CONTENTS
Five Themes of GeographyUnderstanding Movementsof Earth
Understanding GlobesMap Projections
M1 How to Use a MapPolitical and Physical MapsSpecial-Purpose MapsHuman MigrationWorld Land Use
M2
M4M6
f-GO q&nling Use web Code lap-0000 for all of the mapsHHSihool.com in this handbook.
Five Themes of GeographyStudying the geography of the entire world is ahuge task. You cair make that task easier by using thefive themes of geography: location, regions, place,movement, and human-environment interaction. Thethemes are tools you can use to organize informationand to answer the where, why, and how of geography.
tE Location answers the question, "Where is it?"* You can think of the location of a continent
or a country as its address. You might give anabsolute location such as 22 South Lake Street or '
40" N and 80" W. You might also use a relativeaddress, telling where one place is by referrirg . .,,,,
to another place. Between school andthe mall and eight miles east ofPleasant City are examples
of relative locations.
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A LocationThis museum in England has aline running through it. The linemarks its location at 0o longitude,;
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"n Regions are areas that share at least one
" common feature. Geographers dividethe world into many types of regions. Forexample, countries, states, and cities are
political regions. The people in any one ofthese places live under the same government.Other features, such as climate and culture,can be used to define regions. Therefore thesame place can be found in more than oneregion. For example, the state of Hawaii is inthe political region of the United States.
Because it has a tropical climate, Hawaii isalso part of a tropical climate region.
F€ Movement answers the question, "How*F do people, goods, and ideas move fromplace to place?" Remember that what hap-pens in one place often affects what happensin another. Use the theme of movement tohelp you trace the spread of goods, people,
and ideas from one location to another.
'*'lE Place identifies the natural and human*,,# features that make one place differentfrom every other place. You can identi$ra specific place by its landforms, climate,plants, animals, people, language, orculture. You might even think of place as a
geographic signature. Use the signature tohelp you understand the natural and humanfeatures that make one place difFerent fromevery other place.
{f Human-environment interaction*=,=F 15.r'rr.s on the relationship betweenpeople and the environment. As people livein an area, they often begin to make changes
to it, usually to make their lives easier. Forexample, they might build a dam to controi'flooding during rainy seasons. Also, theenvironment can afFect how people live,work, dress, travel, and communicate.
{ lnteractionThese Congolese womeninteract with their environmentby gathering wood for cooking.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
1 Describe your town or city,using each of the five themesof geography.
2 Name at least one thing thatcomes into your town or cityand one that goes out. How iseach moved? Where does itcome from? Where does it go?
MapMaster Skills Handbook M1
UnderstandingMovements of
V Spring beginsOn March 20 or 21, the sun is
directly overhead at theEquator. The Northern andSouthern Hemispheresreceive almost equal hours
EarthThe planet Earth is part of our solar system. Earthrevolves around the sun in a nearly circular path calledan orbit. A revolution, or one complete orbit around thesun, takes 365 % days, or one year. As Earth orbits thesun, it also spins on its axis, an invisible line through thecenter of Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole.
This movement is called a rotation.
How Night Changes lnto Day ffirt-,.&G
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The line of Earth's axis ...- .1-fi,i--\ '-\\i
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Earth tilts at anangle of 23.5".
Earth takes about 24 hours to make one fullrotation on its axis. As Earth rotates, it is daytime
on the side facing the sun. It is night on the side
away from the sun.
of sunlight anddarkness.
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On June 21 or 22, the sun is directlyoverhead at the Tropic of Cancer. TheNorthern Hemisphere receives thegreatest number of sunlight hours.
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The SeasonsEarth's axis is tilted at an angle. Because ofthis tilt, sunlight strikes different parts ofEarth at different times in the year, creatingseasons. The illustration below shows howthe seasons are created in the NorthernHemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere,the seasons are reversed.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
What causes the seasons in theNorthern Hemisphere to be theopposite of those in theSouthern Hemisphere?
During which two days of theyear do the NorthernHemisphere and SouthernHemisphere have equal hoursof daylight and darkness?
A Winter beginsAround December 21, thesun is directly overhead atthe Tropic of Capricorn inthe 5outhern Hemisphere.The Northern Hemisphereis tilted away from the sun.
Earth orbits the sun at66,600 miles per hour(1 07,244 ki lometers per:hour).
a-] - -:
7 Diagram not to scale
{ Autumn beginsOn September 22 or 23, the sun isdirectly overhead at the Equator.Again, the hemispheres receivealmost equal hours of sunlightand darkness.
