811
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tongues namelie English Latine Greeke and French Newlie enriched with varietie of wordes phrases prouerbs and diuers lightsome obseruations of grammar By the tables you may contrairwise finde out the most necessarie wordes placed after the alphabet whatsoeuer are to be found in anie other dictionarie which tables also serue for lexicons to lead the learner vnto the English of such hard wordes as are often read in authors being faithfullie examined are truelie numbered Verie profitable for such as be desirous of anie of those languages Excudebat Henricus Denhamus typographus Gulielmi Seresij vnicus assignatus Londini England
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Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 815
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Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
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Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
812 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
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UKBusson F P Jaeger P Lunven and M Pinta 1965 Plantes Alimentaires de lrsquoOuest Africain Etude
Botanique Biologique et Chimique M Leconte Marseille FranceCamargo L de S 1992 As Hortaliccedilas e Sci Cultivo 3rd ed Fundaccedilatilde Cargill Campinas BrazilCerrate E 1979 Vegetacioacuten del valle de Chiquiaacuten Univ Nac Mayor de San Marcos Lima PeruChauhan DVS 1972 Vegetable Production in India Ram Praasad and Sons Agra UP IndiaChilders RC 1979 A Dictionary of the Pali Language Cosmo Publications New Delhi IndiaChristophersen E 1935 Flowering Plants of Samoa Bull 128 Bernice P Bishop Museum Honolulu
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Cape Town South AfricaFlach M and R Rumawas (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 9 Plants Yielding
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Agricultural Research Maputo MozambiqueHill KC (ed) 1998 Hopi Dictionary University Arizon Press Tucson Arizona USAHoch E 1960 Bemba Pocket Dictionary Kipalapala Tanganyika TanzaniaHockings P and C Pilot-Raichoor 1992 A Badaga-English Dictionary Mouton de Gruyter Berlin
GermanyHung L H Huang and H-F Yen (eds) 1992 The Nomenclarture of Vegetable Crops National
Taiwan University Taipei Republic of ChinaHuxley A (ed) 1992 Dictionary of Gardening Macmillian London UKIndian Council of Agricultural Research 1961 Handbook of Agriculture ICAR New DelhiIvens WG 1998 Bugotu-English English-Bugotu Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAJackson FH and JC Marck 1991 Carolinian-English Dictionary University Hawaii Press
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Council of Sri Lanka Colombo Sri LankaJeeni CE 2001 Hindi-English-Mizo Dictionary Vani Prakasana New Delhi IndiaJerome S W Caxton W de Worde and R Curzon 1495 Vitas patrum Wynkyn de Worde
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Simha Kalyani Phaundesana Darabhanga India
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Luomala K 1953 Ethnobotany of the Gilbert Islands Bishop Museum Bul 213 129pMacPhail RM 1984 Campbellrsquos English-Santali Dictionary Eastern Books Calcutta IndiaMalherbe F de 1862 Oeuvres completes de Malherbe recueillies et aannotees par ML Lalanne
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York New York USAMan Ssu-ch‛ien 1958 English-Hakka Dictionary Qi Guang Chubanshe Hong KongManner A 1983 Tulu-English Dictionary Asian Educational Services New Delhi IndiaMaracle DK 1992 One Thousand Useful Mohawk Words Audio-Forum Guilford Connecticut
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816 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
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Kakrajhar Assam IndiaMolina FS H Valenzuela and DL Shaul 1999 Yoeme-English English-Yoeme Standard
Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA Motus C 1971 Hiligaynon Dictionary Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMunro P and C Willmond 1994 Chickasaw An Analytical Dictionary University Oklahoma Press
Norman OklahomaNewman S 1958 Zuni Dictionary Intern J Amer Linguistics 24117pNiang M 1997 Pulaar-English English-Pulaar Hippocrene Books New York New York USANichols J and A Vagapov 2004 Chechen-English and English-Chechen Dictionary
RoutledgeCurzon New York New York USANguyen MLT 2005 Bạc hagrave (Colocasia gigantean [Blume] Hook f) in the culinary history of
Vietnamese-Americans Econ Bot 59185-196Oideachais AR 1978 Ainmneacha Plandai Agus Ainmhithe Baile Atha Cliath Oifig an tSolathair
IrelandOideachais AR 1978 Focloir Talmhaiochta An Gum Baile Atha Cliath IrelandOumlztopccedilu K Z Abuov N Kambarov and Y Azemoun 1996 Dictionary of the Turkic Languages
Routledge New York New York USAParham BEV 1957 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 2(5 and 7) Apia
SamoaParham BEV 1958 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 3(5 8 and 11)
Apia SamoaParham BEV 1972 Plants of Samoa New Zealand Dept Scientific and Industrial Res Wellington
New ZealandParker EM and RJ Hayward 1985 An Afar-English-French Dictionary School of Oriental and
African Studies University of London London UKParker SP 1989 McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms McGraw-Hill New
York New York USAParrotta JA 2001 Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing New York New York
USAPassy AM 1999 Sephardic Folk Dictionary English to Ladino Ladino to English Published by
the author Los Angeles California USAPereira C and FV Agarez 1980 Botacircnica Taxonomia e Organografia das Angiospermas
Interamericana Rio de Janeiro BrazilPhone W 2007 Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque New
Mexico USAPikia M 2006 African Traditional Plant Knowledge Today Lit Verlag Berlin GermanyPlants of the Philippines Work Group 1996 Plants of the Philippines Island Pub House ManilaPulte W (ed) 1975 Cherokee-English Dictionary Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Tahlequah
Oklahoma USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 813
References
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Craven T 1932 The New Royal Dictionary English into Hindustani and Hindustani into English Methodist Pub House Lucknow India
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Crosby AW Jr 1972 The Columbian Exchange Greenwood Press Westport ConnecticutCrystal D 2000 Language Death Cambridge University Press Cambridge UKDalziel JM 1937 The Useful Plants of Tropical Africa Crown Agents for Overseas Governments
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University Wageningen the Netherlandsde Larajasse E 1897 Somali-English and English-Somali Dictionary Kegan Paul Trench Truumlbner
amp Co London UKde Malherbe F 1862 Oeuvres Completes de Malherbe Recueillies et Aannotees par ML Lalanne
Hachette Paris Francede Winter WP and VB Amoroso (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 15(2)
Cryptograms Ferns and Fern Allies Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsDiamond JM 2005 Guns Germs and Steel The Fates of Human Societies WW Norton New
York New York USADobring M 2002 Lowerwendish-English and English-Lowerwendish Dictionary Published by the
author Port Huron Michigan USADoke CM DM Malcolm JMA Sikakana and BW Vilakazi 1990 English-Zulu Zulu-English
Dictionary Witwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South AfricaDransfield S and EW Widjaja (eds) 1995 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 7 Bamboos
