of Geography€¦ · Parallels of Latitude Geographers divide the globe along imaginary horizontal lines called parallels of latitude. One of these latitude lines is the Equator,

CONTENTS

Five Themes of GeographyUnderstanding Movementsof Earth

Understanding GlobesMap Projections

M1 How to Use a MapPolitical and Physical MapsSpecial-Purpose MapsHuman MigrationWorld Land Use

M2

M4M6

f-GO q&nling Use web Code lap-0000 for all of the mapsHHSihool.com in this handbook.

Five Themes of GeographyStudying the geography of the entire world is ahuge task. You cair make that task easier by using thefive themes of geography: location, regions, place,movement, and human-environment interaction. Thethemes are tools you can use to organize informationand to answer the where, why, and how of geography.

tE Location answers the question, "Where is it?"* You can think of the location of a continent

or a country as its address. You might give anabsolute location such as 22 South Lake Street or '

40" N and 80" W. You might also use a relativeaddress, telling where one place is by referrirg . .,,,,

to another place. Between school andthe mall and eight miles east ofPleasant City are examples

of relative locations.

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A LocationThis museum in England has aline running through it. The linemarks its location at 0o longitude,;

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"n Regions are areas that share at least one

" common feature. Geographers dividethe world into many types of regions. Forexample, countries, states, and cities are

political regions. The people in any one ofthese places live under the same government.Other features, such as climate and culture,can be used to define regions. Therefore thesame place can be found in more than oneregion. For example, the state of Hawaii is inthe political region of the United States.

Because it has a tropical climate, Hawaii isalso part of a tropical climate region.

F€ Movement answers the question, "How*F do people, goods, and ideas move fromplace to place?" Remember that what hap-pens in one place often affects what happensin another. Use the theme of movement tohelp you trace the spread of goods, people,

and ideas from one location to another.

'*'lE Place identifies the natural and human*,,# features that make one place differentfrom every other place. You can identi$ra specific place by its landforms, climate,plants, animals, people, language, orculture. You might even think of place as a

geographic signature. Use the signature tohelp you understand the natural and humanfeatures that make one place difFerent fromevery other place.

{f Human-environment interaction*=,=F 15.r'rr.s on the relationship betweenpeople and the environment. As people livein an area, they often begin to make changes

to it, usually to make their lives easier. Forexample, they might build a dam to controi'flooding during rainy seasons. Also, theenvironment can afFect how people live,work, dress, travel, and communicate.

{ lnteractionThese Congolese womeninteract with their environmentby gathering wood for cooking.

PRACTICE YOURGEOGRAPHY SKILLS

1 Describe your town or city,using each of the five themesof geography.

2 Name at least one thing thatcomes into your town or cityand one that goes out. How iseach moved? Where does itcome from? Where does it go?

MapMaster Skills Handbook M1

UnderstandingMovements of

V Spring beginsOn March 20 or 21, the sun is

directly overhead at theEquator. The Northern andSouthern Hemispheresreceive almost equal hours

EarthThe planet Earth is part of our solar system. Earthrevolves around the sun in a nearly circular path calledan orbit. A revolution, or one complete orbit around thesun, takes 365 % days, or one year. As Earth orbits thesun, it also spins on its axis, an invisible line through thecenter of Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole.

This movement is called a rotation.

How Night Changes lnto Day ffirt-,.&G

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The line of Earth's axis ...- .1-fi,i--\ '-\\i

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Earth tilts at anangle of 23.5".

Earth takes about 24 hours to make one fullrotation on its axis. As Earth rotates, it is daytime

on the side facing the sun. It is night on the side

away from the sun.

of sunlight anddarkness.

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On June 21 or 22, the sun is directlyoverhead at the Tropic of Cancer. TheNorthern Hemisphere receives thegreatest number of sunlight hours.

