particularlyinthemiddleanduppercatchment,haveplayedaroleinthegrowingfrequencyofhighpeakflowsoftheParrett.Itispossible,evenlikely,thattrendssuchasdecliningorganicmattercontentanddecliningsoilstructureinarablesoilsandcompactionofpasturesoils4,couldbeincreasingthe‘flashiness’ofcatchments.Whilethisissuehasbeenraisednationallybyacknowledgedexpertsandresearchers5thelinkbetweenlanduseandmanagementandtheresponseofriverflowsatawholecatchmentscalehasnotbeenestablishedconclusively.Theroleoflandmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentinfloodriskmanagementiscoveredfurtherlaterinthissection(2.5.NaturalFloodManagementonpage14)

3See:http://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk4TrendshavebeendemonstratednationallybytheNationalSoilsInventoryhttp://www.landis.org.uk/data/nsi.cfm.TrendsintheSouthWestareanalysedinPalmerRCandSmithRP(2013).SoilstructuraldegradationinSWEnglandanditsimpactonsurface-waterrunoffgeneration.SoilUseandManagement,DOI:10.1111/sum.12068.5SeeforinstancethepaperbyHowardWheaterfromImperialCollegeLondon,analysisingdatafromfloodingthattookplacein2001:WheaterH(2006).Floodhazardandmanagement:aUKperspective.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.Lond.A.,365:2135-2145.

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Bank-full capacity- flooding occursabovethisline


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Figure9.EstimatedfrequencyofhighriverflowsintheRiverParrett1970to2015

Source:AnalysisbythisprojectofdatafromtheNationalRiverFlowArchive

Theeconomicimpactsofflooding

Floodeventscanhavesignificantandfar-reachingeconomicimpacts.Astudyoftheeffectsofthe2013/14floodingoftheLevelscommissionedbySomersetCountyCouncilputthetotalcostoftheimpactsat£118million(thecentralestimate),with£75millionofthisbeingincurredindirectimpacts,£9millioninindirectimpactsand£35millioninqualitativelyassessedimpacts.Directimpactsincluded£17millionofcoststolocalgovernmentandtheemergencyservices,£16milliontoresidentialpropertyownersortheirinsurancecompanies,£12milliontobusinessesandindividualsasaresultofhighwayandothertraveldisruption(plus£17millionforrailrepairs)and£6millionlossestofarmers.6Thesefiguresacknowledgethewiderregionalimpactsthattheeventhad.Withthewatertakingupto12weekstorecede,therewassignificantimpactontransport(roadandrailclosures),businessandtourismataregionallevel.TheA361wasclosedforalmostthreemonthsandthemainlinerailwayfromTauntontoBristolwasclosedatFordgateforthreeweeks,causingsignificantdisruptiontothemillionsofjourneysthattakeplacethroughtheLevelsandMoors.

Inrecentyears,otherpartsoftheUK,suchasTewkesbury,YorkandCarlisle,haveexperiencedsevereflooding.Thesehavecausedeconomicandsocialimpactsthathavebeenjustasharmful,ifnotmoreso,thanthosewhichhaveoccurredintheCatchmentinrecentyears.

2.2.ThelikelihoodoffuturefloodingAsalreadystated,floodingisanaturalphenomenon,particularlyontheLevelsandMoors.Itisnotacaseof‘if’severefloodingoccursagaininSomerset,but‘when’,for‘howlong’and‘howsevere’.

Itisestimatedbythisstudythataround120,000peopleliveinareasthatarelessthan10mabovecurrentmeansealevel,thelargemajorityoftheminthetownsofWeston-super-Mare,BridgwaterandBurnham-on-Sea,andaround20,000invillages,hamletsandopencountryside.Floodbanksandotherinfrastructurecurrentlyprovideprotectionbut,asoccurredmostrecentlyin2013/14,thesecanbeoverwhelmedfollowingsevererainfallandhightides.

SomersetCountyCouncilstatesthatthereare“approximately19,000propertieswhichareatriskfromsurfacewaterflooding”7.ThetownwiththegreatestnumberofpropertiesatriskpropertiesfromsurfacewaterfloodingisTaunton(1,300households)butsignificantnumbersofpropertieshigherupthecatchmentarealsothreatenedincluding1,100inYeovil,900inSheptonMalletand500inIlminster8.

Marineandtidalfloodingposesathreattocommunitiesalongthecoast,particularlyBurnham-on-SeaandHighbridge.Theriskstothesecommunitiesmaybecompoundedbybottlenecksintheevacuationroutesin

6ParsonsBrinkoff(2015)SomersetEconomicImpactAssessmentofthewinter2013/14Flooding.ReportcommissionedbySomersetCountyCouncilonbehalfoftheSomersetRiversAuthority.February2015.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/useful-info/7http://www.somerset.gov.uk/environment-and-planning/flooding/preparing-for-flood/8SomersetCountyCouncil.FloodMapforSurfaceWater.PreliminaryFloodRiskAssessment.

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10

theeventofaseriousstormsurge.Floodingfromriversovertoppingtheirfloodbanks,exacerbatedbyhightides,isathreattoothercommunitiessuchasLangportandBurrowbridge.TownslikeBridgwaterandTauntonareatriskfromacombinationofsurfacewater,marineandfluvialflooding.FloodingcanalsohaveseriousimpactonthewiderregionaleconomybydisruptingtransportnetworkssuchastheTauntontoBristolraillineandtheM5motorway.

Theriskoffloodingoccurringinfutureisaffectedbyanumberofissues,someofwhichwehavecontrolover(suchastherolethatsoilsandvegetationplayinslowingwaterrunoffandfloodgeneration)andotherswhichwedonot(suchastherateatwhichthelandsurfaceisfallinginresponsetothelasticeage–around5cmeverycenturyinSomerset9).Thechangingclimate,whichiscoveredinmoredetailinthefollowingsection,isundoubtedlythemostsignificantfactor,bothasaresultofrisingglobalsealevels(aswarmingtemperaturescauseglaciersandicesheetstomelt)andmoreextremeweatherconsistingofperiodsofmoreintenserainfallandstormsurgesofsealevel.

TheMetOffice’sUKClimateProjections2009(UKCP09)indicatethataveragesealevelinBridgwaterBaywillincreaseby36cmoverthenext70yearsandbynearlyhalfameterby2100(althoughrecentresearchsuggeststhesemaybeconservativeestimates10).UKCP09estimatesthataverageannualrainfallintheSouthWestofEnglandwillstayroughlythesamebutwithsignificantlymorefallinginthewinterandlessinthesummer.Critically,thenumberofdaysofheavyrain(exceeding25mm)areprojectedtoincreasebyafactorofbetween2and3.5inwinter,and1to2insummerbythe2080s.Asaresult,one-in-100yearfloodeventsarelikelytobecometwiceasfrequentbythe2050sandthreetofivetimesmorefrequentbythe2080s11.Therecentlypublished‘Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk’preparedfortheforthcomingUKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017,identifiedtheSomersetcoastasbeingoneofareasmostvulnerabletoa1mriseinsealevel(with22,000propertiesinWeston-super-Mareand11,000propertiesinBridgwateratriskfroma1-in-200yearevent)12.

AspartoftheSomersetWAVEproject,JBAConsultingundertookhydraulicmodellingoffloodriskcoveringfluvial,tidalandsurfacewaterflooding.Existingmodelswereusedtogeneratenewfloodextentandflooddepthmapsunderdifferentscenariosforthepresentday(2010)andforthefutureyear2060takingaccountofprojectedclimatechange.Thescenariosmodelledincludedbothdefended(withtheexistingflooddefencesinplaceandmaintainedtothepresentdaylevels),andundefended(withtheexistingflooddefencesbreached)situations.

Theresultsofthemodellingareillustratedthroughaseriesofphoto-visualisationsfromdifferentlocations.Figure10showstheviewlookingsouthfromBrentKnoll.Itcomparestwo1-in-200yearevents(a0.5%chanceofoccurrenceinanyyear).Thetopphoto-visualisationshowsrelativelylittlefloodinginthisareaunderthecurrentclimatecharacteristicswithcurrentflooddefencesinplace.Thebottomphoto-visualisationshowstheextensivefloodingthatwouldtakeplaceiftheclimateprojectionsfor2060takeplaceandifthecurrentflooddefencesfailed(forinstancebybreachestoseawalls)13.

Thelessonofthefloodriskmodellingscenariosisthatitisthecombinationofextremeweatherevents(suchasatidalsurgeintheBristolchanneloraperiodofunusuallyintenserainfallintheuppercatchment),comingontopofthelongtermrisesinsealevelandwinterrainfall,thatposesthegreatestriskofoverwhelmingflooddefencesandcausingcatastrophicfloodinginthefuture.

9Bradley,S.,Milne,G.A.,Teferle,F.N.,Bingley,R.M.,&Orliac,E.J.(2008).GlacialisostaticadjustmentoftheBritishIsles:NewconstraintsfromGPSmeasurementsofcrustalmotion.GeophysicalJournalInternational,doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2008.04033.x.10Forinstance,analysisofhistoricsealevelsshowsthatsealevelswerearound6mhigherwhenglobaltemperatureswere2oChigherthantheyarenow.2oCisthetargetforlimitingglobalaveragetemperaturerise.ADutton,AECarlson,AJLong,GAMilne,PUClark,RDeConto,BPHorton,SRahmstorf,MERaymo.(2015).Sea-levelriseduetopolarice-sheetmasslossduringpastwarmperiods.Science10Jul2015:Vol.349,Issue6244,DOI:10.1126/science.aaa401911UnitedKingdomClimateProjections2009(UKCP09).TheseareaverageUKestimatesbasedonthemediumemissionsscenarioand50%probabilityestimate.12SayersandPartnersLLP(2015).UKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017:Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk.ReporttotheClimateChangeCommittee.October201513Seehttp://www.somersetwave.co.uk/managing-flood-risk.php


11

Figure10.Visualisationsof‘200year’tidalfloodingeventslookingsouthfromBrentKnolloverthecoastalareasoftheLevelsandMoors

Source:http://www.somersetwave.co.uk/managing-flood-risk.php

1-in-200yearfloodeventundercurrentsituation,Defended

1-in-200yearfloodeventunder2060scenario,Undefended


12

2.3.CurrentpolicyandpracticetoaddressfloodriskinthecatchmentTheapproachofpublicbodiestofloodprotectionanddealingwithfloodriskissetoutinanumberofpolicydocuments.TheseincludetheEnvironmentAgency’sCatchmentFloodManagementPlans(thosefortheParrettandNorth/MidSomersetcatchmentswerelastrevisedin2011);theCountyCouncil’sSurfaceWaterManagementPlans(includingTauntonin2013andWeston-Super-Marein2014);andothertechnicaldocumentssuchasthe2014FloodRiskManagementReviewforBridgwaterandtheLevelsandMoors14.However,duringthelasttwoyearsmostofthestrategicplanningbybodiessuchastheEnvironmentAgency,CountyCouncilandDrainageBoardshasgoneintodevelopingtheSomersetLevelsandMoors20YearFloodActionPlan.

Duringthefloodingin2013/14,theEnvironmentSecretary,OwenPatterson,challengedorganisationsworkinginSomersettoprepareasingleoverarchingplanthatwillguidewaterandlandmanagementpoliciesandinvestmentintheParrett,Tone,AxeandBruecatchmentsforthenexttwentyyears.

Theresulting20YearFloodActionPlandescribestheworkthatisneededtoaddresssixobjectives.Theseobjectivesarereducingflooddurationandfrequency;maintainingaccessforaffectedcommunities;ensuringregionaltransportconnectivity;maintainingthespecialcharacteristicsoftheLevelsandMoors;increasingresiliencetoflooding;andenhancingbusinessconfidenceandgrowth.

TheactionsintheFloodActionPlanaregroupedunderfivethemes,thefirstthreeofwhichaimtoreducefloodriskandthefinaltwotomitigatetheimpactoffloodingthatdoesoccur.TheactionsproposedunderthesethemesandtheobjectivestowhichtheyrelatearesummarisedinFigure11.Theworkofco-ordinatingthedeliveryoftheFloodActionPlanhasfallentotheSomersetRiversAuthority,formedin2015(describedfurtherbelow).

AnotherimportantinitiativethatiscurrentlytakingplaceinthecatchmentistheHillstoLevelsProject.ThisisapartnershipbetweenSomersetfarmingandnaturecharitiesthatishelpinglandownersandfarmerstofarminawaythatreducesfloodriskthroughoutthecountywhileenhancingwildlifeandproducinghighqualityfood.TheprojectisadministeredbytheRoyalBathandWestSocietyandiscurrentlyfundedbyplayersofPeople'sPostcodeLottery.TheprojectisbeingdeliveredbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB),FarmingandWildlifeAdvisoryGroup(FWAGSW)andSomersetWildlifeTrust.TheirworkiscontributingtothelandmanagementstrandoftheSomersetRiversAuthority'sFloodActionPlan.

OnethreadoftheHillstoLevelsprojectisexploringtheestablishmentofaLandTrusttoown,leaseorotherwiserentlandathighriskofflooding,andtosupportthemanagementofsimilarlandbyothers,sothattheseareascanbringawiderangeofbenefitstothelocalcommunities,businessesandtheenvironmentoftheLevelsandMoorsforyearstocome.ThisworkisbeingtakenforwardbyafarmeratPawlett,WillBarnard.

2.4.RisksofdroughtAlthoughthemainissueofconcernintheLevelsandMoorshasunderstandablybeenflooding,itisimportantnottoforgetthatperiodsoflowrainfallandhightemperaturescanalsocauseproblems.TheUKCP09projectionsofclimatechangesuggestthatby2080(underthemediumemissionsscenario),summertemperatureswillbenearly4oChighercomparedtotheaveragebetween1961and1990andthatsummerrainfallwillbelessbynearlyaquarter,withmoreperiodsofextremehotdryweather.Thisislikelytohaveimpactsonagriculturalproductivity(causingperiodsofheatanddroughtstresstocropsandlivestock)andtowetlandhabitatsandsoils(particularlyonpeatwhichdecomposeswhenitdriesout).Infuture,itwillthereforebeevenmoreimportanttomaintainwaterlevelsinsummeraswellasdealwithfloodingwhichoccursmainly,butnotexclusively,inthewinter.

14BlackandVeatch(2014).ProtectingBridgwaterandtheSomersetLevels&MoorsfromTidalFlooding-FloodRiskManagementReview.ReportfortheEnvironmentAgencyandSedgemoorDistrictCouncil.November2014


13

Figure11.Summaryofactionproposedinthe20YearFloodActionPlan

ThemesandActions

Objectives(seetextabove)Reduceflooding

LocalAccess

Connect-ivity

Specialcharacter

Resilience Economy

DREDGINGANDRIVERMANAGEMENT Riverdredgingandotherchannelmaintenance ● ● ● ● Enhancingpumpingcapacity(DunballSluice,Northmoor,BridgwaterTauntonCanal) ● Repairandreinstateriverandfloodbanksandspillways ● ●

Localriparianmaintenance ● Sowy/KingsSedgemoorDrainCapacityImprovements ● ● ● ● DesignandevaluateaBridgwatertidalbarrier ● ● ● ● ●Evaluation,research,strategydevelopmentandgovernance ● ●

● ●

LANDMANAGEMENT Pilotadvice,grantsandothermeasurestodelivernaturalfloodmanagement ● ● ● Installwoodydebrisdamsinwatercoursestoslowtheflow ● Reviewcurrentandinfluencefutureagri-environmentagreements ●

●

Introducesimplifiedapprovalsprocessforworksonminorwatercoursesbylandowners ● PilotalocalPaymentforEcosystemServicesscheme(floodrisk,peatsoilsandwaterquality) ● ● Examinefurtherinnovativemechanisms(e.g.CommunityLandTrust) ● ● URBANWATERMANAGEMENT

Increasetheuseofsustainabledrainagesystems(SuDS)byplannersanddevelopers ● Deliverfloodalleviation/mitigationschemesinhotspots ● Reviewplanningpolicieswithregardtoflooding,incl.developmentinfloodplainsandmitigationmeasures ● ImprovestormwaterinfrastructureinBridgwater ●

RESILIENTINFRASTRUCTURE Maintainandenhancestormwaterinfrastructure ● ● Repairsandimprovementstoroadsandkeyrightsofway ● ● Assessriskandimplementmeasurestoprotectelectricitysupplies

● ●

Assessriskandimplementmeasurestoprotectmainswatersupplies ● BUILDINGLOCALRESILIENCE Improveonlinesourcesofinformationforthepublic ● Supportlocally-ledactiontoincreaseresilience,preparednessandadaptation

● ●

Ensurehouseholds,businessesandneighbourhoodscanobtainaffordableandcomprehensiveinsurance ● PromoteSomersetasagoodplaceforbusinessandtourism ●

Source:SummarisedfromTheSomersetLevelsandMoors20YearFloodActionPlan


14

2.5.Theroleofnaturalfloodmanagement

ThehistoryofthedrainageandfloodprotectionoftheSomersetLevels(coveredinmoredetailinSection7of

thisAnnex)hasbeendominatedby‘hardengineering’solutionstomanagingwater.Theseincluderaisingthe

heightofriverbankstopreventwaterfloodingadjoinland,pumpdrainagetoevacuatewaterfromlowlying

landintothehighwaterlevelsinrivers,creatingnewriverchannelstoallowwatermoredirectaccesstothe

sea,andbuildingtidalsluicestostophightidesbackingwaterupintherivers.Theseinterventionshave

successfullyturnedwhatwas(forhumans)aninhospitablewetlandintoaproductivefarmedandinhabited

landscape.