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Macmillan London UKElkins RE 1968 Manobo-English Dictionary Univ Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAErtuğ F 2000 An ethnobotanical study in Central Anatolia (Turkey) Econ Bot 54155-182Fargher DC B Stowell and I Faulds 1979 Fargherrsquos English-Manx dictionary Shearwater Press
Douglas Isle of Man Great BritainFisher A E Weiss E Mdala and S Tshabe English-Xhosa Dictionary Oxford University Press
Cape Town South AfricaFlach M and R Rumawas (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 9 Plants Yielding
Non-seed Carbohydrates Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsFoot EC 1913 Galla-English English-Galla Dictionary Cambridge University Press Cambridge
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814 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
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Church Windhoek South West AfricaGoddard M 2007 English-Kurdish Kurdish-English Sorani Dictionary Wallenberg Press London
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H Nakare M Goraseb and V neEiases 1991 First School Dictionary for Namibia Oxford University Press Cape Town South Africa
Gordon RG Jr (ed) 2005 Ethnoloɠue Languages of the World 15th edition SIL International Dallas Texas USA
Gove PB (ed) 1971 Websterrsquos Third New International Dictionary G and C Merriam Springfield Massachusetts USA
Gragson TL 1997 The use of underground plant organs and its relation to habitat selection among the Pumeacute Indians of Venezuela Econ Bot 51377-384
Gunn GC 2003 First Globalization The Eurasian Exchange 1500-1800 Rowman amp Littlefield Oxford UK
Gurudeva MR 2001 Botanical and Vernacular Names of South Indian Plants Divyachandra Prakashana Bangalore India
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Hannan M 1973 Standard Shona Dictionary Macmillan Johannesburg South AfricaHarlan JR 1975 Our vanishing genetic resources Science 188617-621Harrington JP 1928 Vocabulary of the Kiowa language Smithsonian Inst Bull 34 255 ppHeemkerk W 1987 Especies e Variedades de Feijoes em Mocambique National Institute of
Agricultural Research Maputo MozambiqueHill KC (ed) 1998 Hopi Dictionary University Arizon Press Tucson Arizona USAHoch E 1960 Bemba Pocket Dictionary Kipalapala Tanganyika TanzaniaHockings P and C Pilot-Raichoor 1992 A Badaga-English Dictionary Mouton de Gruyter Berlin
GermanyHung L H Huang and H-F Yen (eds) 1992 The Nomenclarture of Vegetable Crops National
Taiwan University Taipei Republic of ChinaHuxley A (ed) 1992 Dictionary of Gardening Macmillian London UKIndian Council of Agricultural Research 1961 Handbook of Agriculture ICAR New DelhiIvens WG 1998 Bugotu-English English-Bugotu Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAJackson FH and JC Marck 1991 Carolinian-English Dictionary University Hawaii Press
Honolulu Hawaii USAJaeger P P Lunven and M Pinta 1965 Plantes Alimentaires de LrsquoOuest Africain Eacutetude Botanique
Biologique et Chimaque M Leconte Marseille FranceJansen RK 1985 The systematics of Acemlla (Asteraceae-Heliantheae) Syst Bot Monogr 81-115Jayaweera DMA 1981 Medical Plants (Indigenous and Exotic) Used in Ceylon National Science
Council of Sri Lanka Colombo Sri LankaJeeni CE 2001 Hindi-English-Mizo Dictionary Vani Prakasana New Delhi IndiaJerome S W Caxton W de Worde and R Curzon 1495 Vitas patrum Wynkyn de Worde
Westmynstre UKJha Govinda 1999 Kalyani Kosh (A Maithili-English Dictionary) Maharajadhiraja Kamesvara
Simha Kalyani Phaundesana Darabhanga India
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 815
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Jones SB Jr and AE Luchsinger 1986 Plant Systematics McGraw-Hill New York New York USA
Joslashrgensen H 1936 A Dictionary of the Classical Newārī Kevin amp Munksgaard CopenhagenKabithe DW 1980 Afrikan Language Dictionary Swahili-English English-Swahili Understanding
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Name in 15 Languages Edible Part and Method of Preparation Exon Press Athens Georgia USA
Koenon E von 2001 Medicinal Poisonous and Edible Plants in Namibia Klaus Hess Publishers Windhoek Namibia
Kohen E and D Kohen-Gordon 2000 Ladino-English English-Ladino Concise Encyclopedia Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Kroll S and D Zahirović 1998 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary and Phrasebook Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Lamberts M 1992 Production trends for specialty Asian vegetables in Dade County Florida Acta Hort 31879-85
Lemmens RHMJ and N Bunyapraphatsara (eds) 2003 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(3) Medicinal and Poisonous Plants Backhuys Publishers Leiden the Netherlands
Leslau W 1963 Etymological Dictionary for Harari University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Leslau W 1976 Concise Amharic Dictionary University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Levang P and H de Foresta 1991 Economic Plants of Indonesia Orstom Bogor IndonesiaLinneacute Carl von 1753 Caroli Linnaeligi Species plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera
relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas Impensis Laurentii Salvii Holmiaelig (Stockholm Sweden)
Lorenzi H 1991 Plantas Daninhas do Brasil Terrestres Aquaacuteticas Parasitas Toacutexicase Medicinais 2nd ed Plantarum Press Nova Odessa Brazil
Luomala K 1953 Ethnobotany of the Gilbert Islands Bishop Museum Bul 213 129pMacPhail RM 1984 Campbellrsquos English-Santali Dictionary Eastern Books Calcutta IndiaMalherbe F de 1862 Oeuvres completes de Malherbe recueillies et aannotees par ML Lalanne
Hachette Paris FranceMamedov S 1995 Azerbaijani English-Azerbaijani Azerbaijani-English Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAMan Ssu-ch‛ien 1958 English-Hakka Dictionary Qi Guang Chubanshe Hong KongManner A 1983 Tulu-English Dictionary Asian Educational Services New Delhi IndiaMaracle DK 1992 One Thousand Useful Mohawk Words Audio-Forum Guilford Connecticut
USAMarijana Kiš 1996 Dijalektnata leksika od oblasta na rastitelniot svet Institut za Makedonski Jazik
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Mertz O AM Lykke and A Reenberg 2001 Importance and seasonality of vegetable consumption and marketing in Burkina Faso Econ Bot 55276-289
Milner GB 1993 Samoan Dictionary Polynesian Press Aotearoa New ZealandMintz MW 1971 Bikol Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMochari M (ed) 1985 Bodo-English Dictionary The Bodo Catholic Youth Association Bengtol
Kakrajhar Assam IndiaMolina FS H Valenzuela and DL Shaul 1999 Yoeme-English English-Yoeme Standard
Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA Motus C 1971 Hiligaynon Dictionary Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMunro P and C Willmond 1994 Chickasaw An Analytical Dictionary University Oklahoma Press
Norman OklahomaNewman S 1958 Zuni Dictionary Intern J Amer Linguistics 24117pNiang M 1997 Pulaar-English English-Pulaar Hippocrene Books New York New York USANichols J and A Vagapov 2004 Chechen-English and English-Chechen Dictionary
RoutledgeCurzon New York New York USANguyen MLT 2005 Bạc hagrave (Colocasia gigantean [Blume] Hook f) in the culinary history of
Vietnamese-Americans Econ Bot 59185-196Oideachais AR 1978 Ainmneacha Plandai Agus Ainmhithe Baile Atha Cliath Oifig an tSolathair
IrelandOideachais AR 1978 Focloir Talmhaiochta An Gum Baile Atha Cliath IrelandOumlztopccedilu K Z Abuov N Kambarov and Y Azemoun 1996 Dictionary of the Turkic Languages
Routledge New York New York USAParham BEV 1957 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 2(5 and 7) Apia
SamoaParham BEV 1958 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 3(5 8 and 11)