MapMaster Skills Handbook M3
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Understanding GlobesA globe is a scale model of Earth. It shows theactual shapes, sizes, and locations of all Earth's
landmasses and bodies of water. Features on thesurface of Earth are drawn to scale on a globe. Thismeans that a small unit of measure on the globe
stands for a large unit of measure on Earth.
Parallels of LatitudeGeographers divide the globe along imaginaryhorizontal lines called parallels of latitude.One of these latitude lines is the
Equator, located halfiaray between
the North and South Poles.
Parallels of latitude are
measured in degrees ('). One
degree of latitude represents
a distance of about
69 miles (111 kilometers). d
All the latitudes, land,and water north of
the Equator are in theNorthern Hemisphere.
The Equator marksoo latitude and
divides Earth intothe Southernand Northern
- Hemispheres.
All the latitudes, land, and watersouth of the Equator are in the
Southern Hemisphere.
NorthernHemisphere
Equator( oo latitude)
SouthernHemisphere
The North Pole is 90onorth of the Equator.
The South Pole is 90o
south of the Equator.
M4 MapMaster Skills Handbook
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Meridians of LongitudeGeographers also divide the globe along imaginaryvertical lines called meridians of longitude, which are
measured in degrees ('). The longitude line calledthe Prime Meridian runs from pole to pole throughGreenwich, England. All meridians of longitudecome together at the North and South Poles.
AII the longitudes, land, andwater west of the PrimeMeridian are in the WesternHemisphere.
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PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
Which continents lie completelyin the Northern Hemisphere?ln the Western Hemisphere?
ls there land or water at 20o 5latitude and the PrimeMeridian? At the Equator and60" W longitude?
All the longitudes, land,and water east of the PrimeMeridian are in the EasternHemisphere.
The Prime Meridian marks 0olongitude and divides theglobe into the Eastern andWestern Hemispheres.
A CompassWherever you are onEarth, a compass can
be used to showdirection.
MapMaster Skills Handbook M5
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The Global Grid
\,/\Together, the pattern of parallels oflatitude and meridians of longitude is
called the global grid. Using the linesof latitude and longitude, you canlocate any place on Earth. For example,the location of 30o north latitude and90o west longitude is usually written as30o N, 90oW. Only one place on Earthhas these coordinates-the city of NewOrleans, in the state of Louisiana.
Prime Meridian( 0o longitude)
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WesternHemisphere
EasternHemisphere
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Map ProjectionsMaps are drawings that show regions on flatsurfaces. Maps are easier to use and carrythan globes, but they cannot show thecorrect size and shape of every feature onEarth's curved surface. They must shrinksome places and stretch others. To makeup for this distortion, mapmakers use
different map projections. No oneprojection can accurately show thecorrect area, shape, distance, and directionfor all of Earth's surface. Mapmakers use theprojection that has the least distortion for theinformation they are presenting.
Same-Shape MapsMap projections that accurately show
the shapes of landmasses are called
same-shape maps. However, these
projections often greatJy distort, ormake less accurate, the size oflandmasses as well as the distance
between them. In the projectionbelow, the northern and southern
areas of the globe appear more
stretched than the areas near theEquator.
A GlobalgoresFlattening a globecreates a string ofshapes called gores.
Stretching the gores makesparts of Earth larger. Thisenlargement becomesgreater toward the Northand South Poles.
Mercator projection FOne of the most common same-shape maps is the
Mercator projection, named for the mapmakerwho invented it. The Mercator projection
accurately shows shape and direction, but itdistorts distance and size. Because the projection
shows true directions, ships' navigators use it tochart a straight-line course between two ports.
M6 MapMaster Skills Handbook
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To turn Earth into a same-shapemap. mapmakers must stretchthe gores into rectangles.
Equal-Area MapsMap projections that show the correct size
of landmasses are called equal-area maps.In order to show the correct size oflandmasses, these maps usually distortshapes. The distortion is usually greater atthe edges of the map and less at the center.
To turn Earth's surfaceinto an equal-areamap, mapmakers h'aveto squeeze each goreinto an oval.
Robinson MapsMany of the maps in this book use the Robinsonprojection, which is a compromise between theMercator and equal-area projections. The Robinsonprojection'gives a useful overall picture of theworld. It keeps the size and shape relationships of
The tips of all the gores are then joinedtogether. The points at which they joinform the North and South Poles. The lineof the Equator stays the same.
North Pole
South PoleThe entire topedge of the mapis the North Pole.
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How to Use a Map LocatorsrobeMany maps are shown with
Mapmakers provide several clues to help you locator slobes. rhey show
understand the information on a map. Maps ]iff ;Hi:,',|'j:o'l: "*'provide different clues, depending on
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their purpose or scale. However, . ritle \most -up, have several clues / llll"f have a title' rhe \in common. I :ff["'iJr:'the
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Compass roseMany maps show direction bydisplaying a compass rose withthe directions north, east,south, and west. The letters N,
E, S, and W are placed toindicate these directions.