Thisapproachtolanddrainageandfloodprotectionhastendedtoresistoropposethenaturalhabitsofrivers

andfloodplainsanditpaidlittleattentiontothewaywaterandlandwasmanagedhigheruptheriver

catchments.However,concernhasbeengrowingabouttherisingcostofmaintainingthis‘hardengineering’

infrastructureandaboutwhetherincreasinginvestmentinthisinfrastructurecan,onitsown,keepupwith

increasingfloodrisk.

Themeritsofharnessingthewaysthatsoils,vegetation,floodplainsandestuariesnaturallycopewithwater,

(‘naturalfloodmanagement’–seeFigure12)hasreceivedgrowingattentionintheUKsince2000.The

ParrettCatchmentProjectandits2001reportsubtitled‘AFuturewhenitRains’15wasoneofthefirst

initiativesintheUKtoidentifynaturalfloodmanagementacrossthewholecatchmentasanessentialpartof

thesolutiontoflooding16.Sincethen,anumberofnationalpolicydocumentshaverecognisedtheroleofa

catchmentbasedapproachandnaturalfloodmanagement.TheseincludetheForesightFutureFlooding

Report(2004),Defra’sMakingSpaceforWaterstrategy(2005)andthePittReviewintothe2007flood.The

FloodandWaterManagementAct2010,whichestablishedprimaryfloodriskmanagementpolicyforEngland

andWales,lists“maintainingorrestoringnaturalprocesses”asawayofmanagingfloodrisk,andpermitsthe

designationofnaturalfeaturesthatcanreducethisrisk.

Figure12.ThecomponentsofNaturalFloodManagement

NaturalFloodManagementseekstoworkwiththefollowingnaturalprocesses:

• Increasingsoilinfiltration,reducingperiodswhensurfacerunoffandsoilerosionoccurs.

• Slowingthemovementofwateroverlandandalongwatercoursesbyincreasingresistancetoitsflow

• Temporarilyholdingbackwaterinwetlands,ponds,ditches,channelsandfloodplains

KeytechniquesinNaturalFloodManagementinclude:

• Blockingdrainagechannelsinuplandbogsandmires,reducingthe‘flashiness’ofheadwaterstreams

• Maintainingvegetationcoveronarablesoilstoslowrunoffanderosionandenhancesoilstructureand

infiltration

• Adoptingbestmanagementpracticesonallsoilstomaintainandenhancesoilstructure,soimproving

infiltration

• Maintainingmarginsofroughvegetationbesidewatercoursesandplantinghedgesacrossslopestostopor

slowoverlandflow

• Plantingwoodsonsteepslopesandfloodplainstostoporslowoverlandflow

• Increasetheresistancetowaterinthechannelsabovefloodriskareasbyleavingmarginalvegetationand

woodydebrisinplaceandencouragingnaturalmeanders

• Reconnectingriverswiththeirfloodplains,allowingwatertospilloutoverawidearea,reducingthepeak

flowthatmovesdownstream

15LUC(2001).Afuturewhenitrains:TheParrettCatchmentProjectStrategy.

16ItisnotablethattheParrettCatchmentProjectpredatednationalpolicydocumentssuchastheForesightFutureFloodingReport(2004),Defra’s

MakingSpaceforWaterstrategy(2005)andthePittReporttotheflooding


15

Therehasbeengrowingscientificresearchintotheeffectivenessofnaturalfloodmanagementtechniques.

Atissuehasbeentheextenttowhichsmallchangesinlanduseandmanagementoverlargeareascanhave

measurableimpactsonfloodriskatacatchmentscale.

Ontheonehandthereisastrongconsensusthatreconnectingriverstolargeareasoffloodplain(previously

separatedbylanddrainageschemes)cansignificantlyreducedownstreamflooding17.ProjectsintheUKthat

havepursuedthisincludetheKneppCastleFloodplainRestorationProjectontheRiverAdurinWestSussex18

andtheMiltonKeynesfloodplainforestontheRiverGreatOuse19.Ontheotherhand,thelargescaleeffects

ofmiddleanduppercatchmentworkonthechannelsofwatercoursesorconditionofsoilsaremoredifficult

todetect.ProjectssuchasthePontbrenexperimentinWestWales20(inwhichfarmersfencedoffand

planteduplandbesidesteepstreams)andtheExmoorMiresprojectintheheadwatersoftheRiverExe21

(wheredrainageditchesinuplandbogshavebeenblocked)haveshownlocaleffects.

ThereareinterestinglessonsfromthePontbrenexperimentonhownaturalfloodmanagementcanbe

undertaken22.Theprojectwasinitiatedbyagroupoffarmerswhodecidedthatactionwasneededtore-

establishalocallandscapestructurewhichtheyfeltwouldhavemultiplebenefitstotheirfarmingpractice.

TheresultsoftheworkweremonitoredbyateamofscientistsatImperialCollegeLondonandBangor

Universities.Basedmainlyonfencingoffnarrowstripsoflandthathadlittleagriculturalvalue,theresulting

interceptionofwaterrun-offandincreasedpercolationintosubsoilafterlessthantenyearswasdramaticand

moresignificantthanthefarmersandresearchershadanticipated.Alltheplanningandtheworkitselfwas

carriedoutbythegroupoffarmerswithlittleornoadviceorfinancialhelpfromthevariousauthorities.

Althoughlimitedintheareaitcovered,itshowswhatcanbeachievedbysmall-scale,low-costmeasures

whicharebasedonlocalknowledgeandcommonsense.

Therehavebeenanumberofreviewsofpublishedresearchwhichhaveexaminedevidenceontheimpacts

onfloodgenerationacrosswholecatchmentsarisingfromchangestolandandwatercoursemanagement23.

Thesereviewshavefoundlittleevidencethatrelativelymodestadjustmentstolanduseormanagementhave

amaterialbenefitonlarge-scalefloodeventsaffectingwholeriversystems.However,computermodelling

hassuggestedthatmajorlandusechangecandoso.Arecentpaperusedhydrologicalmodellingtoshow

thatextensivelandusechange(plantingbetween20%and40%ofacatchmentwithwoodland)wouldbe

neededtoreducethemagnitudeoffloodpeaksby19%,andonlywherethissucceededindesynchronising

thetimingofpeaksfromtributaries24.Thelackofevidenceaboutlessradicalchangesinlanduseand

managementisatleastpartlyduetothecomplexityofthewatercycleatlargescalesandthedifficultyof

provingcauseandeffect.Itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatsucheffectsdonottakeplace.

Morerecentresearch25hasfocussedonthewider‘ecosystemservice’benefitsthatnaturalflood

managementcanprovide,includingconservationofbiodiversityandlandscapefeatures,improvementsin

waterquality,aquiferrechargeandprotectionofsoilorganiccarbon.Itisthesebroadandholisticbenefits

thatnaturalfloodmanagementiscapabletoprovidingthatarethestrongestjustificationforitsuse,rather

thanexpectingittodramaticallycuttheriskofflooding.InanareasuchastheSomersetLevelscatchment,

theresearchandguidancesuggeststhatfloodriskmanagementstrategiesshouldincludeboth‘hard

17ThisisthefocusofmuchworkintheMississippiintheUnitedStates.See:OppermanJJ,GallowayGE,FargioneJ,MountJF,RichterBDandSecchi

S(2009)SustainableFloodplainsThroughLarge-ScaleReconnectiontoRivers.Science11Dec2009:Vol.326,Issue5959,pp.1487-1488.AlsoChristine

A.Klein,SandraB.Zellmer.MississippiRiverTragedies:ACenturyofUnnaturalDisaster.NewYorkUniversityPress,2014.ISBN978-1-4798-2538-718Seehttp://www.ecrr.org/Portals/27/Knepp%20Castle%20Floodplain%20Restoration.pdf

19EnvironmentAgency(2013).RiversByDesign–Rethinkingdevelopmentandriverrestoration.AguideproducedbytheRESTOREproject.

20WheaterHetal(2008).Impactsofuplandlandmanagementonfloodrisk:multi-scalemodellingmethodologyandresultsfromthePontbren

experiment.FRMCResearchReportUR16.21UniversityofExeter(2016),MiresMonitoringResults,March2016.

http://www.southwestwater.co.uk/media/pdf/l/7/Mires_Monitoring_Results_Annual_Report_2016_University_of_Exeter.pdf22WheaterHetal(2008)(above)

23Forinstance,EnvironmentAgency(2007).R&DUpdatereviewoftheimpactoflanduseandmanagementonflooding

24DixonSJ,SearDA,OdoniNA,SykesTandLaneSN(2016)Theeffectsofriverrestorationoncatchmentscalefloodriskandfloodhydrology.Earth

SurfaceProcessesandLandformsDOI:10.1002/esp.391925ForinstanceDixonSJ,SearDA,OdoniNA,SykesTandLaneSN(2016)Theeffectsofriverrestorationoncatchmentscalefloodriskandflood

hydrology.EarthSurfaceProcessesandLandformsDOI:10.1002/esp.3919


16

engineering’worksatcriticallocationsinthehydrologicalpathway,togetherwithnaturalflood

managementtechniquesadoptedasthenormforlandandwatermanagementacrossthewhole

catchment.

Naturalfloodmanagementisincreasinglybeingacceptedasanessentialcomponentoffloodrisk

managementstrategies.In2013,theEnvironmentAgencyinitiatedanewresearchanddevelopment

frameworkcalled‘Workingwithnaturalprocessestoreducefloodrisk’toidentifyfutureresearchpriorities

whichshouldattractfundinginfuture.26InDecember2015,theScottishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency

(SEPA)publisheditsguidetoNaturalFloodManagement27,describingthedifferenttechniquesavailableand

emphasisingthemultiplebenefitsthatmanyofthesecanprovide.

2.6.Governanceandfundingofwatermanagement

Overthelast150years,therehavebeenaseriesofchangestotheorganisationalresponsibilitiesforland

drainageandwaterlevelmanagementontheSomersetLevels.ThemedievalCourtofSewers,withitsadhoc

interventions,hasbeenreplacedbythenational,regionalandlocalbodiesthatexisttoday,underpinnedbythe

legislationsuchastheWaterAct1989,theLandDrainageAct1991andFloodandWaterManagementAct

2010.Throughoutthisprocess,criticalissueshavebeenthedemocraticaccountabilityofthebodiesthat

makedecisionsandtheresourcesandpowersavailabletothem.Figure13summarisestheresponsibilitiesof

theorganisationsthatcurrentlyplayaroleinflooddefenceandriskmanagementinSomerset.

Figure13.ThefloodriskmanagementresponsibilitiesofbodiescoveringtheLevelsCatchment

Organisation Keyresponsibilities

Environment

Agency

• Providesthestrategicoverviewofthemanagementofsourcesofflooding&coastalerosion

• Hasoperationalresponsibilityformanagingtheriskoffloodingfrommainrivers,reservoirs,

estuariesandthesea

• Actsasacoastalerosionriskmanagementauthority

Somerset

CountyCouncil

IstheLeadLocalFloodAuthorityresponsiblefor:

• Developing,maintainingandapplyingastrategyforlocalfloodriskmanagement

• Maintainingaregisteroffloodriskassets

• Managingtheriskoffloodingfromsurfacewater,groundwater&ordinarywatercourses

• AdministerstheSomersetWaterManagementPartnership

District

Councils

Sedgemoor,Mendip,SouthSomerset,TauntonDeaneandWestSomersetDistrictCouncils:

• ArepartnerswiththeEAandSCCinplanninglocalfloodriskmanagement

• Cancarryoutfloodriskmanagementworksonminorwatercourses

• PreparetheLocalPlanandcontroldevelopmenttoensureeffectiveriskmanagement

• Actascoastalerosionriskmanagementauthorities(wheretheyhaveacoast)

Highways

Authorities

TheHighwaysAgencyareresponsibleformaintainingdrainageditchesontheirnetwork.The

responsibilitiesofSomersetCountyCouncilformaintainingotherroadditchesarelessclear.

Somerset

Consortiumof

Drainage

Authorities

TheAxeBrueandParrettInternalDrainageBoardsarelocalpublicauthoritieswithpermissive

powerstomanagewaterlevelswithintheirInternalDrainageDistricts,undertakingworksto

reducefloodrisktopeopleandpropertyandmanagewaterlevelstomeetlocalneeds.

Waterand

Sewerage

Companies

WessexWaterandotherlocalwatercompaniesareresponsibleformanagingtherisksof

floodingfromwaterandseweragesystemsdrainingbuildingsandyards.Theyalsohave

responsibilityforwaterqualityemanatingfromsewagetreatmentworks.

Somerset

Rivers

Authority

Isnot(yet)astatutorybody.ActingthroughthepowersoftheCountyCouncil,itwas

establishedinJanuary2015toworkwithotherFloodRiskManagementAuthoritiesasan

unincorporatedassociation.

Source:Adaptedfromhttps://www.gov.uk/guidance/flood-risk-management-information-for-flood-risk-management-authorities-asset-owners-and-local-

authorities#managing-flood-risks-who-is-responsible

26http://evidence.environment-agency.gov.uk/FCERM/en/Default/FCRM/Project.aspx?ProjectID=4A57166C-F63F-46BC-B179-

E01E92B6D8D4&PageId=a0fe6dfc-506a-452c-9bff-a7ec06b4e6b027SEPA(2015).SEPA(2015.)NaturalFloodManagementHandbook.ISBN:978-0-85759-024-4https://www.sepa.org.uk/media/163560/sepa-natural-

flood-management-handbook1.pdf


17

Thisshowsacomplexsituationwithatleastsixdifferentlevelsoforganisationsthathavestatutory

responsibilityforfloodriskmanagement(theEnvironmentAgency,CountyCouncil,DistrictCouncil,Highways

Agencies,InternalDrainageBoardsandutilitycompanies).Inaddition,thesebodiesmeetinavarietyof

differentforumstoco-ordinatetheirwork,asfollows:

• TheWessexRegionalFloodandCoastalCommitteecoversSomerset,Dorset,WiltshireandtheAvon

UnitaryAuthorities.IthasastatutoryroletooverseeandadviseontheworkoftheEAandothersby

ensuringtherearecoherentplanstoaddressfloodandcoastalerosionrisksandencouraging

efficient,targetedandrisk-basedinvestmentinfloodandcoastalerosionriskmanagement.Ithasa

votingmembershipof23consistingoftheChairman,EnvironmentAgency(9members)andthe

countyorunitarylocalauthorities(13members)

• TheSomersetRiversAuthority.Asnotedabove,itisnotyetastatutorybodybutworksby

agreementoftheconstituentbodieswhicharetheCountyandDistrictCouncilsandEnvironment

Agency(oneseateach)andthetwoInternalDrainageBoards(twoseatseach).Itspurposeisto

providethestrategicoverviewandcoordinationofthedeliveryofthe20YearFloodActionPlan,and

toidentifyandprioritisefurtherworkacrossthewholeofSomerset,wherepossiblesecuringthird-

partyfundingforthiswork.

• TheSomersetWaterManagementPartnershipisaforumadministeredbytheCountyCouncilwhich

hasmetsince2007toactasaninformalsoundingboardanddebatingchamberonwater

managementissuesintheParrett,BrueandAxecatchments.Thefollowingbodiesarerepresented

SomersetCountyCouncil,theEnvironmentAgency,TauntonDeaneDistrictCouncil,Sedgemoor

DistrictCouncil,SouthSomersetDistrictCouncil,NationalFarmersUnion,FarmingandWildlife

AdvisoryGroup,SomersetWildlifeTrust,RoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds,Somerset

ConsortiumofDrainageBoards,SouthWestAssociationofDrainageAuthorities,Somerset

WaterwaysDevelopmentTrust,WessexWater,NaturalEnglandand'catchmentreps'representing

localcommunities.