Apia SamoaParham BEV 1972 Plants of Samoa New Zealand Dept Scientific and Industrial Res Wellington
New ZealandParker EM and RJ Hayward 1985 An Afar-English-French Dictionary School of Oriental and
African Studies University of London London UKParker SP 1989 McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms McGraw-Hill New
York New York USAParrotta JA 2001 Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing New York New York
USAPassy AM 1999 Sephardic Folk Dictionary English to Ladino Ladino to English Published by
the author Los Angeles California USAPereira C and FV Agarez 1980 Botacircnica Taxonomia e Organografia das Angiospermas
Interamericana Rio de Janeiro BrazilPhone W 2007 Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque New
Mexico USAPikia M 2006 African Traditional Plant Knowledge Today Lit Verlag Berlin GermanyPlants of the Philippines Work Group 1996 Plants of the Philippines Island Pub House ManilaPulte W (ed) 1975 Cherokee-English Dictionary Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Tahlequah
Oklahoma USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
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Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
814 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Fritz D W Stolz F Venter J Weichmann and C Wonneberger 1989 Gemuumlsebau Eugen Ulmer Stuttgart Germany
Fyle CN and ED Jones 1980 A Krio-English Dictionary Oxford University Press Oxford UKGasparini A 1983 Sidamo-English Dictionary EMI Bologna ItalyGestwicki Ronald Rev and Mrs 1966 An English-Herero Herero-English Dictionary Anglican
Church Windhoek South West AfricaGoddard M 2007 English-Kurdish Kurdish-English Sorani Dictionary Wallenberg Press London
UKGoodwill J A Kotzeacute L Namaseb A Tjouṱuku E Kaura P Hasheela L Mbenzi D Nakare
H Nakare M Goraseb and V neEiases 1991 First School Dictionary for Namibia Oxford University Press Cape Town South Africa
Gordon RG Jr (ed) 2005 Ethnoloɠue Languages of the World 15th edition SIL International Dallas Texas USA
Gove PB (ed) 1971 Websterrsquos Third New International Dictionary G and C Merriam Springfield Massachusetts USA
Gragson TL 1997 The use of underground plant organs and its relation to habitat selection among the Pumeacute Indians of Venezuela Econ Bot 51377-384
Gunn GC 2003 First Globalization The Eurasian Exchange 1500-1800 Rowman amp Littlefield Oxford UK
Gurudeva MR 2001 Botanical and Vernacular Names of South Indian Plants Divyachandra Prakashana Bangalore India
Guzmann CC de and JS Siemonsma (eds) 1999 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 13 Spices Backhuys Publishers Leiden the Netherlands
Hannan M 1973 Standard Shona Dictionary Macmillan Johannesburg South AfricaHarlan JR 1975 Our vanishing genetic resources Science 188617-621Harrington JP 1928 Vocabulary of the Kiowa language Smithsonian Inst Bull 34 255 ppHeemkerk W 1987 Especies e Variedades de Feijoes em Mocambique National Institute of
Agricultural Research Maputo MozambiqueHill KC (ed) 1998 Hopi Dictionary University Arizon Press Tucson Arizona USAHoch E 1960 Bemba Pocket Dictionary Kipalapala Tanganyika TanzaniaHockings P and C Pilot-Raichoor 1992 A Badaga-English Dictionary Mouton de Gruyter Berlin
GermanyHung L H Huang and H-F Yen (eds) 1992 The Nomenclarture of Vegetable Crops National
Taiwan University Taipei Republic of ChinaHuxley A (ed) 1992 Dictionary of Gardening Macmillian London UKIndian Council of Agricultural Research 1961 Handbook of Agriculture ICAR New DelhiIvens WG 1998 Bugotu-English English-Bugotu Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAJackson FH and JC Marck 1991 Carolinian-English Dictionary University Hawaii Press
Honolulu Hawaii USAJaeger P P Lunven and M Pinta 1965 Plantes Alimentaires de LrsquoOuest Africain Eacutetude Botanique
Biologique et Chimaque M Leconte Marseille FranceJansen RK 1985 The systematics of Acemlla (Asteraceae-Heliantheae) Syst Bot Monogr 81-115Jayaweera DMA 1981 Medical Plants (Indigenous and Exotic) Used in Ceylon National Science
Council of Sri Lanka Colombo Sri LankaJeeni CE 2001 Hindi-English-Mizo Dictionary Vani Prakasana New Delhi IndiaJerome S W Caxton W de Worde and R Curzon 1495 Vitas patrum Wynkyn de Worde
Westmynstre UKJha Govinda 1999 Kalyani Kosh (A Maithili-English Dictionary) Maharajadhiraja Kamesvara
Simha Kalyani Phaundesana Darabhanga India
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 815
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Johnstone TM 1987 Mehri Lexicon and English-Mehri Word-List School of Oriental and African Languages University of London London UK
Jones SB Jr and AE Luchsinger 1986 Plant Systematics McGraw-Hill New York New York USA
Joslashrgensen H 1936 A Dictionary of the Classical Newārī Kevin amp Munksgaard CopenhagenKabithe DW 1980 Afrikan Language Dictionary Swahili-English English-Swahili Understanding
International Toledo Ohio USAKachroo P (ed) 1970 Pulse Crops of India Indian Council of Agri Res New Delhi IndiaKane TL 1990 Amharic-English Dictionary Harrassowitz Wiesbaden GermanyKays SJ and SF Nottingham 2007 Biology and Chemistry of Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus
tuberosus L) Taylor and Francis Boca Raton Florida USAKays SJ and JC Silva Dias 1996 Cultivated Vegetables of the World Latin Binomial Common
Name in 15 Languages Edible Part and Method of Preparation Exon Press Athens Georgia USA
Koenon E von 2001 Medicinal Poisonous and Edible Plants in Namibia Klaus Hess Publishers Windhoek Namibia
Kohen E and D Kohen-Gordon 2000 Ladino-English English-Ladino Concise Encyclopedia Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Kroll S and D Zahirović 1998 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary and Phrasebook Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Lamberts M 1992 Production trends for specialty Asian vegetables in Dade County Florida Acta Hort 31879-85
Lemmens RHMJ and N Bunyapraphatsara (eds) 2003 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(3) Medicinal and Poisonous Plants Backhuys Publishers Leiden the Netherlands
Leslau W 1963 Etymological Dictionary for Harari University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Leslau W 1976 Concise Amharic Dictionary University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Levang P and H de Foresta 1991 Economic Plants of Indonesia Orstom Bogor IndonesiaLinneacute Carl von 1753 Caroli Linnaeligi Species plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera
relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas Impensis Laurentii Salvii Holmiaelig (Stockholm Sweden)
Lorenzi H 1991 Plantas Daninhas do Brasil Terrestres Aquaacuteticas Parasitas Toacutexicase Medicinais 2nd ed Plantarum Press Nova Odessa Brazil
Luomala K 1953 Ethnobotany of the Gilbert Islands Bishop Museum Bul 213 129pMacPhail RM 1984 Campbellrsquos English-Santali Dictionary Eastern Books Calcutta IndiaMalherbe F de 1862 Oeuvres completes de Malherbe recueillies et aannotees par ML Lalanne
Hachette Paris FranceMamedov S 1995 Azerbaijani English-Azerbaijani Azerbaijani-English Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAMan Ssu-ch‛ien 1958 English-Hakka Dictionary Qi Guang Chubanshe Hong KongManner A 1983 Tulu-English Dictionary Asian Educational Services New Delhi IndiaMaracle DK 1992 One Thousand Useful Mohawk Words Audio-Forum Guilford Connecticut
USAMarijana Kiš 1996 Dijalektnata leksika od oblasta na rastitelniot svet Institut za Makedonski Jazik
ldquoKrste Misirkovrdquo Skopje MacedoniaMartin JB and MM Mauldin 2000 A Dictionary of CreekMuskogee University of Nebraska