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The SeasonsEarth's axis is tilted at an angle. Because ofthis tilt, sunlight strikes different parts ofEarth at different times in the year, creatingseasons. The illustration below shows howthe seasons are created in the NorthernHemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere,the seasons are reversed.


What causes the seasons in theNorthern Hemisphere to be theopposite of those in theSouthern Hemisphere?

During which two days of theyear do the NorthernHemisphere and SouthernHemisphere have equal hoursof daylight and darkness?

A Winter beginsAround December 21, thesun is directly overhead atthe Tropic of Capricorn inthe 5outhern Hemisphere.The Northern Hemisphereis tilted away from the sun.

Earth orbits the sun at66,600 miles per hour(1 07,244 ki lometers per:hour).

a-] - -:

7 Diagram not to scale

{ Autumn beginsOn September 22 or 23, the sun isdirectly overhead at the Equator.Again, the hemispheres receivealmost equal hours of sunlightand darkness.


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Understanding GlobesA globe is a scale model of Earth. It shows theactual shapes, sizes, and locations of all Earth's

landmasses and bodies of water. Features on thesurface of Earth are drawn to scale on a globe. Thismeans that a small unit of measure on the globe

stands for a large unit of measure on Earth.

Parallels of LatitudeGeographers divide the globe along imaginaryhorizontal lines called parallels of latitude.One of these latitude lines is the

Equator, located halfiaray between

the North and South Poles.

Parallels of latitude are

measured in degrees ('). One

degree of latitude represents

a distance of about

69 miles (111 kilometers). d

All the latitudes, land,and water north of

the Equator are in theNorthern Hemisphere.

The Equator marksoo latitude and

divides Earth intothe Southernand Northern

- Hemispheres.

All the latitudes, land, and watersouth of the Equator are in the

Southern Hemisphere.

NorthernHemisphere

Equator( oo latitude)

SouthernHemisphere

The North Pole is 90onorth of the Equator.

The South Pole is 90o

south of the Equator.


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Meridians of LongitudeGeographers also divide the globe along imaginaryvertical lines called meridians of longitude, which are

measured in degrees ('). The longitude line calledthe Prime Meridian runs from pole to pole throughGreenwich, England. All meridians of longitudecome together at the North and South Poles.

AII the longitudes, land, andwater west of the PrimeMeridian are in the WesternHemisphere.

1200

'l 100


Which continents lie completelyin the Northern Hemisphere?ln the Western Hemisphere?

ls there land or water at 20o 5latitude and the PrimeMeridian? At the Equator and60" W longitude?

All the longitudes, land,and water east of the PrimeMeridian are in the EasternHemisphere.

The Prime Meridian marks 0olongitude and divides theglobe into the Eastern andWestern Hemispheres.

A CompassWherever you are onEarth, a compass can

be used to showdirection.


I

The Global Grid

\,/\Together, the pattern of parallels oflatitude and meridians of longitude is

called the global grid. Using the linesof latitude and longitude, you canlocate any place on Earth. For example,the location of 30o north latitude and90o west longitude is usually written as30o N, 90oW. Only one place on Earthhas these coordinates-the city of NewOrleans, in the state of Louisiana.

Prime Meridian( 0o longitude)

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WesternHemisphere

EasternHemisphere

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Map ProjectionsMaps are drawings that show regions on flatsurfaces. Maps are easier to use and carrythan globes, but they cannot show thecorrect size and shape of every feature onEarth's curved surface. They must shrinksome places and stretch others. To makeup for this distortion, mapmakers use

different map projections. No oneprojection can accurately show thecorrect area, shape, distance, and directionfor all of Earth's surface. Mapmakers use theprojection that has the least distortion for theinformation they are presenting.

Same-Shape MapsMap projections that accurately show

the shapes of landmasses are called

same-shape maps. However, these

projections often greatJy distort, ormake less accurate, the size oflandmasses as well as the distance

between them. In the projectionbelow, the northern and southern

areas of the globe appear more

stretched than the areas near theEquator.