KeyOften a map has a key, orlegend. The key shows thesymbols and colors usedon the map, and whateach one means.
Scale barA scale bar helps youfind the actual distancesbetween points shownon the map. Most scale
bars show distances inboth miles and POkilometers.
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o miles I toot:0 kilometers 300
Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
Western Europe
SHTTLANDISLANDS
(u.K.)
WSUUVV
UNITED
Copenhagen
DEhJMARK
_ . .,._, Llarnburg' Berlin
GERMANY
f,rankfurt
SARDINIA(ltaly)
4 BALEARTcISLANDS
(5pain)
National border
@ National capital
. Other city
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Maps of Different ScalesMaps are drawn to different scales, dependingon their purpose. Here are three maps drawnto very dif[erent scales. Keep in mind that Amaps showing large areas have smaller
. -_scales. Maps showing small areas have ,ni,. ilarger scales. ,fr$, ififfi
A Greater LondonFind the gray square on the main map of WesternEurope (left). This square represents the area shownon the map above. lt shows London's boundaries,the general shape of the city, and the featuresaround the city. This map can help you find yourway from the airport to the center of town.
Key
E Bui,t-uparea { rirpo.t
Citv or countvboider ' 0 mite) '10 20
--@ Ndtional ."o trl o f i'ot"t"rs 20' Lambert Conformal Coric
a Town orneighborhood
& Central LondonFind the gray square on themap of Greater London. Thissquare represents the areashown on the map above. Thismap moves you closer into thecenter of London. Like thezoom on a computer or a
camera, this map shows a
smaller area but in greaterdetail. lt has the largest scale(1 inch represents about 0.9mile). You can use this map toexplore downtown London.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
What part of a map explainsthe colors used on the map?
How does the scale bar changedepending on the scale of themap?
Which map would be best forfinding the location of theBritish Museum? Explain why.
Key
Point of interest
Park
0 miles 0.5 1:--0 ki ometers 1
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Political MapsPolitical maps show political borders: continents,
countries, and divisions within countries, such as
states or provinces. The colors on political maps do
not have any special meaning, but they make the
map easier to read. Political maps also includeqlzmbols and labels for capitals, cities, and towns.
PRACTICE YOUR-GEOGRAPHY SKILLS
What symbols show a nationalborder, a national capital, anda city?
What is Angola's capital city?
MADEIRA frr*,r,o\ 1 *Tripoli
,,),i )r1-,r ii or,--;l,raitu]lf,' Rabat,rCasablanca<'d
' .ANARY T'LANDS UPEq
WESTERNSAHARA(Morocco)
Aloiers Tunis@ - ,ro
MAURITANIAQ Nouakchott
SIERRA LEONE {O
Monrovia
GUINEA-/: GUINEABISSAU o /--ponakry]' L.Freetown _f L,
ALGERIA
NIGER
EQUATORIAL GUINEA56oTom6* 6
sAo.ToME & ,GABoNPRINCIPE -rL;
CABINDA(Angola)
Luanda@
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CAPEVERDE
Praia
te
Antananarivo* -:
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MAURITIUSPott Louis 6
REUNION(France)
lvlaputo
Dakar is the capital of Senegal, inWest Africa. lts Presidential Palace
overlooks the Atlantic Ocean."ran^-tR.SOUTH
_ ua.p^er9wno AFRICALaDe of booo HoDe -Lape Aqulnas
0 miles 1,000r_0 kilometers 1.000
rg. p*-l\sli/Aztl
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PoliticalAfricaKey
National border
@ National capital
. Other city
..DodomaIakr
. Zanzibar- Dar es SalaamTangaq$tia Dar es Salaam
t- t*kzI lNya'a--,. COMOROSt r/lxtr$Vr o" lil^.^.^ro Moroni
MADAGASCAR
\ Dakar, Senegal
M10 MapMaster Skills Handbook
.Physica1 MapsPhysical maps represent what a region looks like byshowing its major physical features, such as hillsand plains. Physical maps also often show elevationand relief. Elevation, indicated by colors, is theheight of the land above sea level. Relief, indicated
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
Which areas of Africa have thehighest elevation?
How can you use relief to plana hiking trip?
Plain . i:.:. Zanzibar
0 milesF--____r_______r_-O kilometeE 1,000
Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
by shading, shows how sharply the land rises or falls.