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816 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Martineau L 1992 The Southern Paiutes Legends Lore Language and Lineage KC Publications Las Vegas Nevada USA
McNeill J FR Barrie HM Burdet V Demoulin DL Hawksworth K Marhold DH Nicolson J Prado PC Silva JE Skog and JH Wiersema (eds) 2005 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna Austria ARG Ganter Koumlnigstein Germany
Mertz O AM Lykke and A Reenberg 2001 Importance and seasonality of vegetable consumption and marketing in Burkina Faso Econ Bot 55276-289
Milner GB 1993 Samoan Dictionary Polynesian Press Aotearoa New ZealandMintz MW 1971 Bikol Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMochari M (ed) 1985 Bodo-English Dictionary The Bodo Catholic Youth Association Bengtol
Kakrajhar Assam IndiaMolina FS H Valenzuela and DL Shaul 1999 Yoeme-English English-Yoeme Standard
Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA Motus C 1971 Hiligaynon Dictionary Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMunro P and C Willmond 1994 Chickasaw An Analytical Dictionary University Oklahoma Press
Norman OklahomaNewman S 1958 Zuni Dictionary Intern J Amer Linguistics 24117pNiang M 1997 Pulaar-English English-Pulaar Hippocrene Books New York New York USANichols J and A Vagapov 2004 Chechen-English and English-Chechen Dictionary
RoutledgeCurzon New York New York USANguyen MLT 2005 Bạc hagrave (Colocasia gigantean [Blume] Hook f) in the culinary history of
Vietnamese-Americans Econ Bot 59185-196Oideachais AR 1978 Ainmneacha Plandai Agus Ainmhithe Baile Atha Cliath Oifig an tSolathair
IrelandOideachais AR 1978 Focloir Talmhaiochta An Gum Baile Atha Cliath IrelandOumlztopccedilu K Z Abuov N Kambarov and Y Azemoun 1996 Dictionary of the Turkic Languages
Routledge New York New York USAParham BEV 1957 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 2(5 and 7) Apia
SamoaParham BEV 1958 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 3(5 8 and 11)
Apia SamoaParham BEV 1972 Plants of Samoa New Zealand Dept Scientific and Industrial Res Wellington
New ZealandParker EM and RJ Hayward 1985 An Afar-English-French Dictionary School of Oriental and
African Studies University of London London UKParker SP 1989 McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms McGraw-Hill New
York New York USAParrotta JA 2001 Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing New York New York
USAPassy AM 1999 Sephardic Folk Dictionary English to Ladino Ladino to English Published by
the author Los Angeles California USAPereira C and FV Agarez 1980 Botacircnica Taxonomia e Organografia das Angiospermas
Interamericana Rio de Janeiro BrazilPhone W 2007 Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque New
Mexico USAPikia M 2006 African Traditional Plant Knowledge Today Lit Verlag Berlin GermanyPlants of the Philippines Work Group 1996 Plants of the Philippines Island Pub House ManilaPulte W (ed) 1975 Cherokee-English Dictionary Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Tahlequah
Oklahoma USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 815
References
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Johnstone TM 1987 Mehri Lexicon and English-Mehri Word-List School of Oriental and African Languages University of London London UK
Jones SB Jr and AE Luchsinger 1986 Plant Systematics McGraw-Hill New York New York USA
Joslashrgensen H 1936 A Dictionary of the Classical Newārī Kevin amp Munksgaard CopenhagenKabithe DW 1980 Afrikan Language Dictionary Swahili-English English-Swahili Understanding
International Toledo Ohio USAKachroo P (ed) 1970 Pulse Crops of India Indian Council of Agri Res New Delhi IndiaKane TL 1990 Amharic-English Dictionary Harrassowitz Wiesbaden GermanyKays SJ and SF Nottingham 2007 Biology and Chemistry of Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus
tuberosus L) Taylor and Francis Boca Raton Florida USAKays SJ and JC Silva Dias 1996 Cultivated Vegetables of the World Latin Binomial Common
Name in 15 Languages Edible Part and Method of Preparation Exon Press Athens Georgia USA
Koenon E von 2001 Medicinal Poisonous and Edible Plants in Namibia Klaus Hess Publishers Windhoek Namibia
Kohen E and D Kohen-Gordon 2000 Ladino-English English-Ladino Concise Encyclopedia Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Kroll S and D Zahirović 1998 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary and Phrasebook Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Lamberts M 1992 Production trends for specialty Asian vegetables in Dade County Florida Acta Hort 31879-85
Lemmens RHMJ and N Bunyapraphatsara (eds) 2003 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(3) Medicinal and Poisonous Plants Backhuys Publishers Leiden the Netherlands
Leslau W 1963 Etymological Dictionary for Harari University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Leslau W 1976 Concise Amharic Dictionary University of California Press Berkeley California USA
Levang P and H de Foresta 1991 Economic Plants of Indonesia Orstom Bogor IndonesiaLinneacute Carl von 1753 Caroli Linnaeligi Species plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera
relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas Impensis Laurentii Salvii Holmiaelig (Stockholm Sweden)
Lorenzi H 1991 Plantas Daninhas do Brasil Terrestres Aquaacuteticas Parasitas Toacutexicase Medicinais 2nd ed Plantarum Press Nova Odessa Brazil
Luomala K 1953 Ethnobotany of the Gilbert Islands Bishop Museum Bul 213 129pMacPhail RM 1984 Campbellrsquos English-Santali Dictionary Eastern Books Calcutta IndiaMalherbe F de 1862 Oeuvres completes de Malherbe recueillies et aannotees par ML Lalanne
Hachette Paris FranceMamedov S 1995 Azerbaijani English-Azerbaijani Azerbaijani-English Hippocrene Books New
York New York USAMan Ssu-ch‛ien 1958 English-Hakka Dictionary Qi Guang Chubanshe Hong KongManner A 1983 Tulu-English Dictionary Asian Educational Services New Delhi IndiaMaracle DK 1992 One Thousand Useful Mohawk Words Audio-Forum Guilford Connecticut
USAMarijana Kiš 1996 Dijalektnata leksika od oblasta na rastitelniot svet Institut za Makedonski Jazik
ldquoKrste Misirkovrdquo Skopje MacedoniaMartin JB and MM Mauldin 2000 A Dictionary of CreekMuskogee University of Nebraska
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816 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Martineau L 1992 The Southern Paiutes Legends Lore Language and Lineage KC Publications Las Vegas Nevada USA
McNeill J FR Barrie HM Burdet V Demoulin DL Hawksworth K Marhold DH Nicolson J Prado PC Silva JE Skog and JH Wiersema (eds) 2005 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna Austria ARG Ganter Koumlnigstein Germany
Mertz O AM Lykke and A Reenberg 2001 Importance and seasonality of vegetable consumption and marketing in Burkina Faso Econ Bot 55276-289
Milner GB 1993 Samoan Dictionary Polynesian Press Aotearoa New ZealandMintz MW 1971 Bikol Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMochari M (ed) 1985 Bodo-English Dictionary The Bodo Catholic Youth Association Bengtol
Kakrajhar Assam IndiaMolina FS H Valenzuela and DL Shaul 1999 Yoeme-English English-Yoeme Standard
Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA Motus C 1971 Hiligaynon Dictionary Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMunro P and C Willmond 1994 Chickasaw An Analytical Dictionary University Oklahoma Press
Norman OklahomaNewman S 1958 Zuni Dictionary Intern J Amer Linguistics 24117pNiang M 1997 Pulaar-English English-Pulaar Hippocrene Books New York New York USANichols J and A Vagapov 2004 Chechen-English and English-Chechen Dictionary