A GlobalgoresFlattening a globecreates a string ofshapes called gores.

Stretching the gores makesparts of Earth larger. Thisenlargement becomesgreater toward the Northand South Poles.

Mercator projection FOne of the most common same-shape maps is the

Mercator projection, named for the mapmakerwho invented it. The Mercator projection

accurately shows shape and direction, but itdistorts distance and size. Because the projection

shows true directions, ships' navigators use it tochart a straight-line course between two ports.


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To turn Earth into a same-shapemap. mapmakers must stretchthe gores into rectangles.

Equal-Area MapsMap projections that show the correct size

of landmasses are called equal-area maps.In order to show the correct size oflandmasses, these maps usually distortshapes. The distortion is usually greater atthe edges of the map and less at the center.

To turn Earth's surfaceinto an equal-areamap, mapmakers h'aveto squeeze each goreinto an oval.

Robinson MapsMany of the maps in this book use the Robinsonprojection, which is a compromise between theMercator and equal-area projections. The Robinsonprojection'gives a useful overall picture of theworld. It keeps the size and shape relationships of

The tips of all the gores are then joinedtogether. The points at which they joinform the North and South Poles. The lineof the Equator stays the same.

North Pole

South PoleThe entire topedge of the mapis the North Pole.

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most continents and oceans, but distortsthe size of the polar regions.

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How to Use a Map LocatorsrobeMany maps are shown with

Mapmakers provide several clues to help you locator slobes. rhey show

understand the information on a map. Maps ]iff ;Hi:,',|'j:o'l: "*'provide different clues, depending on

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their purpose or scale. However, . ritle \most -up, have several clues / llll"f have a title' rhe \in common. I :ff["'iJr:'the

subject \IM

Compass roseMany maps show direction bydisplaying a compass rose withthe directions north, east,south, and west. The letters N,

E, S, and W are placed toindicate these directions.

KeyOften a map has a key, orlegend. The key shows thesymbols and colors usedon the map, and whateach one means.

Scale barA scale bar helps youfind the actual distancesbetween points shownon the map. Most scale

bars show distances inboth miles and POkilometers.

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o miles I toot:0 kilometers 300

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Western Europe

SHTTLANDISLANDS

(u.K.)

WSUUVV

UNITED

Copenhagen

DEhJMARK

_ . .,._, Llarnburg' Berlin

GERMANY

f,rankfurt

SARDINIA(ltaly)

4 BALEARTcISLANDS

(5pain)

National border

@ National capital

. Other city


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Maps of Different ScalesMaps are drawn to different scales, dependingon their purpose. Here are three maps drawnto very dif[erent scales. Keep in mind that Amaps showing large areas have smaller

. -_scales. Maps showing small areas have ,ni,. ilarger scales. ,fr$, ififfi

A Greater LondonFind the gray square on the main map of WesternEurope (left). This square represents the area shownon the map above. lt shows London's boundaries,the general shape of the city, and the featuresaround the city. This map can help you find yourway from the airport to the center of town.

Key

E Bui,t-uparea { rirpo.t

Citv or countvboider ' 0 mite) '10 20

--@ Ndtional ."o trl o f i'ot"t"rs 20' Lambert Conformal Coric

a Town orneighborhood

& Central LondonFind the gray square on themap of Greater London. Thissquare represents the areashown on the map above. Thismap moves you closer into thecenter of London. Like thezoom on a computer or a

camera, this map shows a

smaller area but in greaterdetail. lt has the largest scale(1 inch represents about 0.9mile). You can use this map toexplore downtown London.


What part of a map explainsthe colors used on the map?

How does the scale bar changedepending on the scale of themap?

Which map would be best forfinding the location of theBritish Museum? Explain why.

Key

Point of interest

Park

0 miles 0.5 1:--0 ki ometers 1


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Political MapsPolitical maps show political borders: continents,

countries, and divisions within countries, such as

states or provinces. The colors on political maps do

not have any special meaning, but they make the

map easier to read. Political maps also includeqlzmbols and labels for capitals, cities, and towns.