• TheSomersetCatchmentPartnership(SCP)comprisesarangeoforganisationsdedicatedto

advancingtheCatchmentBasedApproach.Thisapproachwaslaunchednationallyin2013withthe

supportofDefrawithtwomainaims;toworkinpartnershipandworkatthecatchmentscale.Each

catchmentinEnglandisrepresentedbyaCatchmentPartnership.TheSCPishostedbyFWAGSWand

alsoincludestheSomersetConsortiumofDrainageBoards,SomersetWildlifeTrust,RSPB,Wessex

Water,AreasofOutstandingNaturalBeauty(AONBs),EnvironmentAgency,NationalTrust,West

CountryRiversTrust,SomersetCountyCouncil,WestCountryRiversTrust,ForestryCommission,

NationalFarmers’UnionandtheCountryLandandBusinessAssociation(CLA).

• TheMulti-AgencyProjecttoachievefavourablestatusontheSitesofSpecialScientificInterestonthe

LevelsandMoors.ThisisledbyNaturalEnglandandincludestheEnvironmentAgencyandInternal

DrainageBoards.

FundingforfloodriskmanagementinSomersetcomesfromavarietyofsourceswhichcanbesummarisedas

follows28:

• TheEnvironmentAgencyreceivesmostofitsfundingfromcentralgovernment(Defra)initsgrant-in-

aidsettlement,whichring-fencesspendingonflooddefenceprojectsandfloodandcoastalrisk

management.TheAgencyalsoco-ordinatespartnershipfundingforprojects(withfundingfrom

Defra,localauthoritiesandothers)andraisesotherincomefromIDBpreceptsandGeneralDrainage

Charges.

28Source:Defra(2015)CentralGovernmentFundingforFloodandCoastalErosionRiskManagementinEngland.December2015


18

• TheWessexRegionalFloodandCoastalCommitteereceivesfundingfromalevyonlocalauthorities.

• SomersetCountyCouncilreceivesfundingforitsworkastheLeadLocalFloodAuthorityfromcentral

governmentthroughtheLocalServicesSupportGrant(viaDefra)andtheSettlementFunding

Assessment(DCLG)andalsoallocatespartsofitsgeneralincometofloodriskmanagementwork

• TheSomersetConsortiumofDrainageAuthoritiesisfundedfromdrainagechargespaidbyoccupiers

ofagriculturallandandaspeciallevypaidbytheDistrictCouncilsinrespectofnon-agriculturalland.

ItalsoreceivesfundingfromtheEnvironmentAgencyandothersources.

• TheSomersetRiversAuthorityhasreceivedinitialfundingfor2015/16,mostlyfromDefraandthe

CountyCouncil,andispursuingmoresecurelongtermfundingthatislikelytorequireprimary

legislation(seebelow).

• Inaddition,TheCatchmentSensitiveFarmingInitiativeprovidescapitalgrantsforsmall-scalework

onfarms,primarilytoreducewaterpollutionbutwhichmayalsoreducefloodgenerationsuchas

watercoursefencingandrainwaterstoragetanks.

2.7.FuturefundingandgovernanceoftheSRA

In2014,areviewoflongertermfundingoptionsfortheSRAwasdraftedbyDefra,DCLGandtheSRA29.These

includedthelocalauthoritiesfundingtheSRAfromtheCouncilTax,thecreationofanewlevyingbody,

extendingtheboundariesorlevyoftheIDBs,andcreatinganewpreceptingauthority.

InNovember2014,membersoftheSomersetLevelsandMoorsFloodActionPlanLeaders’Implementation

Groupagreedthattheirpreferredoptionwasthepreceptingauthority.ThiswouldestablishtheSRAasan

independenttax-raisingauthority(requiringprimaryparliamentarylegislation),allowingittoraisefunds

directlyfromhouseholdsthroughtheCouncilTax(inthesamewayasthepoliceandfireservice).

Parliamentarytimemustbefoundtopassthenecessaryprimarylegislation.ItishopedthattheGovernment

willdraftandsupportthelegislationalthoughparliamentarytimeandcivilserviceexpertisemaybeata

premiumfollowingtheBrexitreferendum.Defraisconsideringlegislationtoenabletheestablishmentof

RiversAuthoritiesinEnglandanditislikelythattheSomersetRiversAuthoritywouldbeamongstthefirst.

NochangetothemembershipoftheSRABoardwasconsideredinthe2014review.Thepaperstates:“Under

theproposalputforwardbylocalauthoritiesinSomersetitwouldnotbedirectlyelected,relyingonthelocal

authorityrepresentationontheSRAboardforitsdemocraticaccountability”.ItisunderstoodthattheSRAis

currently(Summer2016)consideringonlyminorchangestoitsBoardmembershipif/whenitbecomesa

preceptingauthorityandexpectsthatoversightofitsdecisionsandactivitieswillbeundertakenbyan

independentScrutinyCommittee,asdefinedundertheLocalGovernmentAct.Themembershipofthe

ScrutinyCommitteewillbetwonomineesfromeachlocalauthorityandtwofromtheInternalDrainage

Boards,withthechairanddeputychairtakenbylocalauthoritymembers30.

Inviewofthenewtax-raisingpowersthattheSRAisexpectingtotakeon,thereisanimportantissueof

whetherthegovernancestructurebeingproposedwillgivetheSRAthenecessarylegitimacyand

accountability.TheconstitutionoftheSRA,adoptedwhenitwascreatedinJanuary2015,makesclearthatits

Boardmembersrepresenttheorganisationstheyarenominatedbyandthattheseorganisationsareparties

totheSRAbecauseoftheirroleasFloodRiskManagementAuthorities(FRMAs).Tobeclear,thismeansthat

SRABoardmembersnominatedbytheCountyandDistrictCouncilsarethereprimarilytoupholdtheir

authorities’statutoryroleasFRMAsandnottorepresentthecommunitieswhoshouldbenefitfromtheSRA’s

workandwho,infuture,arelikelytobepayingforit.

29SRAFundingReviewOptions.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=103441

30Item11ofthemeetingoftheSRAheldon27July2016.http://www.somersetriversauthority.org.uk/about-us/board-meetings-and-

papers/somerset-rivers-authority-board-meeting-27-july-2016/


19

ThereareothergovernancemodelsforlocallydevolvedpublicbodiesliketheSRAthatprovideclearer

democraticaccountability.ThebestexampleisprovidedbyNationalParkAuthorities.Themembersof

NationalParkAuthoritiesaredrawnfromthreedifferentgroups.

• Amajorityarenominatedbytheconstituentlocalauthorities(equivalenttothelocalauthority

membersontheSRA).

• AsecondgrouparenominatedtotheAuthoritybytheSecretaryofStateforEnvironment,Foodand

RuralAffairsfortheirtechnicalexperienceandexpertise(similartotheEnvironmentAgencyroleon

theSRA).

• AthirdgroupareParishCouncilmemberswhoareelectedfortheirlocalknowledgeandtoensure

thattheviewsofalllocalcommunitiesacrosstheNationalParkarerepresentedandconsidered.

TheseparishcouncillorsarechosenfollowinganelectionprocessbytheappropriateAssociationof

LocalCouncilswhorecommendstheseappointmentstotheSecretaryofStateforapproval.

Figure14.StructureofExmoorNationalParkAuthority ThestructureoftheExmoorNationalPark

AuthorityisshowngraphicallyinFigure14.

CityMayorsandPoliceandCrime

Commissionersareotherexamplesofpublic

institutionswhicharenowdirectlyelected.

ThecreationofMayorshasbeenencouraged

byGovernmentbecause,asDavidCameron

remarked,theyare“accountable”andcan

“galvaniseaction”31,twoqualitieswhichcould

describetheSRA.

Source:http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/about-us/who-we-are-and-what-

we-do

31BBCNews,16April2010.Manchester‘shouldhaveelectedmayor’.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/election_2010/england/8624987.stm

CountyCouncilnominees: 6

(27%)

DistrictCouncilnominees: 6

(27%)

SecretaryofState

appointees: 5(23%)

ElectedParishCouncil

members: 5(23%)


20

3. ClimateChange

Thissectionexaminestheeffectsthatthechangingclimate,particularlysealevelrise,arelikelytohaveonthe

Catchment.ItalsolooksatwhattypesofactivityintheCatchmentarecontributingtoclimatechangeandthe

typesofmitigationandadaptationactionsthataretakingplace.

3.1.Introduction

Climatechange,alongwithbiodiversitylossandthenitrogencycle,hasbeendefinedbytheStockholm

ResilienceCentre(JohanRockstrometal)asoneofthe“EarthBoundaries”whichhumanityhastransgressed,

therebythreateningbothhumancivilisationandtheglobalecosystem.Anysuggestionsofalarmism

emanatingfromclimatesciencearethereverseofthetruth,withnumerousobservationsnowdemonstrating

thatactualchangeisoccurringfasterthanconsensusforecasts.

Humanresponsibilityforthistrend,primarilythroughtheburningoffossilfuelsanddeforestation,isbeyond

reasonabledoubt.Barringadramaticbreakthroughinunprovennegativeemissionstechnology,reversing

thetrendisasinequanonforsustainablelivingonourplanet.

The2015Parisaccordhastransformedthediplomaticbackdrop,butnationalcommitmentstodateleaveus

oncoursefor2.7to3.5oCofheating,farabovethe1.5to2.0

oCtargettogiveahighchanceofaverting

catastrophicchange.Atcurrentheatingofaround1.0oC,wearealreadywitnessingwidespreadand

damagingdisruptiontotheclimatesystem.Furtherheatingis“lockedin”(duetothetimelagbetween

emissionsandheating)andvariousfeedbackloops(methanerelease,Arcticalbedo)havealreadybeen

activated.Adaptationmeasuresaswellasmitigationoffurtherheatingarethereforebeyondurgent.

Thescience-policydisconnectalludedtoaboveandthecomplexityofpoliticalprocessescreatesan

imperativeformobilised,carefullydirectedactionwithincivilsociety,ratherthanrelyingsolelyonatop-down

responsetobringaboutthechangesneeded.

Afterpowergeneration,agriculturehasbeenidentifiedasthesecondbiggestsourceofemissionsgloballyand

farmingisobviouslyrelevanttoalloftheboundariesmentionedabove.Aswithpowergeneration,thereis

demonstrablyscopeforagriculturetoloweritscarbonfootprintandundertherightcircumstancesand

techniquesthelandcaninfactbeturnedbackintoanetsequestererofcarbon.Thereisthereforescopefor

farmingandagriculturetoplayamajorpartincreatingasustainablefuture.

Visibleconsequencesofglobalheatingaresealevelrise(duetothermalexpansionandmeltinglandice)and

extremeweather(duetoincreasedevaporationandprecipitation,alsomoreenergytrappedintheclimate

system).

TheSomersetlevelsareanexceptionallyvulnerableareainthefaceofclimatechange,duetotheircloseness

tosealevelandthevolumeofwatertheirriversarerequiredtocarryattimesofhighrainfall.TheSummer

2012andWinter2013-14floodsdemonstratedthisvulnerabilityinstarkterms.Flooding,stormsandsevere

droughtsareoccurringwithincreasedfrequencyglobally.Whilstitisimpossibletopredictthetiming,

durationorseverityofeventsinourarea,whatwedoknowisthattheoddsofsucheventsoccurringare

shortening.Objectively,thereisthereforeapowerfulincentivetoplayourpartinmitigationandtoexplore

allpossiblemeasurestoalleviatetheconsequencesofextremeweatherwhenitdoesoccur.


21

3.2.Thelikelyimpactsofclimatechange

Thereiswidespreadagreementamongsttheworld’sscientiststhattheclimateischangingandthathuman

activity,intheformofemissionsofgreenhousegases,arethemaincause32.TheIntergovernmentalPanelon

ClimateChange(IPPC)hasstatedthat“Humaninfluenceontheclimatesystemisclear,andrecent

anthropogenicemissionsofgreenhousegasesarethehighestinhistory…Continuedemissionofgreenhouse

gaseswillcausefurtherwarmingandlong-lastingchangesinallcomponentsoftheclimatesystem,increasing

thelikelihoodofsevere,pervasiveandirreversibleimpactsforpeopleandecosystems”.33Ateamledbythe

MetOffice’sHadleyCentrehascalculatedaseriesofprojectionsonthechangesthatarelikelytotakeplacein

theUK.TheUKClimateProjections2009(UKCP09forshort)takeaccountoftheuncertaintyandnatural

variabilityoffuturechangeandpresentarangeoffiguresaccordingtodifferentlevelsoffuturegreenhouse

gasemissionsanddifferentprobabilities.The‘central’setofprojections(mediumemissionsscenarioand

50%probability)fortheSouthWestRegionareshowninFigure15.Averageannualtemperaturesare

projectedtoriseby3.5oCoverthenext70years,witha3.9

oCriseinaveragesummertemperatures.Average

annualrainfallisprojectedtostayroughlythesamebutwithsignificantlymorefallinginthewinterandlessin

thesummer.Averagesealevelisprojectedtoincreaseby36cmoverthenext70yearsandbynearlyhalfa

meterby2100(somesourcesanticipateariseofcloserto1moverthisperiod).

Figure15.ProjectedchangestotheSouthWest’sclimate(mediumemissionsscenarioand50%probability)

Changecomparedto1961-1990baseline 2020s 2050s 2080s

Meanwintertemperature +1.3oC +2.1

oC +2.8

oC

Meansummertemperature +1.6oC +2.7

oC +3.9

oC

Meanwinterprecipitation +7% +17% +23%

Meansummerprecipitation -8% -20% -24%

SeaLevels +10cm +22cm +36cm

©CrownCopyright2009.TheUKClimateProjections(UKCP09)havebeenmadeavailablebytheDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra)

andtheDepartmentofEnergyandClimateChange(DECC)underlicensefromtheMetOffice,UKCIP,BritishAtmosphericDataCentre,NewcastleUniversity,

UniversityofEastAnglia,EnvironmentAgency,TyndallCentreandProudmanOceanographicLaboratory.Theseorganisationsgivenowarranties,expressor

implied,astotheaccuracyoftheUKCP09anddonotacceptanyliabilityforlossordamage,whichmayarisefromrelianceupontheUKCP09andanyuseof

theUKCP09isundertakenentirelyattheusersrisk.

Whattheseaveragefiguresdon’trevealistheoccurrenceandeffectofextremeweatherandclimateevents.

CriticallyfortheLevelsCatchment,extremeeventsareprojectedtobecomemorefrequentandsevere,

increasingtheriskofbothfloodingfromrainfallandfromtheseaandalsoincreasingtheriskofdroughtand

heatstress.UKCP09projectionsareforthenumberofdaysofheavyrain(exceeding25mm)toincreasebya

factorofbetween2and3.5inwinter,and1to2insummerbythe2080s.One-in-100yearfloodeventsare

likelytobecometwiceasfrequentbythe2050sandthreetofivetimesmorefrequentbythe2080s34.The

recentlypublished‘Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk’preparedfortheforthcomingUKClimateChangeRisk

Assessment2017,identifiedtheSomersetcoastasbeingoneofareasmostvulnerabletoa1mriseinsea

level(with22,000propertiesinWeston-super-Mareand11,000propertiesinBridgwateratriskfroma1-in-

200yearevent)35.

TheoutcomesforpeopleandtheenvironmentintheSouthWestofEnglandasaresultofthechanging

climatewereexaminedinareportpreparedtocoincidewiththepublicationofthe2012UKClimateChange

RiskAssessment.Figure16summarisesthekeythreatsthatarelikelytooccurintheCatchment,basedon

thatreport.

32IPPC(2014).ClimateChange2014SynthesisReport.SummaryforPolicyMakers.https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-

report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf33Ibid.

34TheseareaverageUKestimatesbasedonthemediumemissionsscenarioand50%probabilityestimate.

35SayersandPartnersLLP(2015).UKClimateChangeRiskAssessment2017:Projectionsoffuturefloodrisk.ReporttotheClimateChangeCommittee.

October2015


22

Figure16.LikelythreatstotheCatchmentarisingfromclimatechange

Humanhealth • AnincreaseinUVBradiationincreasestheincidenceofskincancersbyupto20%by

theendofthecentury

• Floodingfromsewersrisksspreadofpathogens

Theeconomy • Floodingoftransportincreases,affectingbothurbanandruralaccessroutes.

• Lostproductiondoublesbythe2020s

Thenatural

environment

• Lowriverbaseflowsandwatertablesinthesummerharmwetlandhabitatsand

species

• Stormierweatherlikelytoincreasepeakriverflowsby20%bythe2050sleadingto

greaterchannelerosionandturbidity

• Naturalrangesofspeciesmovenorth,meaningthatsomewillbelostfromthe

Catchment

Farmingand

forestry

• Driersummerconditions(andrestrictionsonagriculturalabstraction)causeheat

stressincropsandforestry

• Newpestsanddiseasesbecomeacclimatised,threateningcropsandlivestock

Source:AdaptedfromClimateUK(2012),extractingfindingsfromtheUKClimateChangeRiskAssessment.Alltheprojectionsrelatetothemedium

emissionsscenarioand50%probability.