RoutledgeCurzon New York New York USANguyen MLT 2005 Bạc hagrave (Colocasia gigantean [Blume] Hook f) in the culinary history of
Vietnamese-Americans Econ Bot 59185-196Oideachais AR 1978 Ainmneacha Plandai Agus Ainmhithe Baile Atha Cliath Oifig an tSolathair
IrelandOideachais AR 1978 Focloir Talmhaiochta An Gum Baile Atha Cliath IrelandOumlztopccedilu K Z Abuov N Kambarov and Y Azemoun 1996 Dictionary of the Turkic Languages
Routledge New York New York USAParham BEV 1957 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 2(5 and 7) Apia
SamoaParham BEV 1958 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 3(5 8 and 11)
Apia SamoaParham BEV 1972 Plants of Samoa New Zealand Dept Scientific and Industrial Res Wellington
New ZealandParker EM and RJ Hayward 1985 An Afar-English-French Dictionary School of Oriental and
African Studies University of London London UKParker SP 1989 McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms McGraw-Hill New
York New York USAParrotta JA 2001 Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing New York New York
USAPassy AM 1999 Sephardic Folk Dictionary English to Ladino Ladino to English Published by
the author Los Angeles California USAPereira C and FV Agarez 1980 Botacircnica Taxonomia e Organografia das Angiospermas
Interamericana Rio de Janeiro BrazilPhone W 2007 Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque New
Mexico USAPikia M 2006 African Traditional Plant Knowledge Today Lit Verlag Berlin GermanyPlants of the Philippines Work Group 1996 Plants of the Philippines Island Pub House ManilaPulte W (ed) 1975 Cherokee-English Dictionary Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Tahlequah
Oklahoma USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
816 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
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McNeill J FR Barrie HM Burdet V Demoulin DL Hawksworth K Marhold DH Nicolson J Prado PC Silva JE Skog and JH Wiersema (eds) 2005 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna Austria ARG Ganter Koumlnigstein Germany
Mertz O AM Lykke and A Reenberg 2001 Importance and seasonality of vegetable consumption and marketing in Burkina Faso Econ Bot 55276-289
Milner GB 1993 Samoan Dictionary Polynesian Press Aotearoa New ZealandMintz MW 1971 Bikol Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMochari M (ed) 1985 Bodo-English Dictionary The Bodo Catholic Youth Association Bengtol
Kakrajhar Assam IndiaMolina FS H Valenzuela and DL Shaul 1999 Yoeme-English English-Yoeme Standard
Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA Motus C 1971 Hiligaynon Dictionary Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USAMunro P and C Willmond 1994 Chickasaw An Analytical Dictionary University Oklahoma Press
Norman OklahomaNewman S 1958 Zuni Dictionary Intern J Amer Linguistics 24117pNiang M 1997 Pulaar-English English-Pulaar Hippocrene Books New York New York USANichols J and A Vagapov 2004 Chechen-English and English-Chechen Dictionary
RoutledgeCurzon New York New York USANguyen MLT 2005 Bạc hagrave (Colocasia gigantean [Blume] Hook f) in the culinary history of
Vietnamese-Americans Econ Bot 59185-196Oideachais AR 1978 Ainmneacha Plandai Agus Ainmhithe Baile Atha Cliath Oifig an tSolathair
IrelandOideachais AR 1978 Focloir Talmhaiochta An Gum Baile Atha Cliath IrelandOumlztopccedilu K Z Abuov N Kambarov and Y Azemoun 1996 Dictionary of the Turkic Languages
Routledge New York New York USAParham BEV 1957 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 2(5 and 7) Apia
SamoaParham BEV 1958 Some Samoan plant names Laufasi Ola Dept Agri Circ 3(5 8 and 11)
Apia SamoaParham BEV 1972 Plants of Samoa New Zealand Dept Scientific and Industrial Res Wellington
New ZealandParker EM and RJ Hayward 1985 An Afar-English-French Dictionary School of Oriental and
African Studies University of London London UKParker SP 1989 McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms McGraw-Hill New
York New York USAParrotta JA 2001 Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing New York New York
USAPassy AM 1999 Sephardic Folk Dictionary English to Ladino Ladino to English Published by
the author Los Angeles California USAPereira C and FV Agarez 1980 Botacircnica Taxonomia e Organografia das Angiospermas
Interamericana Rio de Janeiro BrazilPhone W 2007 Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque New
Mexico USAPikia M 2006 African Traditional Plant Knowledge Today Lit Verlag Berlin GermanyPlants of the Philippines Work Group 1996 Plants of the Philippines Island Pub House ManilaPulte W (ed) 1975 Cherokee-English Dictionary Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Tahlequah
Oklahoma USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 817
References
Ramser J K Weising C Lopez-Peralta W Terhalle R Terauchi and G Kahl 1997 Molecular marker based taxonomy and phylogeny of Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata ndash D cayenensis) Genome 40903-915
Rand ST 1888 Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians Nova Scotia Printing Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
Raven PH RF Evert and SE Eichhorn 1992 Biology of Plants Worth New York New York USA
Reh M 1999 Anywa-English and English-Anywa Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlag Koumlln Germany
Reid LA (ed) 1971 Philippine Minor Languages Word Lists and Phonologies University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Reitz R 1972 Flora Ilustrada Catarinense Herbaacuterio Barbosa Rodrigues Itajaiacute Santa Catarina Brazil
Robinson LW and J Armagost 1990 Comanche Dictionary and Grammar The Summer Institute of Lingustics Dallas Texas USA
Ross D and GD Smith 1998 Scots-English English-Scots Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York New York USA
Royal Society Great Britain 1790 Ancient Cookery Society of Antiquaries of LondonCollection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the Royal Household London England
Rubino CRG 2000 Ilocano-English Dictionary University of Hawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii USA
Rytz O (ed) 1960 Gonja-English Dictionary and Spelling Book 1960 Institute of African Studies University of Ghana Legon Ghana
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr and K Semrau 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 1 Allphabetisches Verzeichnis [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 1 Alphabetical List] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Sahrmuumlller R H-S Banholzer I Galler F Bummeltenberg D Kulewatz I Lepiksarr K Semrau H Voigt and G Voll 1990 Mehrsprachiges Verzeichnis der Gemuumlsenamen Teil 2 100 Gemuumlsearten in 50 Sprachen [Index of Vegetable Names in Several Languages Part 2 100 Vegetable Species 50 Languages] Institut fuumlr Gemuumlseproduktion Grossbeeren Germany
Salaman RN 1940 Why ldquoJerusalemrdquo artichoke Royal Hort Soc LXVI338-348 376-383Saacutenchez-Monge y Parellada E 1981 Diccionario de Plantas Agricolas Ministry of Agriculture
Sercicio de Publ Agrarias Madrid SpainSapir E 1930 Southern Paiute a Shoshonean language Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences 651-296Schuh RG 1981 Dictionary of Ngizim University of California Press Berkeley California USASetchell WA 1924 American Samoa Carnegie Inst Pub 341 Washington DC USASeymour ELO 1990 The Wise Garden Encyclopedia Harper Collins New York New York USASiemonsma JS and K Piluek (eds) 1993 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 8 Vegetables
Pudoc Scientific Publishers Leiden the NetherlandsSimpson JA and Weiner ESC 1989 The Oxford English Dictionary 20 vols Claredon Press