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d-{ C)n$oOCongo
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Basin
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A The Congo BasinThe Congo Basin is a majorphysical feature of Africa. The keyshows that its elevation is withinthe range of 650/,GOO feet.
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PhysicalAfricaKey
ELEVATION
Feet
More thaR13,000
6,500-1 3,000
1,60H,500
650-1,600
0-650
Below sea level
N4eters
More than3,960
1,980-3,960
480-1,980
200-480
0-200
Below sea level
National border
Disputed border
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TLANTIC
INDIANOCEAN
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'ape of Good
Special-Purpose Maps:ClimateUnlike the boundary lines on a political map, the
boundary lines on climate maps do not separate
the land into exact divisions. For example, in thisclimate map of India, a tropical wet climate gradually
changes to a tropical wet and dry climate.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
What part of a special-purposemap tells you what the colorson the map mean?
Where are arid regions locatedin lndia? Are there major citiesin those regions?
MYANMAR
A Rain in DelhiOne of Delhi's features as a place is its
humid subtropical climate. During itsrainy season, Delhi receives heavy rainfall.
Mumbai(Bombay)
a
! Chennai(Madras)
sRr,LANKA
0 miles 500
0 kllometers 500
Lambert Conformal Conic
M12 MapMaster Skills Handbook
India: Climate RegionsKey
rtIt_Iil
Tropical wet
Tropical wet and dry
Semiarid
Arid
Humid subtropical
Highland
National border
City
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Special-Purpose Maps:LanguageThis map shows the official languages of India. Anofficial language is the language used by the govern-ment. Even though a region has an official language,the people there may speak other languages as well.As in other special-purpose maps, the key explainshow the different languages appear on the map.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
What color represents theMalayalam language on this map?
Where in lndia is Tamil theofficial language?
,,,
The Hindi language )Hindi is the most widely
spoken language in lndia. ltis also the most popular
language in Delhi.
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GujaratMYANMAR
lndia: Official LanguagesKey
t_lEHtIL]E
rr[]ffiril
Hindi
Bengali
Telugu
Marathi
Tamil
Urdu
-
National border
-
State border. city
Gujarati
Kannada
Malayalam
Oriya
Punjabi
Other
o"mLi& Eiu
Mumbail(Bombay) i
Karnataka N
I\
*$r'lfS
SRl LANKA
MapMaster Skills Handbook /Ii[13
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Human MigrationMigration'is an important partof the study of geography. Since
the beginning of history, peoplehave been on the moYe. As peoplemove, they both shape and are
shaped by their environments.Wherever people go, the culturethey bring with them mixes withthe cultures of the place in whichthey have settled. :*TLANTIC
i,,.O CEAN
(5Pain)
Mexico City' , '
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F+".: Panamacity. fr:.'*llf.,'/,1 ''1 ' NEW ,,',,.t': '." * f: -. GRENADA
-FRENCH,,_.': ''' -1--'it'., '"t, (spain) GUIANA
:'. '." " a; -. \lnElrAl,rA:-_..:.;._?:,rir-.:E:- -r. (Spain) GUIANA- -=:..w.. :';r':.. ,' (France)GlEEdGIfi!-E flrecE :.
ry \ i -rl : ,' :. ) :'a.\ i.. -lt' '- 't' := :" 't "" "t
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,,ir Native American pyramid " i. '' PERU '
.r :^ rL^ ^ .^^-:-^- tL^ I ima (spain) BRAZILNative American pyramid
when Europeans arrived in the Americas, the Lima. (Spain) BRAZIL
lands they found were not empty. Diverse groups '
' .cuzco (Portugal)
of people with distinct cultures already lived there. Thetemple-topped pyramid shown above was built bylr-.,an 16,.t;^^. ;^ t\r^-;-^ l^^^ r.^{^,^ .^1,,*r.,,. .-il^n PotosiMayan lndians in Mexico, long before Columbus sailed. rorosr
RIO DELA PLATA
(SPain)(SPain)
Migration to the Americas, 1500-1800A huge wave of migration from the Eastern
Hemisphere began in the 1500s. European explorers conceoci6n brenosAires
in the Americas paved the way for hundreds of years
of European settlement there. Forced migration fromAfrica started soon afterward, as Europeans began to omires 1,ooo
import African slaves to work in the Americas. The ffiWagner Vll
map to the right shows these migrations.
M14 MapMaster Skills Handbook
Explorers arrive Vln 1492, Christopher Columbus set
sail from Spain for the Americas withthree ships. The ships shown hereare replicas of those ships.
SCOTLAND
IRELAND ENGV\Nq'
FRANCE -ry
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PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
Where did the Portuguesesettle in the Americas?