ThechangingclimatewouldalsobelikelytoproducesomeopportunitiesintheCatchment,includinglower

cold-relatedwinterdeaths,amorefavourablesummerclimatefortouristsandincreasesintheyieldsofsome

cropsduetothelongergrowingseason.However,theoverallmessageisthatthefuturewillhavegreater

uncertaintiesandthepotentialforsignificantharmtothethingswevaluemostnow.

3.3.HowactivityintheCatchmentiscontributingtoclimatechange

Itistheemissionofgreenhousegasesintotheatmospherethatisresponsiblefortheclimatechangethatis

nowtakingplace.Thethreemostsignificantgreenhousegasesarecarbondioxidewhichaccountfor82%of

UKemissions,methane(10%ofUKemissions)andnitrousoxide(5%)36.Thechlorofluorocarbon(CFC)

refrigerants,thatwereresponsiblefortheholeintheozonelayerinthe1980sand90s,arenowarelatively

minorsourceofemissions.

• Themainsourceofcarbondioxideemissionsistheburningoffossilfuelsanddeforestation.Ninety-

sixpercentofUKemissionsin2013camefromtheenergysupply,transportandresidentialsectors.

Minorsourcesarefromindustrialprocessesandchangesinlanduse(wherecarbonstoredinsoilsor

vegetationisoxidised).ThecarbondioxideemittedwithintheUKdecreasedby22%from1990to

201337,butthistakesnoaccountofemissionsinothercountriessuchasChinafromthemanufacture

ofgoodsimportedintoandconsumedintheUK.

• ThemainsourcesofmethaneintheUKarefromlivestockandagriculturalwaste,landfillwasteand

leaksfrompressurisedgassupplies.Whereasemissionsfromlandfillandgassupplieshavebeen

fallingsince1990,emissionsfromfarminghavestayedthesame38.‘Exported’emissionsarisingfrom

UKconsumption,suchasoverseaslivestockproductionandfromglobalwarmingofarctictundra,are

significantexclusionsfromtheUKdata.

• Themainsourcesofnitrousoxideemissionsareagricultural(69%comesfromcultivatedsoilsand7%

fromagriculturalwastes)andelectricityproduction(4%).Untilthe1990s,thechemicalindustrywas

36DECCGHGInventoryoverviewfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets

37DECCCarbonDioxideGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets

38DECCMethaneGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets


23

asignificantsourcebutthisisnolongerthecase.Emissionsfromagriculturehavebeenfallingbutby

asmalleramountthanothersources39.

ThenowsupersededDepartmentofEnergyand

ClimateChangeproducedabreakdownofthe

emissionsofcarbondioxidebyUKlocalauthority,

distinguishingbetweendifferentsourcesofemissions.

Figure17showsthelatestdata(2013)forSomerset.It

shouldbenotedthatthisdoesnotincludeemissionsof

methaneandnitrousoxideandsounder-represents

emissionsformagriculture.Vehiclesaccountedfora

thirdofCO2emissions(withtheM5being8%ofthe

total),andelectricityusedbybusinessesandhomes

30%,followedbytheuseofgasforheating.Other

sourcesincludedotherfuels(mainlyoil)andemissions

fromlanduse.

WhencomparedtoequivalentfiguresforEnglandasa

whole,Somersetuseslessgasandmore‘otherfuels’

(probablyreflectinggreaterrelianceonoilinruralareas

offthenaturalgasgrid)andhashigherCO2emissions

fromlanduse.Thislatterdifferenceisalmostcertainly

duetotheareasofpeatsoilsunderagricultureontheLevelsandMoors,theoxidationofwhichreleasesCO2.

3.4.Currentactiontomitigateandadapttoclimatechange

TheGovernmentisasignatorytotheKyotoProtocolwhichcommits192countriesacrosstheglobe,including

theUK,toreductionsingreenhousegasemissions.TheGovernmenthasrecentlycommittedtoratifying,

beforetheendof2016,theinternationalagreementthatwasmadeinParisinDecember2015underthe

KyotoProtocol.WithintheGovernment,theDepartmentforBusiness,Energy&IndustrialStrategy(which

tookovertheworkoftheDepartmentforEnergyandClimateChangeinJuly2016)leadsonpolicytoreduce

emissions,whiletheDepartmentforEnvironmentandRuralAffairs(Defra)leadsontheadaptationpolicy.

TheGovernmentpassedtheClimateChangeActin2008,thenaworld-leadinginitiative.ThiscommitstheUK

toreducingemissionsbyatleast80%in2050from1990levelsandrequirestheGovernmenttosetlegally

binding‘carbonbudgets’whichsetacapontheUK’sgreenhousegasesemissionoverafive-yearperiod.

TheUKhasalsosigneduptotargetssetbytheEuropeanUnion.TheEUEmissionsTradingSystemsetsa

degressive(falling)caponemissionsfromkeyindustryandenergysectorsandusesa‘cap-and-trade’scheme

thatallowsbusinessestobuyandsellallowancesinordertomeettheircap.Emissionstradingshowslittle

signofdeliveringthedeepcutinemissionsthatarerequired,toavoidcatastrophicclimatechange.Acarbon

pricingsystem(suchascarbonfeeanddividendasproposedbyJimHansen)isalmostcertainlynecessary,

despitethepoliticalhurdles.TheEURenewableEnergyDirectivesetstargetsatthelevelofMemberStates

fortheproportionofenergyforheat,transportandpowerthatshouldbegeneratedfromrenewablesources

by2020.TheUK’srenewablestargetis15%.

Measuresdesignedtomeetthesetargetsincludesubsidiestopromotegenerationofrenewableenergy(such

astheFeedInTarrifspaidbyenergycompaniestomembersofthepublicandbusinesseswhogenerate

renewableelectricity)andschemestoreduceemissionssuchastheGovernment’sGreenDeal.Inrecent

years,theGovernmenthasremovedorreducedthefundingfortheseSchemes.Despitethesemeasures(or

perhapsbecauseofthepoorfunding),in2014theUKwaslessthanhalfwaytomeetingits15%target,with

39DECCNitrousOxideGHGInventoryfactsheet.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-greenhouse-gas-inventory-summary-factsheets

Figure17.CO2emissionsinSomerset,2013

Source:https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-local-authority-

and-regional-carbon-dioxide-emissions-national-statistics-2005-2013

Petrolanddieselusedfortransport,33%

Electricitygeneration-industry,17%

Electricitygeneration-domestic,

12%

Gas(industry&domestic),15%

Othersources,22%


24

only5%ofenergyusedforheatingandtransportcomingfromrenewablesources40.Althoughtheuseof

renewableenergyforelectricitygenerationrosesharplyin2015(to25%ofelectricitygeneration),theUKisat

significantriskofmissingthe2020target.

ThisstudyestimatesthatrenewableenergygenerationintheCatchment(mostlyfromsolarphotovoltaics–

seeSection4.4)hasanoperationalorconsentedcapacityof286MWwhichcontributes0.8%oftheUK’s

renewableenergy41andisenoughtopoweraround40,000homes.

ANationalAdaptationPlanhasbeenpreparedwhichrequiresthe

GovernmenttoassesstheUK’srisksfromclimatechange,preparea

strategytoaddressthem,andencouragecriticalorganisationstodo

thesame.TheGovernmenthasplacedtheonusonpublicservice

organisationstoproducereportsonwhattheyaredoingtoadaptto

climatechange,arequirementwhichisnowvoluntary.

SomersetCountyCouncilpreparedastrategyandactionplanin2008

entitled‘RespondingtoClimateChangeinSomerset’.Theactionsin

theplanfocussedontheco-ordinatingandleadershiproleofthe

Councilwithotherpublicbodiesandopportunitiestoreduce

emissionsarisingfromitsownactivities.Cutstostaffanda

reorderingofprioritiesintheEnvironmentDirectoratemeantthat

mostoftheactionshavelapsed.Furthermore,inviewofthe

internationalagreementsonactiontocombatclimatechangereached

since2008,mostrecentlyattheParisclimateconferenceinDecember

2015,theseactionshaveaverylimitedscopeandcanbeconsidered

unambitiousandout-of-date.

40DigestofUKEnergyStatistics(DUKES)2015.Table6.7Renewablesourcesdatausedtoindicateprogressunderthe2009EURenewableEnergy

Directive.41BasedonanalysisbythisstudyoftheDepartmentofEnergyandClimateChange’sRenewableEnergyPlanningDatabaseforMay2016.


25

4. Landscape,wildlifeandnaturalresources

ThissectiondescribesthenaturalenvironmentoftheLevelsCatchment,coveringitslandscapes,wildlifeand

naturalresourcesandsourcesofenergy.Itexaminestheircurrentconditionandhealthasawayof

identifyingopportunitiesforbetterprotectingthearea’snaturalcapital.

4.1.Landscape

Thecharacterofthelandscapeinwhichpeopleliveisanessentialelementinwhatgivesthemtheirsenseof

placeandbelonging.ThelandscapesoftheCatchmentarevariedanddistinctive,fromtheflatwetlandsof

theLevelsandMoorstotherollingmixedfarmingtotheeastandsouth,risingtotheprominentridgesand

hillsoftheMendips,QuantockandBlackdownHills.Figure18showsthedifferentareasoflandscape

characterthataredefinedbyNaturalEngland’sNationalCharacterAreas42.ThelargestpartoftheCatchment

iscoveredbytheYeovilScarplands,followedbytheLevelsandMoors,theMidSomersetHillsandtheValeof

TauntonandQuantockFringes.ThedistinctivefeaturesofthemainlandscapeareasaredescribedinFigure

19.

Figure18.NationalCharacterAreascoveringtheSomersetLevelsWatershed

42Seehttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-character-area-profiles-data-for-local-decision-making


26

Figure19.DistinctivefeaturesofthemainlandscapeareasoftheCatchment

SomersetLevels

andMoors

• Flatgrazingmarshpopulatedbycattleandsheepandasummersoundtrackofcalling

wadingbirdssuchascurlewandlapwing

• Chequer-boardpatternofrectilinearfields,ditches,rhynes,&engineeredrivers,often

borderedbylinesofpollardwillows(withies)andsometimesbyroadsanddroves

• Distinctiveskylineviewstohills(e.g.BurrowMumpandGlastonburyTor)andridges

(e.g.PoldenHills)

MidSomersetHills • Aseriesoflowhills,islandsandridgesdividingtheMoorsandLevelscharacterisedby

mixedfarmland

• Astrongwoodedfeelfromhedgerows,smallwoodsandorchards,althoughwoodland

coverislowoverall

• Smallvillages,witholderbuildingsconstructedoflocallyquarriedblueLiaslimestone

YeovilScarplands • Contrastingpatternofscarpsandvalesrunningwest(mainvalleys)andnorth-south

(tributaries)

• Amixtureofpastoralandarablelandusewithdairyfarmingpredominantinmanyareas

• Windingrurallanesconnectingvillagesandhamletsconstructedoflimestoneand

sandstone(hamstoneinthesouth)

ValeofTaunton

andQuantock

Fringes

• Amixed-farminglandscape,dominatedbyarableinmanyplaces,risingtothe

Blackdown,BrendonandQuantockHills

• Astrongtraditionofciderorchardsandmarketgardening

• SunkenlaneswindbetweenvillagesconstructedofredsandstoneorgreyLiasstone

Source:NaturalEngland’sNationalCharacterAreaProfiles

4.2.Wildlife

TheLevelsandMoorsincludeoneofthelargestandbiologicallyrichestareasoftraditionally-managedwet

grasslandandfenhabitatsfoundanywhereintheUK.Elsewhere,inthemiddleandupperpartsofthe

Catchment,thereisamoredispersedbutalsomorevarieddistributionofhabitats.

Figure20mapstheareasrecordedonNaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitatandAncientWoodlandInventories.

Thismapshowsthefollowingconcentrationsofhabitats:

• Seasonally-wetgrasslandandassociatedwetlandhabitatssuchasfens,raisedbogsandreedbeds

makeupthemajorityoftheLevelsandMoorslandscapecharacterarea(Figure18)andoccupyover

37,300haor15%ofthewholeCatchment.Asnotedfurtherbelow,manyofthesesitesare

designatedasbeinginternationallyimportantforwildlifebecauseoftheirlargepopulationsof

waterfowlandwadingbirds.

• Species-richdriergrassland(notsubjecttoregularflooding)alsooccursontheLevelsandMoorsand

inotherareassuchastheMendipHills,theslopesoftheBlackdownHillsandPoldenRidgeandat

locationssuchasHamHillCountryPark,anironagehillfortnearYeovil.

• Woodlandthatisclassifiedasbeingancient(havingexistedsinceatleast1600)ordeciduousoccupies

4,800haandoccursthroughouttheCatchmentwithlargeblocksontheQuantocks(oakwoodland),

theslopesoftheBlackdownHills(theancientForestofNeroche),CopleyWoodsnorthofSomerton

andonancientparklandsitessuchasMelburyParknearYetminsterinthesouthofCatchment.

WoodlandcoverovertheCatchmentasawholeislowat6%(comparedto10%forEngland)and

manyofthesmallerwoodlandsundermanaged(habitatssuchascoppiceneedingregular

management).Thereisscopeforsensitivewoodlandmanagementtobenefitwildlifeandalso

providejobsandproductssuchasfirewood.

• TraditionalorchardsarecommonthroughoutmostoftheCatchmentbutmostaresmall,often

occurringontheedgesofvillagesandhamletswheretheyareavaluedfeatureofthelocallandscape.

Thereare2,440separateorchardsintheCatchmentrecordedonNaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitat

Inventory,occupyingatotalareaofover1,500ha.Manyoftheseorchardscontainoldandlocally


27

distinctivevarietiesofciderandeatingapplesandtheycansupportmanyspeciesofbirdsandinsects.

Thelocationoforchardsaroundtheedgeofsettlementshasmadethemvulnerabletobeinglostto

development.Theyear-roundavailabilityofapplesfromoverseashasunderminedthemarketfor

seasonalSomersetapples.Mostcommercialciderproductioncomesfromlargeplantationsof‘bush’

treesnotthetraditionalstandardtrees.

• CoastalhabitatsarefoundontheedgeofBridgwaterBay,includingsaltmarshalongtheStert

Peninsula,sanddunesbetweenBurnhamandBreanandmudflatsintheParrettestuary.

• Heathland,withitscharacteristicsvegetationofheatherandgorse,occursontheQuantockand

MendipHills

Themapdoesnotshowhedgerows,buttheseareavaluablehabitatandlandscapefeatureinmuchofthe

Catchment(withfieldsizesvaryingconsiderablybetweendifferentareas).Hedgerowremovalisnowfarless

commonthanitwas(regulationslimitingremovalhavingbeenintroducedin1997).However,hedgerow

trees,whichcontributegreatlytotheappearanceofthefarmedlandscape,havelittleprotectionfromfelling

andmanyarelikelytobethreatenedbyashdiebackdisease.

Figure20.PriorityHabitatsandAncientWoodlandintheCatchment

Source:NaturalEngland’sPriorityHabitatInventoryandAncientWoodlandInventory.CategoriesofPriorityHabitatshavebeencombinedtoproduceasimpler

andmoreeasily‘readable’map.Thesizeoftraditionalorchardshasbeenenhancedtomakethemmorevisible.

Legallyprotectedsites

Manyoftheseareashavelegalprotectionbecausethewildlifethatlivesthereisnationallyorinternationally

rare.Nearly6,400haisregardedasbeingofinternationalimportanceandisdesignatedasTheSomerset

LevelsandMoorsSpecialProtectionArea(SPA).Thisareaisrecognisedforitslargeoverwintering

populationsofwaterfowlincludingBewick'sswan,goldenplover,shovelerduck,teal,wigeon,snipeand

lapwing.

Offshore,largepartsofBridgwaterBayarepartoftheSevernEstuarySpecialAreaofConservationand

SpecialProtectionArea,ofinternationalimportanceforthemudflatsandsaltmarshhabitatsandlarge

populationsofoverwinteringwadingbirdssuchascurlew,anddunlin.


28

OtherlargedesignatedsitesintheCatchmentareaarefoundontheMendips(limestonegrassland,woodland

andcavesystemsincludingrarebats),QuantockHills(woodlandandheathland)andalongtheeasternsideof

thePoldens(meadowsandpastures).Figure21mapsthedesignatedsites.