Oxford UKSkinner N 1996 Hausa Comparative Dictionary Ruumldiger Koumlppe Verlan Koumlln GermanySlavov A 1999 Gypsy-English English-Gypsy Concise Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USASmith HH 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians Bull Pub Museum of the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USASoukup J 1980 Vocabulario de los nombres vulgares de la Flora Peruana y Cataacutelogo de los Geacuteneros
Editorial Salesiana Segunda Edicioacuten Lima Peru
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
818 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
References
Soule J 1985 Glossary for Horticultural Crops John Wiley amp Sons New York New York USASperlich WB (ed) 1997 Tohi Vagahau Niue Niue Language Dictionary Government Press NiueSpring RK 2002 Balti-English English-Balti Dictionary RoutledgeCurzon New York New York
USASprinkle R 1976 Zhonggou Min nan yu Ying yu zi dian (Amoy-English Dictionary) Maryknoll
Fathers Taichung TaiwanStevels JMC 1990 Leacutegumes Traditionnels du Cameroun une Ecirctude Agro-botanique Wageningen
Agricultural University Papers Wageningen the NetherlandsStone G 2002 Upper Sorbian-English Dictionary Domowina Verlag GmbH Bautzen GermanyStroslashmme E (ed) 1993 Navn paring groslashnnsaker og krydderplanter Norsk plantenomenklaturraringd for
hagebruk FaginfoStatens fagtjeneste for landbruket Arings NorwaySubhadrabandhu S 1999 Ethnomedical uses of common plants in Thailand Chronica Horticulturae
39(1)7-9Svenson HK 1939 Monographic studies in the genus Eleocharis ndash V Rhodora 411-19Tanaka Y 1976 Tanakarsquos Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World Sasuke Nakao (ed) Keigaku
Pub Co Tokyo JapanTaylor FW 1995 Fulani-English Hippocrene Books New York New York USATerpstra G 1968 English-Tiv Dictionary Institute for African Studies University of Ibadan Ibadan
NigeriaTerrell E SR Hill JH Wiersema and WE Rice 1986 A Check List of Names for 3000 Vascular
Plants of Economic Importance United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook 505 Washington DC USA
Thibert A 1997 Eskimo-English English-Eskimo Dictionary AES + Laurier Pub Ottawa CanadaThomson DS 1994 The New English-Gaelic Dictionary GAIEM Glasgow Scotland UKTominaga T 1992 Fruits and vegetables in markets in Bintulu Sarawak Malaysia J Fac Agric
Shinshu University 29(2)137-147Torikashvili JJ 1992 Georgian-English English-Georgian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New
York New York USATovar O 1990 Tipos de Vegetacioacuten Diversidad Floristica y Estado de Conservacioacuten de la Cuenca
del Mantaro Centro de Datos para la Conservacioacuten Univ Nac Agraria La Molina Lima PeruUzicani NS 1995 Bosnian-English English-Bosnian Dictionary Hippocrene Books New York
New York USA Van der Maesen LJG and S Somaatmadja (eds) 1989 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No
1 Pulses Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVan Warmelo NJ 1989 Venda Dictionary Tsguvenḓa-English JL van Schaik Pretoria South
AfricaVan Wyk B-E 2005 Food Plants of the World Timber Press Portland Oregon USAVavilov NI 1992 Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants Cambridge University Press
Cambridge UKVerheij EWM and RE Coronel (eds) 1991 Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 2 Edible
Fruits and Nuts Pudoc Scientific Leiden the NetherlandsVestal PA and RE Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians Botanical Museum
Cambridge Massachusetts USAWells JC 2010 Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing lthttpwwwphon uclacuk
homewellsdiadiacritics-revisedhtmgtWhistler WA 1991 Polynesian plant introductions pp 41-66 In Islands Plants and Polynesians
An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany PA Cox and SA Banack (eds) Dioscorides Press Portland Oregon USA
Whistler WA 1991 The Ethnobotany of Tonga The Plants Their Tongan Names and Their Uses Bishop Museum Botany Bull 2 Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 819
References
Wilder GP 1931 Flora of Rarotonga Bishop Museum Bull 86 Honolulu Hawaii USAWilliamson K 1993 Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern
Nigeria pp 150-51 In Shaw T P Sinclair B Andah and A Okpoka The Archaeology of Africa Food Metals and Towns London UK
Williamson J 1960 Useful Plants of Malawi Government Printers Zomba MalawiWilliamson JP 1992 An English-Dakota Dictionary Minnesota Historical Soc Press St Paul
Minnesota USAWilson PM nd English-Swahili East African Literature Bureau Nairobi KenyaYuncker TG 1943 The Flora of Niue Island Bishop Museum Bull 178 Honolulu Hawaii USAYang Yigeng Lianci Liu Xuequn Chen Cailin Chen Guangfan Zhou and Keli Niao 1988
Classificational research for vegetables in mustard (Brassica juncea Coss) pp 342-347 In International Symposium on Horticultural Germplasm Cultivated and Wild Part II vegetables International Academic Publishers Beijing China
Yawalkar KS 1965 Vegetable Crops of India Agri-Horticultural Pub House Nagpur IndiaYoung RW and W Morgan 1980 The Navajo Language University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque New Mexico USAYuncker TG 1945 Plants of the Manua Islands Bishop Museum Bull 184 Honolulu HawaiiYuncker TG 1959 Plants of Tonga Bishop Museum Bull 220 Honolulu Hawaii USAZohary D and M Hopf 2000 Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford University Press
Oxford UK
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 821
Appendices
Appendix I DiacriticsEnglish is one of the few languages that utilizes the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet Many other Latin alphabet-based languages supplement the sounds that can be represented by the letters using diacritics (eg aacute atilde acirc auml aring ā ă ą ȁ ȧ ạ ả a ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ) (Wells 2010) Diacritics used in the text are listed below however their effect on pronunciation is not consistent across languages As a consequence it is best to consult an explanation of the use of diacritics for each language
Acute accents (eg aacute ǽ ć eacute iacute oacute ĺ ń ŕ ś uacute z) have a wide range of applications depending upon the language For example in certain languages (eg Lakota Portuguese Spanish) they represent stressed vowels In certain other languages they indicate a long vowel (eg Czech Hungarian Irish) and in Polish palatalization In some African languages an acute accent over a vowel typically indicates a rising tone while over d k or t in Senegalese languages it hardens and shortens the letter A double acute (eg ő ű) is primarily used in Hungarian and acts as a combination of an acute and a diaeresis giving a longer sound to the respective letters
A grave accent (eg agrave egrave igrave ograve ugrave y) like an acute accent has various effects on pronunciation depending upon the language In French a grave accent indicates a half-open vowel in Italian and Catalan it is a stressed vowel in Scottish Gaelic a long vowel and in Vietnamese it denotes a low tone In a number of the African languages listed a grave accent over a vowel denotes a falling tone
In certain African languages a double grave accent (eg ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȑ ȕ) over a vowel indicates a deeper falling tone when following a syllable already under a falling tone Likewise in Serbian Croatian and Slovenian a double grave accent indicates a falling tone