Would you describe Africanmigration at this time as aresult of both push factors andpull factors? Explain whyor why not.
"Push" and "Pull" FactorsGeographers describe a people's choiceto migrate in terms of "push" factorsand "pu11" factors. Push factors are
things in people's lives that push themto leave, such as poverty and politicalunrest. Pull factors are things inanother country that pull people tomove there, including better livingconditions and hopes of better jobs.
A EImina, GhanaElmina, in Ghana, is one of the many ports fromwhich slaves were transported from Africa.Because slaves and gold were traded here,stretches of the western African coast wereknown as the Slave Coast and the Gold Coast.
MOROCCO
Migration to Latin America, 1500-1800Key
EntI[]ffilLI
European migration
African migration
National or colonial border
Traditional African border
African State
Spain and possessions
Portugal and possessions
Netherlands and possessions
France and possessions
England and possessions
MapMaster Skills Handbook M15
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WorldLand UsePeople around the world have many differenteconomic structures, or ways of making a living.Land-use maps are one way to learn about these
structures. The ways that people use the land ineach region tell us about the main ways thatpeople in that region make a living.
A Wheat farming in the United StatesDeveloped countries practice commercialfarming rather than subsistence farming.Commercial farming is the production offood mainly for sale, either within thecountry or for export to other countries.Commercial farmers like these in Oregonoften use heavy equipment to farm.
Levels of DevelopmentNotice on the map key the termsubsistence farming. This termmeans the production of foodmainly for use by the farmer's ownfamily. In less-developed countries,
subsistence farming is often one ofthe main economic activities. Incontrast, in developed countries
there is little subsistence farming.
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A Growing barley in Ecuador
Subsistence farmers like this one inEcuador use hand tools to harvestbarley. They use most of their crop tofeed themselves or their farm animals.
0 miles
-
0 kilometers 2,000
Robinson
World Land UseKey
Nomadic herding
Hunting and gathering
Forestry
Livestock raising
Commercial farming
Subsistence farming
Manufacturing and trade .
Little or no activityNational borderDisputed border
SOUTH
M16 MapMaster Skills Handbook
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A Growing rice in VietnamWomen in Vietnam plant rice in wet rice paddies, using thesame planting methods their ancestors did.
PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS
ln what parts of the world is
subsistence farming the mainland use?
Locate where manufacturin gand trade are the main landuse. Are they found more oftennear areas of subsistencefarming or areas of commercialfarming? Why might this be so?
4 Herding cattle in KenyaBesides subsistence farming,nomadic herding is anothereconomic activity in Africa.This man drives his cattleacross the Kenyan grasslands.
MapMaster Skills Handbook /M17
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Target Reading SkillsThe Target Reading Skills introduced on this page will help you under-stand the words and ideas in this book and in other social studies read-ing you do. Each chapter focuses on one of these reading skills. Goodreaders develop a bank of reading strategies, or skills. Then they drawon the particular strategies that will help them understand the textthey are reading.
:B rarget Reading SkillUsing the Reading Process Previewing canhelp you understand and remember whatyou read. You will practice using the readingprocess in these chapters: Chapter 1,
Chapter 10, Chapter 18
@ target Reading SkillClarifying Meaning ln these chapters, youwill use several skills to clarify the meaningof a word or an idea. Chapter 2,Chapter 11, Chapter 15, Chapter 22
:8 farget Reading SkillUsing Context ln these chapters, you willpractice using context clues to help youunderstand the meaning of unfamiliarwords. Chapter 3, Chapter 19
Q rarge! Reading SkillUsing Cause and Effect You will practicerecognizing cause and effect to help youunderstand relationships among the situa-tions and events you are reading about.Chapter4, Chapter 13, Chapter 15, Chapter2l
@ target Reading SkillIdentifying the Main ldea The main ideaof a section or paragraph is the most impor-tant point, the one you want to remember.ln these chapters, you will practice identify-ing both stated and implied main ideas andidentifying supporting details. Chapter 5,
Chapter 9, Chapter 12, Chapter 17,Chapter 20
@ rarget Reading SkillUsing Sequence Understand sequence-the order in which a series of events occurs-helps you to remember and understandevents. You will practicing using sequence inthese chapters. Chapter 6, Chapter 14
:B farget Reading SkillMaking Comparisons andContrasts When you compare, you exam-ine the similarities between things. Whenyou contrast, you look at the differences.You will practice making comparisons andcontrast in this chapter. Chapter 7
:B rarget Reading SkillUsing Word Analysis You can analyzewords to determine their meanings. ln thischapter, you will practice using word parts(such as roots, prefixes, and suffixes) andrecognizing word origins. Cftapter 8
M18 History of Our World