Figure21.Areasdesignatedfortheirinternationalornationalnatureconservationinterest

Onallthesedesignatedsitestherearelegalrestrictionsonwhatlandownersareabletodoinorderto

maintaintheconditionsthatthewildlifeneed.OnthewetgrasslandsitesontheLevelsandMoorsthis

includesretainingarelativelyhighwatertableclosetothesurfacewhichisoftenmuchhigherthanthe

agriculturallydrainedlandsurroundingit.These‘summerpen’waterlevelsareimplementedthroughWater

LevelManagementPlanspreparedbytheInternalDrainageBoardswiththelandownersandNaturalEngland.

ManyofthedesignatedsitesaremanagedaspubliclyaccessiblenaturereservesbybodiesliketheRSPB(e.g.

WestSedgemoorandHamWallreserves)andSomersetWildlifeTrust(e.g.CatcottHeathandLows).Several

ofthesewetlandreserveshavebeencreatedfromrestoredpeatworkingssuchasShapwickHeath(managed

byNaturalEngland)andWesthayMoor(managedbytheSomersetWildlifeTrust).Theareasunder

conservationprotectionandmanagementaresummarisedinFigure22.

Figure22.Areasunderconservationprotectionandmanagement

Designation/type Area(ha) %ofcatchment

SitesofSpecialScientificInterest(SSSIs) 12,528 5.1%

Natura2000sites(SpecialProtectionAreasandSpecialAreasofConservation) 9,557 3.9%

PlusSevernEstuarySAC(outsidecatchment) 46,945 N/A

NationalNatureReserves 1,742 0.7%

PlusBridgwaterBay(outsidecatchment) 2,639 N/A

RSPBReserves 2,902 1.2%

SWTReserves 1,720 0.7%

HoldingswithHigherLevelEnvironmentalStewardshipagreements 34,085 13.8%

Note:Landmaylieinmorethanonedesignation/type


29

4.3.Soils

Theimportanceofsoilstoournationalwellbeing(foragriculturalproductivity,thenutritionalcontentoffood,

thewaterandcarboncyclesandforbiodiversity)isreceivingincreasingattention43.Therearetwoimportant

aspectsofthesoilsoftheCatchmentthatdeserveattentioninthisstudy.Thefirstisthepresenceof

significantareasofpeatsoilsinthelowerCatchment.Thesecondistheabilityofsoilsthroughoutthe

Catchmenttostorerainfall,reducingtheriskoffloodingdownstream.

Peatsoils

ThelonghistoryoftheLevelsandMoorsasamarshywetland,beforetheyweredrainedfromthemedieval

periodonwards,ledtotheaccumulationofpartly-decayedorganicmatterfromfenlandvegetationsuchas

sedges,reedsandmoss,formingpeatsoils.Thegreatestaccumulationsofpeatysoils,whichcanbemore

than4mthick,occurintheLowerBrueandAxecatchment(around12,500haofdeeppeatysoils,covering

aboutaquarterofthisarea)andtheLowerParrettcatchment(around7,500haor15%ofthisarea)–See

Figure23.ThetotalvolumeofpeatintheLevelsandMoors(includingsmallerareasinthenorthernLevels

whicharenotcoveredbythisstudy)isestimatedtobeover200millioncubicmetres.44

PeathasbeenusedasasourceoffuelbypeoplelivingontheLevelsforhundreds(probablythousands)of

years.Inthe20thcentury,anextractionindustrydeveloped,centredintheBrueValleybetweenStreetand

Burtle,tosupplypeatasagrowingmediumtothehorticulturalindustryandgardeners.Extractioncontinues

atafewsitesunderexistingpermissions(estimatedat9%ofannualUKpeatproduction)butthequantityof

peatextractedissmallcomparedtothetotalresource(about0.01%oftheresourceintheLevelsisextracted

ayear)45.Theenvironmentalvaluethatisnowattachedtopeatasastoreofatmosphericcarbonmeansthat

thepeatproductionzonedefinedinplanningpolicyisveryunlikelytobeextended.Asnotedabove,several

worked-outareasarenownaturereserves,providingdiversewetlandhabitats.Astheremainingareasinthe

peatproductionzoneareworkedout,manyarelikelytoberestoredaswetlandnaturereserves.

ThepeatsoilsoftheLevelsandMoorsareasignificantstoreoforganiccarbon(estimatedat3.7million

tonnes46).Ifthepeatwasallowedtodryoutanddecompose,itwouldreleasehugeamountsofcarbon

dioxideintotheatmospherewhichwouldcontributetoclimatechange.OvertheLevelsasawholeitislikely

thatdrainageandcultivationbyagricultureiscurrentlyamoresignificantcauseofpeatlossthanits

extractionforhorticultureandgardening.

43Seeforinstance,theHouseofCommonsEnvironmentalAuditCommittee’recentInquiryintosoilhealthandtheGovernment’sresponse(HC650,

published13September2016).http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/environmental-audit-

committee/inquiries/parliament-2015/soil-health/44Brown,A.G.(2009)CarbonstorageandsequestrationintheSomersetLevels.Desk-basedAssessmentandReportfor

SomersetCountyCouncil.November2009.Theexactamountquotedinthatpaperis202.32millioncubicmetres.45Ibid.

46Ibid.


30

Figure23.TheapproximateextentofpeatysoilsintheCatchment

Source:NaturalEngland(2010).England'speatlands:carbonstorageandgreenhousegases.NaturalEnglandResearchReportNE257.

http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/30021

Theeffectofsoilsonflooding

Soil,andtherockbeneathit,haveanessentialroleinthewatercycle.Soilsthathaveanopenstructureand

rocksthatareporous‘soakup’rainfallwhichfiltersthroughintothewatertablewhereitisreleasedslowly

intotheriversystem.Ontheotherhand,rainthatfallsonsoilsthatareimpermeableduetotheir

compositionorcompactiontendstorun-offstraightintotheriversystem,causingpeakriverflowsandthe

riskofflooding,aswellaserosionofsoilwhichisdepositedinriverchannels,reducingtheircapacitytocarry

water.

ThesoilsandbedrockundernearlyathirdoftheCatchmentarecapableofstoringhighamountsofwinter

rainfall.AresearchpaperonsoilwaterstoragecapacityintheCatchment,preparedfortheHillstoLevels

ProjectandNaturalEngland47,showsthatsoilswith‘veryhigh’winterstoragecapacityare“widespreadin

areasunderlainbyTriassicsandstonesinthewestandassociatedwiththeYeovilSandsinthesouthandeast”

(makingup13%ofthecatchment).Soilswith‘highcapacity’“occurchieflyontheMendipHills,intheeastand

ontheQuantockHillsandfringesofExmoorinthewest”(makingup17%ofthecatchment).Allthesesoils

overlieimportantaquiferswhichareusedtosupplyourwater.

4.4.Energyproduction

Somersethascontributedtwosignificantsourcesofenergytothenation:CoalfromtheSomersetCoalfield

northoftheMendips(productionceasedinthe1970s);andnuclearpowerfromtheHinkleyPointpower

station(HinkleyB,withacapacityof1250MW,isduetobedecommissionedinorafter2023andreplacedby

the3,200MWHinkleyC).BothoftheseareoutsidetheLevelsCatchment.

47Palmer,R.C.(2015).SoilwaterstoragecapacityintheSomersetLevelsandMoorscatchment.ReportcommissionedbyNaturalEnglandaspartof

the20-yearFloodActionPlanforSomerset.April2015.


31

InthelasttenyearstherehasbeenmajorgrowthinrenewableenergygenerationintheCatchment,mostof

itfromsolarfarms,withsmallercontributionsfromanaerobicdigestionandlandfillgas(seeFigures24and

25).ThetotaloperationalelectricitygeneratingcapacityfromrenewablesourcesinMay2016was209.4

MW,withafurther76.6MWunderconstructionorconsented.Althoughthiscapacityislessthanaquarterof

thatofHinkleyB,itisstillcapableofpowering40,000homesoraround18%ofthefamiliesintheCatchment.

Figure24.RenewableenergygenerationcapacityintheCatchment,May2016

Technology Operational

capacity(MW)

Capacityunder

construction(MW)

Otherconsented

capacity(MW)

Totalcapacity

(MW)

AnaerobicDigestion 8.9 3.0 11.9

LandfillGas 8.2 8.2

SolarPhotovoltaics 192.3 23.8 49.8 265.9

Totalcapacity 209.4 23.8 52.8 286.0

Source:DatageneratedfromDECC’sRenewableEnergyPlanningDatabase,May2016

Figure25.LocationofconsentedrenewableenergygenerationplantsintheCatchment,May2016

Woodfuelfromwoodsandhedgesisatraditionalformofrenewableenergyusedfordomesticheatingin

ruralpartsoftheCatchment.BiomasscropssuchasMiscanthus(popularlyknownaselephantgrass)have

beenplantedrecentlyinsomeareas,suchasaroundTaunton,butrelativelylittleofthisisprocessedinto

pelletsforburninginbiomassboilers.Thereispotentialforharvestingwoodandotherunwantedbiomass

fromnaturereservesintheCatchment,suchastheShapwickHeathNationalNatureReserve,foruseaswood

fuel.DiscussionsaretakingplaceovertheestablishmentofaCommunityBenefitSocietytodevelopthisasa

socialenterprise.

TherocksunderthewesternpartsoftheCatchmentmayholdreservesofshalegasthatcouldbeexploitedby

hydraulicfracturing(‘fracking’).InDecember2015,theGovernmentissuedlicensesgivingrightsof

explorationovertheseareastoWales-basedSouthWesternEnergyLtd.


32

4.5.TheconditionoflandscapeandnatureintheCatchment

Thelossofhabitatssuchaslowlandmeadows,hedgerowsandheathlandinEnglandoverthelasteightyyears

hasbeenwell-documented48.Thesamecausesofchange,intheformofimprovementsinagricultural

productivity,pollutionandurbanisation,havebeenpresentintheCatchment.Agriculturaldrainage,which

wasgranted-aidedbyGovernmentuntilthe1980s,hasreducedtheareaofwetgrasslandandflower-rich

meadows.Otherformsofagriculturalimprovementsuchastheploughingofpermanentpasture,theuseof

chemicalfertilisersandpesticidesandremovalofhedgerowstoenlargefields,havechangedthelandscape

acrosstheCatchment.Peatextractiontosupplythehorticulturalindustryanddomesticgardenershas

reducedtheareaoffensintheLowerBrueValley.Traditionalorchardshavebeenremoved(againwith

Governmentsubsidies)orbeenneglectedasthemarketfortheciderandtableappleshasdeclined.

Someofthesethreatshavediminishedastheforcesforchangehavereducedorasfundinghasbeen

providedfromagri-environmentschemestoencouragesympatheticmanagement.However,anumberof

negativepressuresremain.Someofthesecomefromagriculturesuchasthecultivationorfertilisationof

undesignatedflower-richgrassland,pollutionofriversfromslurry,orerosionofsoilsleftbareinwinter.

Somecomefromurbandevelopmentsuchaslossoflandorpollution;andsomecomefromneglectsuchas

theinvasionofscruborlossofdiseasedtrees.

Thehealthofwildlife

Anindicationofthecurrenthealthofhabitatsonlegallyprotected(designated)sitesisprovidedbythe

conditionassessmentsthatNaturalEnglandundertakesonSitesofSpecialScientificInterest(SSSI).Datafor

thelowlandSSSIhabitatsinSomersetshowsthat58%ofthisareaisassessedasbeinginfavourablecondition

(i.e.meetingtheconservationobjectivesthatNaturalEnglandhassetforthembasedonthereasonsforthe

SSSI’sdesignation).Athird(34%)oftheareaisassessedasinunfavourablebutrecoveringcondition

(improving,usuallyasaresultofimprovedmanagementbeingintroduced),andtheremaining8%isin

unfavourableconditionwithnochangeorwithcontinuingdeclines49.Therearemanyreasonsgivenforthe

unfavourableconditionofthesesitesbutcommonreasonsareinappropriatewaterlevelsoragricultural

pollutionforwetgrassland(usuallysummerwaterlevelsbeingtoolow)andundergrazingand/orscrub

invasionofothergrasslandsites.

Thehealthofwater

MeasurementsoftheecologicalandchemicalstatusofriversandlakesarecollectedbytheEnvironment

AgencytomeettherequirementsoftheEUWaterFrameworksDirective.Figure26showsthelatestdatafor

theSouthandWestSomersetcatchments(whichincludetheWestSomersetstreamsaswellastheLevels

Catchment).Thelefthandgraphshowsthattwothirdsofwaterbodiesarejudgedtobeinmoderate

ecologicalstatus,21%inpoorcondition,10%ingoodconditionand3%inbadcondition.Comparedtothe

wholeoftheSouthWest,theSomersetcatchmentscontainsignificantfewerwaterbodiesingoodcondition

andmoreinpoorcondition.Theseresultsreflectthetighterstandardsrequiredforthoseareasthatare

designatedundertheEUHabitatsDirective.Agriculturalandrurallandmanagementisgivenasthemain

reasonfornotachievinggoodstatus(35%ofwaterbodies),followedbydirtywatertreatmentbywater

companies(25%),andurbanandtransportpollution(10%),withotherreasonsaccountingfortherest.The

righthandgraphshowsthatthelargemajorityofwaterbodiesarejudgedtohaveagoodchemicalstatus,

whichissimilartotheSouthWestasawhole.

48Seeforinstance,RSPBetal(2016).TheStateofNature2016.http://www.rspb.org.uk/forprofessionals/science/research/details.aspx?id=363867

49Dataaccessedfromhttps://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SearchCounty.aspxon31May2016.Uplandhabitats(foundmainlyonExmoor)

havebeenexcludedsincetheyareoutsidetheCatchmentarea.


33

Figure26.Ecologicalandchemical

classificationforsurfacewaters,

SouthandWestSomerset

catchments

Source:EnvironmentAgencyWFD(2015Cycle2)

http://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-

planning/ManagementCatchment/3080/Summary

Thehealthofsoils

AnalysisofsoilrecordsgatheredbytheEnvironmentAgencyandNaturalEnglandinSouthWestEngland

providesapictureoftheeffectthatthedegradationofsoilstructurehasonsurface-waterrunoff50.The

researchonsoilwaterstoragecapacityintheCatchmentreferredtoabove51statesthat“Structural

degradationhasbeenfoundtobewidespreadinSWEngland.Over55%ofcultivatedfieldsaredegradedby

compactionandsoilstructuralchangetosuchadegreethatsurfacerunoffbecomeslikelyduringwinterrain

unlessremediationiscarriedout.Soilsundermaize,potatoesandotherlateharvestedcropshavean80-90%

chanceofsufferingthisdegreeofdegradation.”

TheresearchonsoilwaterstoragecapacityidentifiesthesoilsintheCatchmentthataremostproneto

damage52.SoilsontheYeovilsandshaveaninherentlyfragilestructurewhichcanbreakdownfollowing

arablecultivation.Inaddition,theclay-richsoilsonthereddishTriassicmudstoneandgreyJurassicclays,

whicharefoundintheUpperToneCatchmentandQuantockFringesaswellasotherareas,areparticularly

susceptibletocompactionwhichcanoccurfromfarmingoperationsundertakeninwetperiods,suchas

ploughingandslurryspreadingandalsofromhighstockingdensities.Compactionandsurfaceslakingofsoils

thathavehighorveryhighwinterstoragecapacity(covering30%ofthecatchment–seeabove)canreduce

thiscapacitybymorethan65%,makingithighlylikelythatthesoilswillbeunabletoabsorbsustainedrainfall,

resultinginoverlandflow53.

TheresearchgoesontorecommendthatsomenaturallyheavywetsoilsintheCatchmentshouldnotbeused

forregulararablecroppingandthatothersareonlysuitedtoearlyautumnharvestandcultivation.Following

degradation,somesoilswillgraduallyrecovertheirstoragecapacitynaturally,provideddamagingoperations

donotcontinue.However,othersaremuchlesslikelytorecoverontheirown,requiringremedialaction.Itis

significantthatitisthesoilsoftheYeovilsandswhich,wheningoodcondition,canprovidetheveryhigh

winterstorageofrainfall,arealsoleastlikelytorecovernaturallyfollowingcompaction.Thesoilsthatare

likelytorequireremedialactiontorecovertheirpotentiallyhighstoragecapacityarefoundintheUpper

Parrett,UpperYeoandUpperUpperIslecatchments54.Thesearealsosoilsthathavethepotentialforhigh

agriculturalproductivity(seeFigure27–AgriculturalLandClassificationonthefollowingpage).

50PalmerRCandSmithRP(2013).SoilstructuraldegradationinSWEnglandanditsimpactonsurface-waterrunoffgeneration.SoilUseand

Management,DOI:10.1111/sum.12068.51Palmer,R.C.(2015).SoilwaterstoragecapacityintheSomersetLevelsandMoorscatchment.ReportcommissionedbyNaturalEnglandaspartof

the20-yearFloodActionPlanforSomerset.April2015.52Ibid.