A circumflex accent (eg acirc ecirc icirc ocirc ucirc ŵ y) in Welsh denotes a long vowel including ŵ and y which are also vowels In Chichewa ŵ is a bilabial fricative while in Portuguese acirc ecirc icirc and ocirc are nasalized vowels In Turkish a circumflex appears over an a or u when a preceding consonant (eg k g l) is pronounced as a palatal plosive while in certain African languages a circumflex accent over a vowel indicates a rising tone In Potawatomi ecirc is pronounced as in the English word bet icirc as in bit and ucirc as in luck (Smith 1933) while in Kiowa the circumflex (icirc t) indicates a combination of an acute and a grave accent
A inverted circumflex also known as a hachek (eg č ě š ž) is represented by a relatively sharp wedge over the letter In Czech Slovak Croation Slovene and certain other languages š and ž indicate palato-alveolar fricatives In Amharic the grapheme č denotes the voiceless postalveolar affricate consonant similar to ch in the English word chocolate ğ signals [dʒ] and š signals [ʃ] In Czech č is a voiceless affricate while a hachek over an e indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant In several of the African languages listed a hachek over a consonant indicates a hardened aspiration a fricative or sibilant however when over a vowel it denotes a falling tone in the Nigerian languages
The breve (eg ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ) differs from the hachek in that it is more rounded In several languages it denotes the shortness of a vowel For example in Romanian ă indicates a mid central vowel In several of the African languages the presence of a breve over a vowel shortens it
A macron over a vowel (eg ā ē ī ō ū) indicates a long vowel in Maori Hawaiian and Latvian while in Yoruba it indicates a mid tone In certain African languages a macron lengthens a vowel though more commonly the vowel is doubled to show length In Pinyin ā ē ī ō ū ǖ are used to indicate the
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
822 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
first tone of Mandarin Chinese In contrast a macron under a vowel (eg a e i o u) in several of the African languages indicates a low level pitch
An overdot (eg ȧ ḃ ċ ḋ ė ḟ ġ ḣ ṁ ṅ ȯ ṗ ṙ ṡ ṫ ẇ ẋ ẏ ż) when used as a diacritic (in contrast to the letters i and j where the dot over the letter is a nondistinctive mark) has several functions In Lithuanian ė stands for a half closed vowel In Maltese ċ is a voiceless postalveolar affricate while in Lakota it is sometimes used to indicate an explosive stop In some of the African languages ṅ indicates ng as in the English sing
A dot under a letter (eg ạ ḅ ḍ ẹ ḥ ḳ ḷ ṃ ṇ ọ ṛ s ṭ ụ ṿ ẉ ẓ) in Vietnamese indicates a low glottal tone when under a vowel In Igbo it indicates a reduction of the height of the vowel while in Yoruba when used under a consonant an underdot indicates a sibilant sound as in s = sh In several of the African languages a dot under a vowel makes it more open
A diaeresis or trema is created using two dots over the letter (eg auml euml iuml ouml uuml) When placed over one of two adjacent vowels a diaeresis indicates the vowels are sounded separately (ie split into two syllables rather than pronounced as a digraph) A variation of this is the German umlaut where auml ouml and uuml represent front vowels This changes the sound as in auml = ae
A tilde is written over a letter (eg atilde ĩ ntilde otilde ũ) to indicate a change in pronunciation In Spanish Basque Filipino Galacian Guarani and certain other languages it represents a palatal nasal consonant In other letters a tilde indicates nasalization of the base vowel in Portuguese and Guarani In Estonian otilde stands for a close-mid back unrounded vowel in Guarani g stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel and in Vietnamese a tilde over a vowel represents a dipping tone
A ring over a letter (eg aring ů w y) especially the letter a is a distinctive feature in Danish Norwegian and Swedish The letter ů is used in Czech where it has the same pronunciation as uacute but changes to a short o in declension A ring under a letter (eg ḁ) may also be used in certain Indo-European languages to indicate syllabicity
A hook (eg ả ẻ ỉ ỏ ủ ỷ) appears as a small question mark placed on the top of vowels in the Vietnamese language causing them to be pronounced with a falling then rising tone
A stroke (eg oslash) also called a slash is a diacritic that is placed through the letters o in Danish and Norwegian creating a half-close front rounded vowel A velarized l (eg ł) in Polish is pronounced as w
A bar (eg đ ħ ŧ) is a diacritic the effect of which varies with the language in question The Croatian letter đ represents a palatalized d which can also be written as the digraph dj (Wells 2010) In the Vietnamese alphabet however đ stands for [d] while in Saacutemi đ and ŧ are fricatives In Maltese ħ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative
The horn (eg ơ ư) is a Vietnamese diacritic that creates unrounded variants of each vowel and are considered as separate letters from o and u
A cedilla (eg ccedil ş) originated from Spanish and is represented by a miniature curved structure at the base of the letters c and s With ccedil it represents a soft sound s rather than a hard sound k before a o u or at the end of a word in Basque Catalan French and Portuguese However in Albanian Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ccedil represents a voiceless affricate In Azerbaijani Kurdish Tatar Turkish and Turkmen ş represents a voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 823
Appendices
A comma at the base of a letter (ķ ļ ņ ŗ ţ) is used as a diacritic in several languages (eg Latvian Romanian) and represents various soft consonants With the letter g the comma is reversed and placed out of necessity over the lower case letter (ģ)
A tail or ogonek (eg ą ę į ų) is used in several eastern European languages In Polish ą and ę denote nasalized vowels In Lithuanian the tail simply means a long vowel In transcriptions of Navajo Kiowa and certain other Amerindian languages the diacritic is used to indicate nasalization (Harrington 1928)
A dot (eg ạ ẹ ị ọ ụ ỵ) in Vietnamese indicates a low tone and glottalized or tense voice while in Yoruba ạ and ẹ denote a half-open vowel A dotted s represents a palatoalveolar fricative ʃ A dot is also sometimes used in Romanization of languages using non-Latin alphabets For example several languages from Southeast Asia use a dot under d n s and t to represent retroflex consonants while under d s or t in the Romanization of Arabic it represents an emphatic consonant
An apostrophe (rsquo) has an exceptionally wide range of uses as a diacritic In Hausa it indicates a glottalisation of the following consonant or when between two vowels a glottal stop In the Romanization of Mandarin Chinese it marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound as in tsrsquoecirc where tsrsquo is aspirated In English it denotes possessive as in the common name giant elephantrsquos ear (Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook f) In Swahili when placed after ng (ngrsquo) the g is silent as in the English word singer while in Italian it is occasionally used for a grave accent after a final vowel In some languages (eg Guarani Hawaiian Samoan Tahitian Tongan) and transliterations the apostrophe is used to indicate a glottal stop Likewise it may indicate the presence or lack of palatalization in Belarusian Russian and Ukrainian depending upon where it is used In Southern Paiute -krsquow indicates the w is unvoiced at the end of the word With -ngrsquow the w at the end of the word is unvoiced (Martineau 1992) In some languages an apostrophe is used to separate the root word from its affixes especially if the root word is foreign and unassimilated