PRACTICE YOUR-GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

What symbols show a nationalborder, a national capital, anda city?

What is Angola's capital city?

MADEIRA frr*,r,o\ 1 *Tripoli

,,),i )r1-,r ii or,--;l,raitu]lf,' Rabat,rCasablanca<'d

' .ANARY T'LANDS UPEq

WESTERNSAHARA(Morocco)

Aloiers Tunis@ - ,ro

MAURITANIAQ Nouakchott

SIERRA LEONE {O

Monrovia

GUINEA-/: GUINEABISSAU o /--ponakry]' L.Freetown _f L,

ALGERIA

NIGER

EQUATORIAL GUINEA56oTom6* 6

sAo.ToME & ,GABoNPRINCIPE -rL;

CABINDA(Angola)

Luanda@

LI BYA

CAPEVERDE

Praia

te

Antananarivo* -:

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MAURITIUSPott Louis 6

REUNION(France)

lvlaputo

Dakar is the capital of Senegal, inWest Africa. lts Presidential Palace

overlooks the Atlantic Ocean."ran^-tR.SOUTH

_ ua.p^er9wno AFRICALaDe of booo HoDe -Lape Aqulnas

0 miles 1,000r_0 kilometers 1.000

rg. p*-l\sli/Aztl

*laseru{7y' .Durban

TESOTHO

PoliticalAfricaKey

National border

@ National capital

. Other city

..DodomaIakr

. Zanzibar- Dar es SalaamTangaq$tia Dar es Salaam

t- t*kzI lNya'a--,. COMOROSt r/lxtr$Vr o" lil^.^.^ro Moroni

MADAGASCAR

\ Dakar, Senegal


.Physica1 MapsPhysical maps represent what a region looks like byshowing its major physical features, such as hillsand plains. Physical maps also often show elevationand relief. Elevation, indicated by colors, is theheight of the land above sea level. Relief, indicated


Which areas of Africa have thehighest elevation?

How can you use relief to plana hiking trip?

Plain . i:.:. Zanzibar

0 milesF--____r_______r_-O kilometeE 1,000

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

by shading, shows how sharply the land rises or falls.

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d-{ C)n$oOCongo

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Basin

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A The Congo BasinThe Congo Basin is a majorphysical feature of Africa. The keyshows that its elevation is withinthe range of 650/,GOO feet.

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PhysicalAfricaKey

ELEVATION

Feet

More thaR13,000

6,500-1 3,000

1,60H,500

650-1,600

0-650

Below sea level

N4eters

More than3,960

1,980-3,960

480-1,980

200-480

0-200

Below sea level

National border

Disputed border

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MapMaster Skills Handbook Ml1

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TLANTIC

INDIANOCEAN

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Special-Purpose Maps:ClimateUnlike the boundary lines on a political map, the

boundary lines on climate maps do not separate

the land into exact divisions. For example, in thisclimate map of India, a tropical wet climate gradually

changes to a tropical wet and dry climate.


What part of a special-purposemap tells you what the colorson the map mean?

Where are arid regions locatedin lndia? Are there major citiesin those regions?

MYANMAR

A Rain in DelhiOne of Delhi's features as a place is its

humid subtropical climate. During itsrainy season, Delhi receives heavy rainfall.

Mumbai(Bombay)

a

! Chennai(Madras)

sRr,LANKA

0 miles 500

0 kllometers 500

Lambert Conformal Conic


India: Climate RegionsKey

rtIt_Iil

Tropical wet

Tropical wet and dry

Semiarid

Arid

Humid subtropical

Highland

National border

City

EE

20.

N

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Special-Purpose Maps:LanguageThis map shows the official languages of India. Anofficial language is the language used by the govern-ment. Even though a region has an official language,the people there may speak other languages as well.As in other special-purpose maps, the key explainshow the different languages appear on the map.