53Ibid.

54Ibid.

Bad 3%

Poor21%

Moderate67%

Good10%

High0%

Ecological statusorpotential

Fail 4%

Good96%

ChemicalStatus


34

5. Farmingandfoodproduction

ThissectiondescribesagriculturallanduseandproductionintheCatchment,looksbackatrecentchangesin

farminglanduseandmanagementandexaminesthetypesofenvironmentalmanagementtakingplaceon

farms.

5.1.FarmingatthepresenttimeAgricultureisthedominantlanduseintheCatchment,accountingforaround79%ofthelandarea.Thereare

anestimated3,000agriculturalholdingsemployingaround7,500people,3,600ofthemfull-time.Nearly

threequartersoffarmlandispasture,grazedbyaround200,000cattleand210,000sheep.Mostoftherestis

cropped,withcereals(wheatandbarley)accountingforhalfofthecroppedarea,foragemaize(grownfor

animalfeed)aboutaquarterandotherarablecropssuchasoilseedrapeandfieldbeanstherest55.

Thetypeoffarmingvariesacrossthe

Catchment,reflectingthe

productivityofthesoilsandother

factorssuchastheriskofflooding.

AsFigure28shows,thebest

agriculturallandoccursintheUpper

ToneandUpperParrettcatchments.

Overall,theCatchmentcontainsthe

sameproportionofthebest

agriculturalland(17%ofGrades1and2)asforEnglandasawhole.Theeffectofthesegrades,andother

factors,isthatgrasslandfarmingandlivestockgrazingdominateinthenorthernandwesternparts(for

instancetheBrueandAxecatchmentsandtheQuantockHills).Arablefarmingismorecommoninthe

southernandeasternareas(forinstancetheTone,ParrettandYeocatchments).

Figure28.AgriculturalLandClassification

55Source:AnalysisofDefraJuneAgriculturalSurveydatafor2013

Figure27.SummaryoffarminglandusefortheCatchment,2013

Typeofagriculturallanduse Hectares %farmedarea

Permanentgrass&roughgrazing 106,892 55%

Temporarygrass 26,790 14%

Cereals 27,997 14%

Maize 12,417 6%

Otherarablecropsandfallow 11,278 6%

Otherlandonfarms 8,480 4%

Source:EstimatesbasedonanalysisofDefraJuneAgriculturalSurvey


35

Themainagriculturaloutputsaremilk

fromthe65,000dairycows(producingan

estimated450millionlitresayear),beef

fromthedairyandsucklercowsectors

(producinganestimated31,000tonnesof

beefayear),lamb(anestimated2,500

tonnes),wheat(115,000tonnes)and

barley(60,000tonnes).

Basedonthe‘farmgate’value(theprice

thatfarmersreceivewhentheyselltheir

produce)oftheseandother

commodities,farmingintheCatchment

hasanannualoutputwortharound£257

million.Thisdoesnotincludevaluethat

isaddedtothese‘raw’commoditiesby

processingandretailing(coveredfurther

inSection6.2).

Inadditiontomoneytheyearnfromagriculturalproduction,farmersalsoreceivesubstantialsumsfromthe

CommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP).TherearetwomainpartstotheCAPasfaraspaymentstofarmersare

concerned.‘Pillar1’providesbasicincomesupportthroughtheBasicPaymentSchemein2016(previously

theSingleFarmPayment)and‘Pillar2’providesruraldevelopmentpayments,includingforenvironmental

management.ReceiptsfromtheBasicPaymentSchemebyfarmersintheCatchmentin2016willamountto

around£33.3million56andin2014,farmerswerepaid£8.7million

57forundertakingenvironmental

managementthroughtheEnvironmentalStewardshipscheme(describedfurtherbelow).Manyfarmsalso

havenon-agriculturalenterprisessuchasfarmhouseB&Bs.

Despitethehigh‘farmgate’valueofwhattheysell,farmershavehighcosts(suchastherentalofland,

purchaseofmachineryandcostoffuel,cropinputsandanimalfeeds)andtheprofitabilityofmanyfarm

businessesintheCatchmentislow.Forsome,thepaymentstheyreceivefromthe‘Pillar1’BasicPayment

Schemearecurrentlyallthatpreventsthemmakingafinanciallossoraverylowprofit.

Figure30usestheresultsoftheFarmBusinessSurveyforfarmsintheSouthWestofEnglandtoshowthe

averageFarmBusinessIncomereceivedbydifferenttypesoffarminthe2014/15financialyear.Farm

BusinessIncome(FBI)isameasureofthemoneyproducedfromagriculturalactivitybythebusinessafterall

itscostshavebeenmet,butbeforeanydrawingsbythefarmer.Thetablealsoshowstheamountreceivedby

thedifferenttypesoffarmfromthe‘Pillar1’SingleFarmPayment(whichisincludedintheFBIfigure).The

finalcolumnshowsthevalueoftheFBIiftheSFPisexcluded.Thisisofinterestbecause,followingBrexit,itis

possiblethattheUKTreasurywillseektoreducefarmincomesupportpayments.

ThedatashowthattheaveragefarminthesurveyintheSWhadanFBIofalittleover£32,000butthatover

£21,000ofthiscameintheformofincomesupportfromtheSingleFarmPayment(SFP)scheme.Thefigures

forthedifferentfarmtypesshowthatsometypestendtobelarger,withmoremoneyinvestedandhigher

incomes(forinstancedairyfarms)andotherstendtobesmall,relyingonnon-agriculturalincomewhichis

notshowninthetable(forinstancegeneralcroppingfarms).Thetableshowsthattheaveragecereal,

generalcropping,grazinglivestock(i.e.beefandsheep)andmixedfarmsintheSouthWestallreliedonthe

SingleFarmPaymenttoprovideanysignificantmanagementincometothefarmer.

56Assumingthepaymentsweremadeon85%ofthefarmedarea

57Source:AnalysisofESagreementdatafromNaturalEngland.£4millioncamefromtheEntryLeveltierand£4.7millionfromtheHigherLeveltierof

thescheme.

Figure29.Estimatedvalueofprimaryagriculturalproduction,

2015

Source:Basedon2013cropareasandlivestocknumbers(DefraJune2013Agricultural

Survey)andOctober2015prices(FarmersWeekly).

£95

£23£50

£10

£45

£11£23

Farmgatevalue(£M)

Dairy

Sucklerbeef

Dairybeef

Sheep

Poultry

Pigs

Combinablecrops


36

Figure30.FarmincomefiguresfortheSouthWestofEnglandfromtheFarmBusinessSurvey,2014/15

FarmtypesFarmBusiness

Income(FBI)

Ofwhich,incomefrom

SingleFarmPayment(SFP)

Hence,FBI

withoutSFP

Allfarmtypes £32,119 £21,134 £10,985

Cereals £45,810 £47,825 -£2,014

Generalcropping -£6,254 £20,245 -£26,499

Horticulture £24,758 £1,926 £22,832

Dairy £86,392 £27,012 £59,380

Grazinglivestock(lowland) £16,010 £14,413 £1,597

Grazinglivestock(LessFavouredAreas) £16,973 £16,719 £253

Pigs* £49,420 £8,490 £40,930

Poultry £54,163 £7,090 £47,072

Mixed £12,972 £20,239 -£7,267

Source:FarmBusinessSurvey2014/15.http://www.farmbusinesssurvey.co.uk.©RuralBusinessResearch,DepartmentofLandEconomy,Cambridge

CB39EP.TheFarmBusinessSurveyisconductedonbehalfof,andfinancedby,DefraandthedatacollectedinitareCrownCopyright.

*Note:dataforPigfarmsarenationalsincethesampleoffarmsintheSWistoosmall.

Itisimportanttonotethat,aswellasproducingfood,farmingcontinuestoplayanessentialrolein

maintainingthecountrysidelandscapeand,particularlyonthewetgrasslandoftheSomersetLevels,

conservingwildlife.Theenvironmentalimpactsofrecentchangesinfarmingpracticearecoveredfurther

below.

5.2.Recentchangesinfarminglanduseandmanagement

Overall,agriculturallandusehasremainedrelativelystableoverthelast60years.Thechartbelow,shows

that,followingasubstantialincreaseincroppedlandduringWWII(‘DigforVictory’)whichwaspartly

reversedaftertheWar,theareaundercropshasgraduallyincreasedandtheareaofpermanentgrassland

hasreduced.

Figure31.ChangesinfarminglanduseinSomersetsince1935

Source:DefraJuneAgriculturalSurveys

Thesechangesmaskmajorchangesinfarmingpracticesandoutput.Farminghasmechanised(in1935there

werestill18,000workinghorsesonSomersetfarms),introducednewbreedsoflivestockandcropsandmade

useofchemicalfertilisersandpesticides.Thishasresultedinlargeincreasesinproductivitybuthasalso

resultedinmajorchangestothefarmedlandscapeandbiodiversity(particularlyasaresultoflanddrainage,

pastureimprovementandhedgerowremoval).Farmshavegrownlargerandmorespecialisedandthe

numberofpeopleworkingonfarmshasshrunk(from20,500inSomersetin1950toaround10,000today).

81%

53%64% 59% 60% 57% 56% 57% 55%

5%

10%

12% 15% 15% 16% 13% 12% 13%

11%

26%15% 18% 16% 18% 21% 21% 24%

3% 10% 9% 8% 9% 9% 10% 10% 8%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2013

Proportionoffa

rmedarea

PermanentGrassland Leygrassland Cropsandfallow Otherlandonfarms


37

Certaincropshavebecomemuchmorecommon

andothersthatwereoncecommonhave

declined.Maize,grownforanimalfeed,was

virtuallyunknowninSomersetuntilthe1980s

butnewvarietiesthatsuittheclimatearenow

grownonaquarterofcroppedland,beingmost

commonindairyfarmingareas.Thecropis

harvestedinlateautumnandthiscanleadto

compactionofthesoilstructureandtoerosion.

Ontheotherhand,appleorchards,grownfor

eatingandforcider,havedeclineddramatically

inthelast80years,asshowninthechart.

Thewayinwhichfarmersaresupportedthrough

theCommonAgriculturalPolicyhaschangedsignificantlyoverthelast20years.Directpricesupportand

productionsubsidiesthatledtounwanted‘milklakes’and‘grainmountains’inthe1980sand1990swere

phasedoutfrom2004onwards.Farmersnowreceivea‘decoupled’basicpaymentlinkedtotheareathey

farmbutmustrelyonmarketprices,whichfluctuatebasedonglobalsupplyanddemand,formostoftheir

income.Inrecentyears,thelowpricethatdairyfarmersreceivefortheirmilk,comparedtorisingfarming

costs(e.g.energyandland),hasresultedinsharpfallsintheirincome,causingsignificantnumberstogiveup

dairyfarming(retiringorchangingtootherfarmingsectors).

5.3.Environmentalmanagementonfarms

ThemajorityoffarmersintheCatchmenthavesigneduptotheGovernment’sEnvironmentalStewardship

scheme(whichreplacedtheearlierEnvironmentallySensitiveAreaSchemeandisnowbeingsucceededby

thenewCountrysideStewardshipScheme).FarmsthatwereintheEnvironmentalStewardshipschemein

May2016areshowninFigure33,onthefollowingpage.

Threequarters(74%)offarmlandintheCatchmentiscoveredbyintheEntryLeveltieroftheschemewhich

paysaflatrateareapaymentinreturnforrelativelysimpleandlowcostenvironmentalmanagementoptions.

ExamplesofthemostpopularoptionschosenbyfarmersintheCatchmentareshowninFigure34.The

managementagreementsunderthistierwillbefinishingduringthenexteightyears,afterwhichtheywillnot

berenewedsincethesuccessorscheme(CountrysideStewardship)doesnotincludeanequivalenttier.It

remainstobeseenwhatwillhappentothelandandenvironmentalfeatures(suchasfieldbufferstrips)that

arecurrentlybeingmanagedunderthisScheme.

Asmallerproportionofland(18%offarmlandor14%oftheCatchment)isalsocoveredbytheHigherLevel

tierofEnvironmentalStewardshipwhichhadacompetitiveapplicationprocess(i.e.onlyapplicationsoffering

thegreatestenvironmentalbenefitswereselected).Thistierpayshigherlevelsofannualpaymentsfor

managementoptionswhichseektodelivergreaterenvironmentalconservationorenhancements.Again,

examplesofthemostpopularoptionsadoptedintheCatchmentareshowninFigure34.Thehigh

environmentalqualityoftheLevelsandMoors(thelowerpartsoftheCatchment)meanthatalarge

proportionofthelandintheHigherLeveltierisinthisarea.Themostfrequentmanagementoptionsinthis

areaarethemaintenanceofwetgrasslandforwinteringwadersandwildfowlandthemaintenanceof

grasslandfor‘targetfeatures’(suchaswetlandhabitatsandspecies).

Figure32.Changesinmaizeandfarmedorchardareas

inSomerset,1935to2013

Source:DefraJuneAgriculturalSurveys

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2013

Proportionoffa

rmedarea Maize

Farmedorchards


38

Figure33.FarmsintheEnvironmentalStewardshipscheme,2016

Figure34.Themostcommonoptions(rankedindecliningorder)includedinEnvironmentalStewardship

agreementsintheCatchment

EntryLevelStewardshipoptions No.of

agreements

HigherLevelStewardshipoptions No.of

agreements

EK2:Permanentgrassland(lowinputs) 3,576 HR1:Grazingsupplementforcattle 281

EK3:Permanentgrassland(v.lowinputs) 1,547 HR6:Supplementforsmallfields 251

EC2:Protectingin-fieldtrees(grassland) 664 HK15:Grasslandmaintenancefortarget

features216

EE3:6mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 570 HK10:Maintenanceofwetgrasslandfor

winteringwadersandwildfowl205

EE1:2mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 527 HK6:Maintenanceofspecies-rich,semi-

naturalgrassland138

UX2:Grasslandandarable 489 HK7:Restorationofspecies-rich,semi-

naturalgrassland132

EK5:Mixedstocking 484 HK19:Raisedwaterlevelssupplement 113

ED5:Managementofarchaeological

featuresongrassland418

HR2:Grazingsupplementfornative

breedsatrisk88

EB2:Hedgerowmanagementfor

landscape(ononesideofahedge)408

HK9:Maintenanceofwetgrasslandfor

breedingwaders86

EE2:4mbufferstripsoncultivatedland 398 HC7:Maintenanceofwoodland 84


39

6. CommunitiesandEconomy

Thissectiondescribessocio-economicaspectsoftheCatchment,lookingatthecharacteristicsofthepeople

andcommunitieswholiveintheareaandalsoitseconomy.Itfocussesontheland-basedsectorsoffarming

andforestryandonthetourismandhospitalitysectorsaskeydriversinthearea’sruraleconomy.

6.1.Peopleandcommunities

TheCatchmentishometooverhalfamillionpeople,livinginover200,000households58.Threequartersof

thesepeopleliveintownsandnearlyhalfliveinthefourlargesttownsofWeston-super-Mare,Taunton,

YeovilandBridgwater.Ofthe126,000peoplewholiveinruralareas,twothirdsliveinvillagesandonethird

liveinhamletsandisolateddwellingsinthecountryside59.

ThedemographiccharacteristicsofpeoplelivingintheCatchmentaresimilartothoseinthewiderSouth

Westregion.Figure35showstheeconomicactivitylevelsofpeopleaged16to74,comparingtheCatchment

totheSouthWestregionasawhole.ItshowsthattheCatchmenthasaslightlyhigherproportionofretired

people(withconcentrationsinWeston-super-MareandBurnham-on-Sea)andfewerstudentsbutis

otherwiseverysimilartotheSouthWest.

Figure35.EconomicactivityofpeoplelivingintheCatchmentcomparedtotheSWRegion,2011

Categoriesofeconomicactivity

Percentagesofpeopleaged16-74

Levels

Catchment

SWRegion DifferenceLevels

catchmenttoSW

Alleconomicallyactivepeopleaged16-74 70.4% 70.3% +0.1%

Employees(Fullandpart-time) 53.3% 52.6% -0.1%

Self-employed 11.3% 11.2% +0.1%

Unemployed 3.1% 3.3% -0.2%

Alleconomicallyinactivepeople16-74 29.6% 29.7% -0.1%

Retired 16.9% 15.8% +1.1%

Lookingafterhomeorfamily 3.7% 3.7% +0.0%

Long-termsickordisabled 3.8% 3.6% +0.2%

Otherinactivepeople 1.6% 1.7% -0.1%

Students(botheconomicallyactiveandnot) 6.3% 8.1% -1.8%

Source:ONSDatasetQS601EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment

Justoverathird(36%)ofpeopleworkinmanagerialpositionswhichisslightlylessthanthelevelfortheSouth

Westasawhole.Concentrationsofpeopleinthese‘higher’occupationsoccurinvillagesandcountryside

aroundTaunton,WellsandYeovil.TheCatchmentalsohasitsshareofareaswhicharerecognisedas

sufferingfromsocialandeconomicdeprivation,withconcentrationsinWestonandBurnhamandpocketsin

ruralareassuchasbetweenLangportandIlminster60.Analysisbythisstudyshowsnosignificantoverall

differencesbetweenthecharacteristicsofpeoplelivingintheLevelsandMoors(thelowercatchment)

comparedtothoselivinginthemiddleandupperpartsoftheCatchment.