The effect of two diacritics on a single letter (eg ǻ ấ ầ ẩ ẫ ậ ắ ằ ẳ ẵ ặ ế ề ể ễ ệ ǖ ǘ ǚ ǜ) varies with the language in question In Vietnamese one may relate to the vowel quality and the other to the tone
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 825
Appendices
Appendix II Unique letterssymbols and alphabetizationUnique letters and symbols
In some instances unique letters are required for representing distinctive sounds that cannot be reproduced using Latin letters and diacritics For example the palatoalveolar fricative (ʃ) may be represented by sh in English or š ŝ or ş depending upon the language In English certain sounds can be represented by combining two letters [sh or ng] called a digraph In other languages however these adjacent letters may sometimes be pronounced separately In other instances it is not possible to accurately represent the required sound with existing letters or diacritics in which case additional letters are required For example in the Khoisan languages clicking sounds are used which cannot be reproduced using the Latin alphabet In addition to new letters ligatures (the fusion of two letters such as aelig) are routinely used in some languages
Several West African languages use additional letters (eg ŋ ɲ ǝ ɛ ɔ) Where possible the pronunciation indicated by the letter is listed below typically by language or language groups In a few instances symbols used from several sources lack descriptions of their pronunciation and an explanation could not be found For more detailed explanation of unique characters one should utilize a dictionary for the language in question
Afro-roman characters used in a number of African languages
ɓ ndash a glottalised bḅ ndash an implosive bɖ ndash a post-alveolar dɗ ndash a glottalised dḍ ndash an implosive dɛ ndash an open eǝ ndash a central vowel (schwa) as at the end of English sodaƒ ndash a bilabial fɣ ndash a voiced velar fricativeƙ ndash a glottalized kɲ ndash a palatal nasal nyŋ ndash a velar nasal as the ng in English singɔ ndash a short back vowel as in English broughtọ ndash a short back vowel in Nigerian languagesʃ ndash shƴ ndash a glottalised y
Amharic (see Kane 1990)
gw ndash the superscript w indicates a voiced labiovelar stopʔ ndash represents a voiceless glottal stop
Azerbaijani Kazakh Kirghiz Tatar
indicates a retracted i sound ndash
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
826 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Herero is a Bantu language and like the Khoisan languages of southern Africa uses clicks as speech sounds The primary sounds are symbolized using ǀ ne (or ǂ) and Many of the Bantu languages (eg Zulu) use the letters c x and q for dental lateral and alveolar clicks
ndash represents an alveolar click which is made using the tip of the tongue which is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth
ne ndash or more correctly ǂ is a palatal click that is made with a flat tongue that is pulled down abruptly from the roof of the mouth It makes a softer sound clicking sound than the
Comanche
ʔ ndash represents a glottal stop
German
szlig ndash the German eszett or scharfes symbol has been replaced in modern German by ss
Khmer Central
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Kung-Ekoka is synonymous with KUNG a member of the Khoisan language family that uses click sounds The sound is created by sucking on the molars in the back of the mouth to create a sound (tchick) somewhat like that used in English to get a horse moving
fraslfrasl or ǂ ndash a pulmonic click ndash click consonant
Lahu
Diacritical marks in some versions of Lahu are placed one space after each vowel
˄ ndash represents a rising tone˅ ndash represents a falling toneˉ ndash represents a very low tone
Lakota
η ndash The lower case Greek letter η (eta) is used in popular Lakota orthography to indicate the nasality of a preceding vowel
Lao
ndash when following a vowel it indicates a lengthening of the vowel sound
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon 827
Appendices
Nama-Damara
ndash represents a post-alveolar click release (sharp click) ndash represents affricated lateral clicks ndash represents affricated dental clicks- ndash represents a stem that occurs with a prefix
Paiute Southern (Martineau 1992)
rsquondash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stopacutendash an accute accent mark is used to distinguish a long vowel from a short one
Potawatomi (Smith 1933)
rsquo ndash an apostrophe indicates a glottal stop
Pume
th ndash a superscript h indicates aspiration of the sound
Samoan and Raratongan
lsquo ndash indicates a glottal unaspirated voiceless stop
Somali
ḋ ndash indicates an implosive dental stop
Tibetan
part ndash though not specified in the source it probably represents a low mid-back rounded vowel alternatively a high central unrounded vowel
Vietnamese
[ ] ndash Letters within brackets represent transcriptions of Vietnamese characters (eg [aws] = ắ [oos] = ố [oox] = ỗ [oo] = ocirc etc)
Warma
δ ndash indicates the voiced th sound in the English word thus
Yom
μ ndash is thought to represent a syllabic nasal sound as in the om of the English word bottomτ ndash though not indicated by the source it probably indicates a partially voiced t sound when adjacent
to an m or r
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals
828 Cultivated vegetables of the world a multilingual onomasticon
Appendices
Zuni
ndash a slash represents a glottal stop in Zuni that is unaspirated and voiceless (Newman 1958)
Italicization
Certain prefixes are italicized in several African languages the use of which varies depending upon the language and source In a number of cases the meaning of italicization in vernacular name lists is not indicated In some instances the use of italics indicates singular versus plural definite for the plant or for the useful part of the plant For example in Themne the prefixes a- am- an- indicate singular while ɛ- indicates plural ka- singular for the useful part of the plant and ta- the plural ma- the fruit (Deighton 1957) In various Niger-Congo languages the vernacular name may begin with an italicized n m g or k followed by a specific letter (eg mb nd ng nj gb or kp) which indicates an altered pronunciation of the second letter When the name is modified with a prefix the initial consonant is commonly altered for euphony (eg t becomes l k becomes g) In some sources prefixes are ignored in alphabetization however herein the prefix is treated as part of the word
Alphabetization
In the Latin alphabet used by the English language individual letters are alphabetized in the following order a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z In some languages certain digraphs (a two letter combinations such as sh ng nh) are treated as distinct letters and their alphabetization varies depending upon the language In addition letters with diacritics over them in some languages may be alphabetized using distinctly different methods as illustrated by Estonian vowels with diacritics which are found in the following order at the end of the alphabet p r s š z ž t u v otilde auml ouml uuml The Kiowa alphabet exhibits the following order a au e i o u ai aui oi ui b f p v g c k q d j t th ch x s z l w y h m n while the Zuni alphabet comprised of only 18 letters is ordered as follows a b d ch e h i k l ł m n o p s t u w y
In the text diacritics are ignored with regard to alphabetization The following alphabetical sequence is used aα aeligae bɓ cɔ dɗɖ eɛʃǝ f ƒ g hɣ iı j kƙ l m nɲŋ o p q r s szlig t u v w x yƴ z δ η where slashes () indicate the letters are handled alphabetically as equals