What color represents theMalayalam language on this map?

Where in lndia is Tamil theofficial language?

,,,

The Hindi language )Hindi is the most widely

spoken language in lndia. ltis also the most popular

language in Delhi.

N4

GujaratMYANMAR

lndia: Official LanguagesKey

t_lEHtIL]E

rr[]ffiril

Hindi

Bengali

Telugu

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

-

National border

-

State border. city

Gujarati

Kannada

Malayalam

Oriya

Punjabi

Other

o"mLi& Eiu

Mumbail(Bombay) i

Karnataka N

I\

*$r'lfS

SRl LANKA

MapMaster Skills Handbook /Ii[13

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niles 5oo

--ilomelers 500

nbert Conformal Conic

Human MigrationMigration'is an important partof the study of geography. Since

the beginning of history, peoplehave been on the moYe. As peoplemove, they both shape and are

shaped by their environments.Wherever people go, the culturethey bring with them mixes withthe cultures of the place in whichthey have settled. :*TLANTIC

i,,.O CEAN

(5Pain)

Mexico City' , '

4a '. DUTcH

F+".: Panamacity. fr:.'*llf.,'/,1 ''1 ' NEW ,,',,.t': '." * f: -. GRENADA

-FRENCH,,_.': ''' -1--'it'., '"t, (spain) GUIANA

:'. '." " a; -. \lnElrAl,rA:-_..:.;._?:,rir-.:E:- -r. (Spain) GUIANA- -=:..w.. :';r':.. ,' (France)GlEEdGIfi!-E flrecE :.

ry \ i -rl : ,' :. ) :'a.\ i.. -lt' '- 't' := :" 't "" "t

'''

,,ir Native American pyramid " i. '' PERU '

.r :^ rL^ ^ .^^-:-^- tL^ I ima (spain) BRAZILNative American pyramid

when Europeans arrived in the Americas, the Lima. (Spain) BRAZIL

lands they found were not empty. Diverse groups '

' .cuzco (Portugal)

of people with distinct cultures already lived there. Thetemple-topped pyramid shown above was built bylr-.,an 16,.t;^^. ;^ t\r^-;-^ l^^^ r.^{^,^ .^1,,*r.,,. .-il^n PotosiMayan lndians in Mexico, long before Columbus sailed. rorosr

RIO DELA PLATA

(SPain)(SPain)

Migration to the Americas, 1500-1800A huge wave of migration from the Eastern

Hemisphere began in the 1500s. European explorers conceoci6n brenosAires

in the Americas paved the way for hundreds of years

of European settlement there. Forced migration fromAfrica started soon afterward, as Europeans began to omires 1,ooo

import African slaves to work in the Americas. The ffiWagner Vll

map to the right shows these migrations.


Explorers arrive Vln 1492, Christopher Columbus set

sail from Spain for the Americas withthree ships. The ships shown hereare replicas of those ships.

SCOTLAND

IRELAND ENGV\Nq'

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Where did the Portuguesesettle in the Americas?

Would you describe Africanmigration at this time as aresult of both push factors andpull factors? Explain whyor why not.

"Push" and "Pull" FactorsGeographers describe a people's choiceto migrate in terms of "push" factorsand "pu11" factors. Push factors are

things in people's lives that push themto leave, such as poverty and politicalunrest. Pull factors are things inanother country that pull people tomove there, including better livingconditions and hopes of better jobs.

A EImina, GhanaElmina, in Ghana, is one of the many ports fromwhich slaves were transported from Africa.Because slaves and gold were traded here,stretches of the western African coast wereknown as the Slave Coast and the Gold Coast.

MOROCCO

Migration to Latin America, 1500-1800Key

EntI[]ffilLI

European migration

African migration

National or colonial border

Traditional African border

African State

Spain and possessions

Portugal and possessions

Netherlands and possessions

France and possessions

England and possessions


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WorldLand UsePeople around the world have many differenteconomic structures, or ways of making a living.Land-use maps are one way to learn about these

structures. The ways that people use the land ineach region tell us about the main ways thatpeople in that region make a living.