58Precisefigures,basedonanalysisofcensusoutputareasfromthe2011census(ONS)are516,843residentsin222,593households.

59ThesefiguresusetheGovernment’sUrban-RuralclassificationofcensusoutputareasintheCatchment.

https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/rural-urban-definition60DepartmentofCommunitiesandLocalGovernment(2015).TheEnglishIndexofMultipleDeprivation2015.Analysisbythisstudyof‘File7’(All

ranks,decilesandscoresfortheIndicesofDeprivation,andpopulationdenominators)asLowerSuperOutputArealevel.


40

6.2.Economy

ApictureoftheeconomicactivitiestakingplaceintheCatchmentcanbederivedfromthesectorsthatpeople

workin,recordedbythe2011census.Figure36showsabreakdownofemploymentintheCatchmentandin

theSouthWestregionby‘BroadIndustryGroups’61.ItshowsthattheeconomicstructureoftheCatchmentis

similartothatfortheregionasawhole,butwithslightlyhigherlevelsofemploymentinmanufacturingand

thewholesaleandretailtradesandslightlylowerlevelsofemploymentinsectorssuchasaccommodation

andfoodserviceandinformationandcommunication.

Figure36.EmploymentbyindustrialsectorintheCatchmentcomparedtotheSWRegion,2011

BroadIndustryofEmployment

Percentagesofemployedpeopleaged16-74

Levels

Catchment

SWRegion DifferenceLevels

catchmenttoSW

Wholesale&RetailTradeincludingMotorVehicles 18.2% 16.2% +2.0%

HumanHealthandSocialWorkActivities 13.6% 12.9% +0.7%

Manufacturing 11.1% 9.1% +2.1%

Education 9.6% 9.7% -0.1%

Construction 8.1% 8.0% +0.1%

PublicAdministrationandDefence 6.7% 7.1% -0.4%

AccommodationandFoodServiceActivities 5.4% 6.3% -0.9%

Professional,ScientificandTechnicalActivities 5.1% 5.9% -0.8%

AdministrativeandSupportServiceActivities 4.1% 4.4% -0.3%

TransportandStorage 3.9% 4.0% -0.2%

InformationandCommunication 2.4% 3.3% -0.9%

Agriculture,ForestryandFishing 2.1% 1.6% +0.4%

Otheractivities 9.7% 11.5% +0.4%

Source:ONSDatasetKS605EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment

Twosectorsthatareparticularinteresttothisstudy,becauseoftheirrelationshipwiththelandand

environment,areagriculture/forestryandtourism.

Agricultureandforestry

ThelatersectiononFarmingandFoodProductionexaminesthecontributionoffarminginmoredetail,

estimatingthatprimaryagriculturalproductionintheCatchmentgeneratesaround£257millionayearfrom

sales,receivesafurther£42millionayear(2014)insubsidiesandpaymentsanddirectlyemploys7,500

peopleonfarms.Althoughfarmworkaccountsforonly2%ofallemploymentintheCatchmentasawhole,it

ismuchmoresignificantinruralareas.Figure37showstheareaswhereitexceeded10%ofemploymentin

2011.Agriculturealsosupportssignificantlevelsofemploymentoff-farmsinsuppliesandservicestofarming

(e.g.machinerydealers,vetsandcontractors)andintheprocessingandsaleofproductsfromfarms(e.g.

abattoirs,cheesemakers,foodretailers)andmuchofthisislikelytotakeplaceintownsandvillagesrather

thanthecountryside.

Theforestrysectorislikelytobemuchsmallerincomparisontofarming,bothbecausewoodlandcoversonly

6%ofthelandarea,comparedto79%forfarmlandandalsobecauseforestryislesseconomicallyproductive.

61BroadIndustryGroupsareastandardclassificationusedbytheOfficeforNationalStatistics.


41

Figure37.Concentrationsofemploymentinfarmingandhospitality,2011

Source:ONSDatasetKS605EW.CensusOutputAreascuttoCatchment

Localself-sufficiencyinfoodanddrink

Stronglocalsupplychains,whereconsumersareabletosourcemuchofwhattheyneedfromlocalproducers,

havemanyadvantages.Forinstance,peoplebecomemoreawareofhowtheirpurchasingdecisionsaffect

thelocalenvironmentandtheircommunities;moreeconomicvalueandemploymentisretainedbylocal

businesses(thelocaleconomicmultiplier);andfewernaturalresourcestendtobeused(andgreenhouse

gasesemitted)inthetransportandstorageofgoods.

Anindicationofthepotentialself-sufficiencyoftheCatchmentin‘indigenous’foods(thosewhichcanbe

growninthearea)isshowninFigure38.Thisisbasedonestimatesofcurrentfarm-basedfoodproduction

usingDefra’sannualagriculturalsurvey(excludingcerealsgrownforanimalfeed)andfromestimatesof

consumptionperheadfromtheUKFamilyFoodSurvey.ItshowsthattheCatchmentistheoreticallyself-

sufficientinmanytypesoffoodanddrink,withlargesurplusesoftheamountofmilk,cheese,poultrymeat,

barleyforbeerandlarger,apples,beef,potatoesandgreenvegetables.Thisisnotsurprisinggiventhatthe

Catchmenthasagriculturallyproductivepastureandarableandarelativelylowpopulationdensity.Sugaris

theonlymainindigenousfoodstuffthatisnotproducedintheCatchment.


42

Figure38.Localself-sufficiencyinmajortypesoffoodsanddrink

Source:AnalysisbythisstudyusingdatafromDefra’sannualagriculturalsurveyandtheUKFamilyFoodSurvey

Figure38onlyshowsatheoreticalpositionsince,formanyofthefoodanddrinkgroups,thecomponentsof

thesupplychain(e.g.suitableprocessing,storageandretailing)donotexisttoallowconsumerstosource

whattheyneedlocally.Figure39illustratesthisbyidentifyingthelocationofthemainprocessingsitesfor

theagriculturalcommoditiesproducedintheCatchment(e.g.abattoirsanddairies).Muchofwhatis

producedintheareatravelslongdistancestobeprocessed,beforeenteringundifferentiatednationaland

internationalsupplychains.Inorderforstronglocalsupplychainstobeestablished,agreaterdiversityof

foodprocessingplantswouldbeneededinorclosetothearea.Atrulyresponsiveandsustainablelocal

supplychainwouldalsoneedtochangethetypesandamountsoffoodbeingproducedonfarmstoreflect

ecologicalefficiencyanddemandbylocalpeople.Thisissueisexaminedfurtherbelow,underthesectionon

bioregionalism.

Figure39.ThelocationofmajorsitesprocessingfarmproductsproducedintheCatchment

0%

100%

200%

300%

400%

500%

600%

700%

Prop

ortio

nofco

nsum

ptiong

rowninth

eCatchm

ent


43

Therearehowever,asignificantnumberoffarmsandotherfoodproducersintheCatchmentwhoprocess

andselltheirproductsdirecttothepublic.Figure40showsthelocationofFarmers’Markets,farmshopsand

businessessellingdirecttothepublicorthroughlocaloutlets.Itshowsaconcentrationoffarmhousecheese

markersinthenortheastoftheCatchment,fruitandvegetableproducersinthesouthernhalfofthe

Catchmentandfarmssellingtheirownmeatinthewest,withfarmhousecidermakersdistributedthroughout

thearea.

Figure40.Examplesoflocalfoodanddrinksales,directformtheproducer

Note:Thismapisnotcomprehensive.The‘ReimaginingtheLevels’groupwelcomesfeedbackonomissionsorerrors.

Hospitalityandtourism

AstudyontourisminSomerset’sDistrictsin2008(themostrecentyearforwhichdataisavailable)canbe

usedtoestimatetourismemploymentandspendingintheCatchment.Onapro-ratabasisbyarea,tourismin

theCatchmentaccountedfor14,000jobs,or9%oftheworkforce.Spendingbytouristsstayinginthe

Catchmentwaswortharound£230millionayearandspendingbydayvisitorsafurther£311million.

Mostofthisspendingtookplaceinthetownsandlargevillages(onthingslikeaccommodation,foodand

drink)withrelativelysmallamountsinthecountryside(althoughvisitstonaturereservesanduseof

footpaths,wherenochargeismade,alsomakeupanimportantpartofwhattheareaprovidesforvisitors).

Nevertheless,itiswidelyacceptedthatthedistinctivenessandqualityofthelandscapeinthecountrysideand

coastareamajorreasonwhymanytouristsvisitthearea62.

Thereisathereforeacloseeconomiclinkbetweentheconditionofthelandscapeandthejobsandspending

sustainedbyvisitors.However,thislinktendstobeone-way,withtourismbenefitingfromlandscapequality,

butwithlittleofthespendingbytouristsfindingsitswaybacktocoverthecostsofmaintainingthelandscape

(farm-basedtourismbeinganexception).Thisissueisaddressedagaininthenextsection.

62http://www.visitsomerset.co.uk/explore-somerset/countryside


44

Aswithfarming,employmentintourismtendstobeconcentratedincertainareas.Figure37onpage41

showsthepartsoftheCatchmentwhere‘accommodationandfoodserviceactivities’accountedformore

than6%ofjobsin2011.Itshowsrelativeconcentrationsintheruralareasalongthecoastandalongthe

northeasternpartoftheCatchment(intheBrueandAxecatchments).

6.3.Bioregionalism

AkeyissueforthisprojecthasbeenthedisconnectionsthatexistintheCatchmentinthefoodsupplychain

(betweenfarmingandconsumers),intheenvironment(betweenthewayland,energyandwasteare

managed)andintheeconomy(forinstancethelowprofitabilityoffarmingandthepoorreturnfromtourism

tothelandscape).

Theseareallissuesthatareaddressedbytheconceptofbioregionalism.Thisemphasisestheimportanceof

naturalboundariesandcycles(forinstancethewatercyclewithincatchments).Itemphasisesthecultural

importanceofplacestopeople.Andithighlightstheeconomicandsocialconnectionsbetweenthepeople

whoproduceandconsumegoodsandservices.Itrecognisesthehiddencostsbornebytheenvironment

(suchaspollutionofwatersuppliesorlossofbiodiversity)andadvocatesmoresustainableandequitableuse

ofnaturalresourcesbypeople.Inmanyrespectsitistheantithesisofglobalisation.

Theconceptaroseinthe1970s,fromanalysissuchasBritisheconomistEFSchumacher’sinfluentialbook

‘SmallIsBeautiful:AStudyofEconomicsAsIfPeopleMattered’63.Morerecently,aspectsoftheconceptwere

adoptedbytheWelshGovernmentinitsOneWales,OnePlanetSustainableDevelopmentScheme(2009)64.

Therelevanceoftheconceptwasbroughtuptodatein2012inabookbygreeneconomistandMEPforthe

SouthWest,MollyScottCato,entitled‘TheBioregionalEconomy:Land,LibertyandthePursuitof

Happiness’.65Advocatesoftheapproacharguethatitistheonlywaytoaddressissueslikeclimatechange,

thedecliningavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandgrowingeconomicinequalitiesinsociety.

TheLevelsCatchmentiswell-suitedtoabioregionalapproach.Itisanareathatisrecognisedasbeing

culturallydistinctand,asshownearlierinthisdocument,iscapableofprovidingmuchofthefoodandenergy

neededbyitsresidents,oftenwithsurplusesfornearbyurbanareaslikeBristol.However,asthisdocument

hasshown,thephysicalinfrastructureandpolicyframeworksneededtomakeenvironmentallyandsocially

efficientuseoftheseresourcesareweakorlacking.Theseareissuesthatthemainprojectreportseeksto

address.

6.4.CommunityengagementandKnowledgeco-production

Anotherissuethatishighlightedbythisprojectisthegapthatexistsbetweentheorganisationschargedwith

takingdecisionsaboutfloodingandwatermanagementinthecatchment,andthecommunitieswhoshould

benefitfromthesedecisions.

Mostpeoplereceivetheirinformationaboutissuessuchasflooding,andwhatisbeingdonetoreduceit,

fromthepopularmedia.Mediaattentiontendstobebrief,followingperiodsofseverefloodeventsand

focusesontheimmediate‘rescue’actionsratherthanthelongtermadaptationandsolutions.Somerset

CountyCouncil,throughtheSomersetRiversAuthority,hasrespondedtothisbyproducingregularupdates

onitswork,involvinginterestedpartiesthroughtheSomersetWaterManagementPartnership(seepage17)

andconsulting,withitspartners,onmajorprojectssuchastheBridgwaterBarrier.Nevertheless,the

opportunitiesfordialogueandexplanationwithordinarycitizensarerare.

Thewinterfloodingof2013/14ledtoanewlevelofcommunityactivismontheLevelsandMoors,withthe

creationoftheFloodingontheLevelsActionGroup(FLAG).Thisarosefromafrustrationandlackoftrustfelt

63SchumacherEF(1972)SmallIsBeautiful:AStudyofEconomicsAsIfPeopleMattered.ISBN:978-0061997761.

64WelshGovernment(2009).OneWales:OnePlanet.TheSustainableDevelopmentSchemeoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment.May2009.

http://gov.wales/docs/desh/publications/090521susdev1wales1planeten.pdf65ScottCatoM(2012).TheBioregionalEconomy:Land,LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness.ISBN:978-0-41550-082-1

http://www.greeneconomist.org/files/greeneconomist/general/1The_Bioregional_Economy_discount_flyer.pdf


45

bylocalpeople.BodiesliketheEnvironmentAgencyandNaturalEnglandwereperceivedasdistant,

unaccountableandtechnocratic.Fortheirpart,staffintheseorganisationsmayhavefeltfrustratedbythe

rigidlegalprocessestheywererequiredtooperatein,bytheirlimitedbudgets,andbythelackof

understandingthatmostordinarypeoplehaveofthecomplexissuestheirorganisationsweredealingwith.

Thisissueofthegapbetweentheorganisationschargedwithdeliveringpublicservicesandthepublicwho

usetheseserviceshasbeenrecognisedinothersectorsintheUK.Inthehealthandsocialcaresectors,ithas

beenrecognisedthat‘topdown’solutionsdesignedbydoctorsandsocialworkersdonotnecessarilymeet

theneedsofpeopleneedingcare66.Similarly,universitiesandotherresearchbodieshaverecognisedthat

theyneedtoengagewiththepublicaboutwhatfutureresearchprioritiesshouldbe,ratherthanallowingthe

researchcommunitytodecide67.

Thisapproachtodesigningpolicydeliveryaroundtheneedsofthe

serviceusersandbeneficiaries,ratherthanthoseoftheprovider,has

beengiventheratherambiguousterm‘knowledgeco-production’

(orjustco-production)68.Thecoreelementsoftheapproacharethat

theintendedbeneficiariesareinvolvedindesigningthesolutions

(ratherthansimplybeingconsultedonapre-preparedcourseof

action)andthatthedialogueshouldbetwo-wayandgenuine

(meaningneithertootechnicalnor‘dumbed-down’).Arangeof

differenttechniquescanbeusedincludingtheuseoffocusgroupsor

citizenpanels,pop-upexhibitionsandsurveys,andOpenSpace

meetings.

Advantagesoftheapproacharethatit:

• Improvesknowledgeandunderstanding,bothbytheprofessionalsandbycitizens,increasingtrust

andprovidingafirmfoundationthatcanbebuiltupon

• Improvesthelegitimacyandaccountabilityoftheuseofpublicresources

• Reducesadependencyculturewherepeoplelooktopublicbodiesto‘solvetheirproblems’,instead

givingthemastakeincreatingsolutions.

• Providesawayofdevelopingandtestingoutideasbeforetheyareputintoeffect,reducingtheriskof

unintendedconsequencesandwastedeffort.

• Createsmoreholisticandjoined-upinterventionswhichshouldbemorecost-effective

AlltheseadvantageswouldapplytoworkundertakenbytheSomersetRiversAuthorityanditspartnersand

shouldaddressthefrustrationsandgapsidentifiedearlier.

66Forinstance,seetheworkoftheScottishCo-productionNetworkhttp://www.coproductionscotland.org.uk

67TherecentreportpublishedbytheEconomicandSocialResearchCouncil(ESRC)demonstratesthis.http://www.n8research.org.uk/knowledge-that-

matters-realising-the-potential-of-co-production-launch-of-final-report/68AgoodintroductionandexplanationoftheconceptisprovidedinareportbytheNewEconomicsFoundationpublishedin2008entitled:‘Co-

production.AManifestoforgrowingthecoreeconomy’.http://b.3cdn.net/nefoundation/5abec531b2a775dc8d_qjm6bqzpt.pdf.Amorerecentguide

totheuseofco-productioninthehealthsectorhasbeenpreparedbyNestahttp://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/co-production_catalogue.pdf

Anexampleofco-productionatwork

locallyistheSomersetCommunity

JusticePartnershipwhichhasreceived

nationalrecognitionforitswork

promotingrestorativejustice(where

victimsandperpetratorsmeetina

controlledenvironmentfacilitatedby

trainedvolunteerstoresolvelocal

socialharms).Seehttp://scjp.org.uk


46

7. Thehistoryofdrainageandfloodmanagement

MichaelWilliams’book‘TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels’69providesadetaileddescriptionofthehistory

oftheLevelsandMoorsandthefollowingparagraphsdrawonthisinformation,supplementedbyother

sources70.Thehistoricalrecordrevealsthatpeoplehavealwaysstruggledtokeepfloodwateratbayfromthe

landandthat,likethetide,effortstoreclaimthelandfromtheseahaveebbedandflowed.Therehavebeen

periodswheningenuityandinvestmenthaveadvancedthedrainageoftheLevelsandreducedtheriskof

flooding,butthesehavebeeninterspersedwithperiodsofinactivity,stagnationandcomplacency.

Prehistory

Untilrelativelyrecently,inhistoricalterms,theLevelswereaninhospitablewetlandthathasdiscouraged

settledoccupationbypeople.Thepositionofthecoastlinehasvariedoverthemillennia,dependingonglobal

sealevelsandtheresponseofthelandsurfacetotheiceage.Figure41showsthat6,000yearsago,the

coastlineranmanymilesinlandofwhereitdoestodayasfarasGlastonburyandMuchelney,withBrentKnoll,

PawlettandWestonzoylandbeing

islands.ThePoldenRidgeand‘Isle’

ofWedmorewerelongpromontories

extendingintoashallowseaof

mudflatsandsaltmarsh.

Theearliestevidenceofpermanent

settlementbypeoplecomesfrom

thelakevillagesandtrackwaysat

MeareandGlastonburythatwere

occupiedbetweenthethirdcentury

BCandfirstcenturyAD,laterbeing

abandonedbyrisingwaterlevels.

Thereisalsoevidenceforcoastal

settlementsatthistimenearAlstone

southofHighbridgewhichwerebuilt

onthehigherridgeofclaythatexists

nearthecurrentcoastline.

Duringthisperiod,theinlandsea

behindthisclayridgeprobablyconsistedofintertidalmudflatsandsaltmarshnearthecoast,merginginto

freshwaterreedswampandfensinland.Thesewildhabitatswouldhaveprovidedrichfishingandhunting

groundsanditislikelythatsaltwasalsoproducedandtradedwithinlandcommunities.

TheDarkAges

DuringthelateRomanperiod,embankmentswerebuiltalongthecoastandbesidethemajortidalriversto

reclaimlandaspasture.Fromthefourthcentury,thesolitudeandtranquillityoftheareaattractedtheearly

Celticchurchtoestablishmonasticcentreson‘islands’withintheLevelsfirstatGlastonburyandlaterat

AthelneyandMuchelney.Outsidethelow-lyingLevels,Saxoncolonisationandagriculturalimprovementof

thelandscapefromthefifthtoseventhcenturiesresultedinthepatternsofvillagesandmarkettownswesee

todaybuttheLevelsthemselvesremainedlargelyuntouched.Duringtheninthcentury,theLevelsprovided

KingAlfredasafehavenfromwhichtorallyhisforcesandexpeltheVikingsfromWessex,producingthewell-

69WilliamsM(1970).TheDrainingoftheSomersetLevels.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.8–9.ISBN0-521-07486-X.

70Forinstance,Rippon,S(2004).Tamingawetlandwilderness:Romano-BritishandmedievalreclamationintheSomersetLevelsandMoors.Areport

fortheSomersetArchaeologyandNaturalHistorySociety.

Figure41.TheCoastline6,000yearsago

Adaptedfrom:

www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/climateChange/general/seaLevelChangeCaseStudies.html


47

knownstoryofAlfredburningthecakeshewasaskedtolookafterwhilehismindwasdistractedwithmilitary

planning.

ThemedievalperiodtothemidC17th

Duringtheearlymedievalperiod,theLevelsbecameofincreasingvalueasasourceoffish,fuel(woodand

peatturves)andsummerpastureforthepeoplelivingonthe‘island’villages.AsinotherpartsofEngland,

themonasticcentreswereattheforefrontofthelandimprovement,enclosureanddrainageactivity,

acceleratingduringthe13thand14

thcenturies.FocussingonthealluvialsoilsinthelowerParrett(and

avoidingthedeeppeatsoilsinthelowerBrueValley),apiecemealprocesstookplaceinwhichthe

monasteriesorganisedrhynestobedugacrosscommonlandpastureandearthbanks(or‘walls’)tobe

erectedbesidetheriverstoextendthegrazingseasonorallowcultivation.Inafewplaces,riverswere

straightenedordivertedsuchasthelowerTonesouthofSaltMoor,andtheBrue,HartlakeandSheppeynear

Glastonbury.

Afterthedissolutionofthemonasteriesinthemid16thcentury,theCrown,throughthe‘CourtofSewers’

tooktheleadinorganisingfloodcontrolanddrainage,particularlyfollowingamajorfloodeventin1607.

Fromthe17thcenturyonwards,theuseofpumpsandothertechniquesimportedfromHollandincreasedthe

scopefordrainage,includingpeatmoors,althoughattemptstodrainKing’sSedgemoorbytheDutchengineer

SirCorneliusVermuydenwerenotsuccessful.By1638,asurveyorganisedbytheCrownshowsthatjustover

athirdofthelandliabletofloodingontheLevelshadbeenreclaimedasproductive‘meadow’,with

remainingareasclassedascommon-grazingmarshandfen.

TheshareduseoftheresourcesprovidedbytheLevels,undersystemsofcommongrazingandfuelgathering,

wereimportanttoallthecommunitiessurroundingtheLevels.Althoughthereislittlecommonlandlefton

theLevelstoday,thecomplexpatternsoflandownershipandgrazingrights,andtheshareduseofdroves

thatprovideaccessontothemoors,reflectthesemedievalsystems.

ThemidC17thtomidC18

th

IncontrasttothetransformationsthattookplacetoEngland’sotherlargelowlandwetland,theFensin

CambridgeshireandLincolnshire,littleprogresswasmadeontheLevelsbetween1640and1770andtwo

thirdsremainedunreclaimedattheendofthisperiod.Onereasonforthislackofactivitywaslocal

opposition.ThedrainageoftheLevelshasalwaysbeencontroversial,andduringthisperiod,itseemsthat

oppositionfromcommunitieswholosttheirrightsofcommongrazingwhenlandwasenclosed,andfrom

neighbouringlandownerswhoexperiencedincreasedfloodingaswatermovedfasteroffdrainedareas,wasa

significantfactorinslowingtheprocessofdrainageandreclamation.

ThemidC18thtomidC19th

In1760sand1770s,thenationalenthusiasmforagriculturalimprovementandtherisingeconomicand

technologicalincentivestodrainlandrestartedeffortsontheLevels.TheBathandWestofEngland

AgriculturalSocietywasfoundedin1777anditsmemberswereinfluential‘improvers’.TheSocietyhastaken

acloseinterestinthedrainageoftheLevelseversince.UsingParliamentaryEnclosureActs,thepeatmoors

intheBruevalleyandKing’sSedgemoorwereenclosed.DrainageActsestablishedlarge-scaleco-ordinated

schemesformanagingwaterlevels,includingtheconstructionofmajornewdrains,cutsandclyses.Steam

pumpsstartedtobeintroducedduringthefirstpartofthe18thcentury,organisedbylocaldrainageboards

andfundedbyalevyfromlandowners.Newroadswereconstructedonthespoilbesidetherhynes,enabling

thebuildingofnewfarmsteadsandcottages.

ThemidC19thto1930

Thesecondhalfofthe19thcenturyandfirsttwodecadesofthe20

thcenturysawanotherperiodofstagnation

ininvestmentinfloodmanagement,withregularandprolongedfloodingoftheLevelsbothfromriversand,

lessfrequently,fromthesea.Comparedtowhatweareusedtotoday,winterfloodingthatrenderedroads


48

impassableandcommunitiesisolatedwasthenorm.Particularlyseverefloodsthatinundatedthousandsof

acresformanymonthsoccurredin1853,1872-73,1891and1929.

1930tothe1970s

FollowingtheLandDrainageActof1930,newgovernanceandfundingmeasuresbroughtarevivalofactivity.

Newpowerfuldieselpumpswereinstalledinthe1940sand50sandthesewerereplacedbyautomatic

electricpumpsinthe1960s.In1940theHuntspillRiverwascreatedattheseawardendoftheRiverBrue,

dramaticallyreducingfloodingoftheLowerBrueValley.TheSowyRiverwasconstructedinthelate1960s

andearly1970stotakefloodwaterfromtheRiverParrettatLangportandAllerMoornorthtotheKing’s

SedgemoorDrainwhichwasalsoenlarged.

Thelast30years

Theperiodsince1980has,arguably,seenareversaloftheprogressoffloodriskmanagementmadeinthe

previousdecades.Anumberoffactorsarelikelyhavecontributedtothis:

• ThedredgingoftheriverchannelsintheLevelsandMoorswasnotgivenpriorityinmaintenance

budgets.Siltdepositedinthechannels(whichmayhaveincreasedduetoerosionfromcultivated

land)wasnotremovedtothedimensionsofthechannelsthathadbeendesignedinthe1960sand

thecapacityoftheriverstostorewaterduring‘floodlock’wasreduced.

• TheintensityofagriculturalmanagementacrossthewholeCatchment,particularlyadeclineinthe

structureofsoilsunderarablecultivation(withtheintroductionofcropssuchasmaize)andunder

highlivestockdensitiesmayhaveincreasedthespeedwithwhichrainfallreachestherivers,

increasingtheirpeakflows.Soilerodedfromarablelandislikelytohavecontributedtoareductionin

thecapacityoftherivers.

• Urbanandindustrialdevelopment,andtheuseofimpermeablesurfacesinthesedevelopments,is

likelytohavefurtherreducedthecapacityofthemiddleandupperCatchmenttoholdbackrainfall,

leadingto‘flashier’riverresponses.

Today

Startinginthe2000s,followingaseriesoffloodeventsontheRiverParrett,therehasbeengrowinginterest

in‘wholecatchment’planning.TheParrettCatchmentProject,whichwasoneofthefirstsuchprojectsinthe

UK,ranfrom2000until2007andidentified12objectivesorprioritiesforaction(Figure42).Theseobjectives

havecontinuedtoguidepolicyandaseriesofprojectssuchasWiseUseofFloodplains,WAVE(Water

AdaptationisValuableforEverybody)andtheBrueValleLivingLandscapesProjecthavetakenplace.

Figure42.The12objectivesidentifiedbytheParrettCatchmentProject

• Changestoagriculturallandmanagement

• Woodlanddevelopment

• Temporaryfloodstorageonfarmland

• Controllingrun-offfromdevelopment

• Creatingnewwetlandhabitats

• Spreadingfloodwateracrossthemoors

• Upgradingchannelstoenhancegravitydrainage

• Restrictingnewdevelopmentonthefloodplain

• Dredgingandmaintainingriverchannels

• Raisingriverbanks

• Upgradingpumpingstations

• BuildingatidalsluicedownstreamofBridgwater

However,progressonthegroundwasslowuntiltheseverefloodeventsofNovember2012andDecember

2013toMarch2014.ThesereceivednationalattentionandledtorenewedGovernmentcommitmentsand

funding.Asdescribedearlier(Section2.3onpage12),a20YearFloodActionPlanwaspreparedandfunding

wasprovidedtoestablishanewSomersetRiversAuthoritytoimplementtheActionPlan.Severalofthe

ambitionssetoutintheParrettCatchmentProject,includingthetidalsluiceacrosstheParrettatBridgwater

andenlargementoftheSowyRiverandKing’sSedgemoorDraintoincreasethegravitydrainagefromthe

Parrett,arenowbeingtakenthroughtheplanninganddesignstages.


49

Anoveralltimelineofthedifferentphasesofactivity,showingthoseinwhichmostprogresstowardsland

drainageandfloodcontrolwasmade,isshowninFigure43.

Figure43.Timelinesummarisingkeyperiodsofactivity

1540s-1640s:Followingthedissolution oftheMonasteries,theCrown takeschargeofdrainagethrough theCourt ofSewers.Pumpsandother techniques areintroduced fromHolland.By1640,athird offlooding landhasbeenreclaimed asproductive meadow.

1650s-1760s:Lackofleadershipandlocalopposition leadstostagnationindrainageandreclamation

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400

1300

1200

C13th andC14th:TheMonasteriesstarttotransform thelandscapebydiggingrhynes,buildingbanksandstraightening rivers.

1770s-1840s:ParliamentaryEnclosure andDrainageActs,coupled withperiod ofprosperityandinnovationleadstoconversionofmostofremainingreedmarshtoproductive pasture

1850s-1920s:Lackofinvestmentandpoororganisation meanlittleprogressismadeandexistingstructures fallintodisrepair

1930s-1970s:IDBsestablished,Huntspill andSowy Riversdug,Useofdieselthen electric pumps

1980s-2000s:Riversnotdredged;urbandevelopment andagricultural intensification failtoaddressfloodrisk

Now: Renewedfocusonmaintenance, andinterest inwholecatchment management

Presentday

DarkAges

Periods ofprogress Periods ofstagnation


50

Changesingovernanceandadministration

Overthelast150years,therehavebeenaseriesofchangestotheorganisationalresponsibleforland

drainageandwaterlevelmanagementontheSomersetLevels,graduallyproducingthestructureoflocal,

regionalandnationalbodiesthatexisttoday71(Figure44).Throughoutthisprocess,criticalissueshavebeen

thedemocraticaccountabilityofthebodiesthatmakedecisionsandtheresourcesandpowersavailableto

them.

Figure44.ThehistoryofgovernanceofdrainageandfloodmanagementontheLevelsandMoors

• TheLandDrainageActof1861replacedthemedievalCourtofSewerswithInternalDrainageDistricts

inmostoftheLevels;andtheSomersetDrainageActof1877introducedanewsystemoffunding

fromratespaidbythebenefitinglandowners.

• TheLandDrainageActof1930establishedaSomersetCatchmentBoardtocontrolthemainriversand

InternalDrainageBoardstomanagementwaterlevelsoffthemainrivers,providingfundingforboth

throughenforceablepreceptsorlevies.

• TheSomersetCatchmentBoardwasreplacedbytheSomersetRiversBoardin1948andthenthe

SomersetRiversAuthorityin1963(eachchangeaddingtotheresponsibilitiesoftheorganisations).

• In1974theRiverAuthoritywasreplacedataregionallevelbytheWessexWaterAuthorityandlocally

bytheSomersetLocalLandDrainageCommittee.

• The1989WaterActledtotheWaterAuthoritiesbeingprivatisedtocreatetheregionalwaterutility

companies,withtheirstatutoryresponsibilitiespassedtoanewNationalRiversAuthority(NRA)which

wasinturnreplacedbytheEnvironmentAgencyin1996.

• The1989WaterActalsoreplacedtheSomersetLocalLandDrainageCommitteewiththeSomerset

LocalFloodDefenceCommittee.ThiswasreplacedbytheWessexRegionalFloodDefenceCommittee

in2005.

• Mostrecently,in2016,theSomersetRiversAuthoritywascreatedtooverseedevelopmentand

deliveryofthe20YearFloodActionPlanfollowingthefloodingof2013/14.

• Atthetimeofwriting,theSomersetRiversAuthorityanditspartnersareworkingwithDefrawitha

viewtoestablishingtheAuthorityasastatutorypreceptingauthority(Section2.7onpage18).

71Williams,M(1970),Porter,E(1978).WaterManagementinEnglandandWales,CambridgeUniversityPressandEnvironmentAgency(2005).

SomsersetLocalFloodDefenceCommittee,HandoverDocumentMarch2005.


51

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