A Wheat farming in the United StatesDeveloped countries practice commercialfarming rather than subsistence farming.Commercial farming is the production offood mainly for sale, either within thecountry or for export to other countries.Commercial farmers like these in Oregonoften use heavy equipment to farm.

Levels of DevelopmentNotice on the map key the termsubsistence farming. This termmeans the production of foodmainly for use by the farmer's ownfamily. In less-developed countries,

subsistence farming is often one ofthe main economic activities. Incontrast, in developed countries

there is little subsistence farming.

11---J \

A Growing barley in Ecuador

Subsistence farmers like this one inEcuador use hand tools to harvestbarley. They use most of their crop tofeed themselves or their farm animals.

0 miles

-

0 kilometers 2,000

Robinson

World Land UseKey

Nomadic herding

Hunting and gathering

Forestry

Livestock raising

Commercial farming

Subsistence farming

Manufacturing and trade .

Little or no activityNational borderDisputed border

SOUTH


1

?

A Growing rice in VietnamWomen in Vietnam plant rice in wet rice paddies, using thesame planting methods their ancestors did.


ln what parts of the world is

subsistence farming the mainland use?

Locate where manufacturin gand trade are the main landuse. Are they found more oftennear areas of subsistencefarming or areas of commercialfarming? Why might this be so?

4 Herding cattle in KenyaBesides subsistence farming,nomadic herding is anothereconomic activity in Africa.This man drives his cattleacross the Kenyan grasslands.

MapMaster Skills Handbook /M17

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Target Reading SkillsThe Target Reading Skills introduced on this page will help you under-stand the words and ideas in this book and in other social studies read-ing you do. Each chapter focuses on one of these reading skills. Goodreaders develop a bank of reading strategies, or skills. Then they drawon the particular strategies that will help them understand the textthey are reading.

:B rarget Reading SkillUsing the Reading Process Previewing canhelp you understand and remember whatyou read. You will practice using the readingprocess in these chapters: Chapter 1,

Chapter 10, Chapter 18

@ target Reading SkillClarifying Meaning ln these chapters, youwill use several skills to clarify the meaningof a word or an idea. Chapter 2,Chapter 11, Chapter 15, Chapter 22

:8 farget Reading SkillUsing Context ln these chapters, you willpractice using context clues to help youunderstand the meaning of unfamiliarwords. Chapter 3, Chapter 19

Q rarge! Reading SkillUsing Cause and Effect You will practicerecognizing cause and effect to help youunderstand relationships among the situa-tions and events you are reading about.Chapter4, Chapter 13, Chapter 15, Chapter2l

@ target Reading SkillIdentifying the Main ldea The main ideaof a section or paragraph is the most impor-tant point, the one you want to remember.ln these chapters, you will practice identify-ing both stated and implied main ideas andidentifying supporting details. Chapter 5,

Chapter 9, Chapter 12, Chapter 17,Chapter 20

@ rarget Reading SkillUsing Sequence Understand sequence-the order in which a series of events occurs-helps you to remember and understandevents. You will practicing using sequence inthese chapters. Chapter 6, Chapter 14

:B farget Reading SkillMaking Comparisons andContrasts When you compare, you exam-ine the similarities between things. Whenyou contrast, you look at the differences.You will practice making comparisons andcontrast in this chapter. Chapter 7

:B rarget Reading SkillUsing Word Analysis You can analyzewords to determine their meanings. ln thischapter, you will practice using word parts(such as roots, prefixes, and suffixes) andrecognizing word origins. Cftapter 8

M18 History of Our World

Documents

of Geography€¦ · Parallels of Latitude Geographers divide the globe along imaginary horizontal lines called parallels of latitude. One of these latitude lines is the Equator,