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Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering
Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture
By/
Basem Elsayed TawfekNo: 21
1-what is meant by global pollution? Give examples.
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From the beginning of the industrial revolution, pollution has become an
increasing concern. With the development technology there has come the
threat of acid rain, global warming (the Greenhouse effect), and the
deterioration of the protective Ozone layer around the Earth. Thedestruction of the Ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiation to get
through into our atmosphere creating problems such as the increased risk
of developing skin cancer. Air pollution has brought a significant increase
in respiratory diseases and illnesses, such as asthma and bronchitis.
Examples:
Mounting air pollution--Uncontrolled garbage--Water scarcity--Global
climate change--soil pollution--water pollution
2- Show how interaction between the pollution types & their
assessment?
Pollution types are:
Air Pollution:
Human contamination of Earths atmosphere can take many forms and
has existed since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating,and cooking. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th
centuries, however, air pollution became a major problem. As early as
1661 British author and founding member of the British Royal Society
John Evelyn reported of London in his treatise Fumifugium, the
weary Traveller, at many Miles distance, sooner smells, than sees the City
to which he repairs. This is that pernicious Smoake which fullyes all her
Glory, superinducing a sooty Crust or Furr upon all that it lights.
Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the
stratosphere. Excessive production of chlorine-containing compounds
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (compounds formerly used in
refrigerators, air conditioners, and in the manufacture of polystyrene
products) has depleted the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole
above Antarctica that lasts for several weeks each year. As a result,
exposure to the Suns harmful rays has damaged aquatic and terrestrial
wildlife and threatens human health in high-latitude regions of the
northern and southern hemispheres.
Water pollution:
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The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the worlds population
grows. From 1940 to 1990 withdrawals of fresh water from rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, and other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed
in the United States in 1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39
percent was used for electric power generation, and 12 percent was usedfor other utilities; industry and mining used 7 percent, and the rest was
used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes.
Sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers
and pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that about 37 percent of
the countrys lakes and estuaries, and 36 percent of its rivers, are too
polluted for basic uses such as fishing or swimming during all or part of
the year. In developing nations, more than 95 percent of urban sewage is
discharged untreated into rivers and bays, creating a major human healthhazard.
Soil Pollution
Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during
a long process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most
plant growth and is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution
is a buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens (disease-
causing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and
animal life.
Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil
quality, caused soil pollution, and enhanced erosion. Treating the soil
with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides interferes with the
natural processes occurring within the soil and destroys useful organisms
such as bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. For instance,
strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil with methyl bromide to
destroy organisms that may harm young strawberry plants. This process
indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and leaves the soil
sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This resultsin heavy fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and
streams.
Solid wastes:
Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics
and other synthetic materials, metals, and wood. Billions of tons of solid
waste are thrown out annually. The United States alone produces about
200 million metric tons of municipal solid waste each year (see SolidWaste Disposal). A typical American generates an average of 2 kg (4 lb)
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of solid waste each day. Cities in economically developed countries
produce far more solid waste per capita than those in developing
countries. Moreover, waste from developed countries typically contains a
high percentage of synthetic materials that take longer to decompose than
the primarily biodegradable waste materials of developing countries.Areas where wastes are buried, called landfills, are the cheapest and most
common disposal method for solid wastes worldwide. But landfills
quickly become overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water.
Incineration, or burning, of waste reduces the volume of solid waste but
produces dense ashen wastes (some of which become airborne) that often
contain dangerous concentrations of hazardous materials such as heavy
metals and toxic compounds. Composting, using natural biological
processes to speed the decomposition of organic wastes, is an effective
strategy for dealing with organic garbage and produces a material that canbe used as a natural fertilizer. Recycling, extracting and reusing certain
waste materials, has become an important part of municipal solid waste
strategies in developed countries. According to the EPA, more than one-
fourth of the municipal solid waste produced in the United States is now
recycled or composted. Recycling also plays a significant, informal role
in solid waste management for many Asian countries, such as India,
where organized waste-pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as
plastics, which they use or resell.
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that may be deadly or
harmful to people or the environment and tend to be persistent or no
degradable in nature. Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable
or radioactive substances, including industrial wastes from chemical
plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural wastes such as pesticides and
fertilizers, medical wastes, and household hazardous wastes such as toxic
paints and solvents.
About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated eachyear. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons
70 percent from the chemical industry. The use, storage, transportation,
and disposal of these substances pose serious environmental and health
risks. Even brief exposure to some of these materials can cause cancer,
birth defects, nervous system disorders, and death. Large-scale releases of
hazardous materials may cause thousands of deaths and contaminate air,
water, and soil for many years. The worlds worst nuclear reactor
accident took place near Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986
The accident killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation andrelocation of more than 200,000 more, and sent a plume of radioactive
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material into the atmosphere that contaminated areas as far away as
Norway and the United Kingdom.
3-Greenhouse shed effect is being now rated to be more over the
world caused thermal heating of the environment. Discuss briefly thisstatement, given an example?
Greenhouse gases trap heat energy rising from the earth and prevent it
from escaping into outer space. This warms up the earth and the lower
atmosphere. The main gases which trap the heat are carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, fluorocarbons and water vapor.
Nature produces just enough greenhouse gases to keep the lower
atmosphere warm. The problem is that since the Industrial Revolution
began in the 1800s, we have tripled the amount of greenhouse gases inthe atmosphere, mainly by burning fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil to
make electricity and gas. We create even more when we use electricity,
petrol and gas in our homes, factories, cars and other transport, and when
we clear and burn native vegetation.
The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has upset the delicate
balance of nature, and traps more energy than the atmosphere needs. This
is causing the atmosphere to warm up.
4-Kyoto convention for anti heating of the environment?
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It is an agreement made:
by governments at the UN Climate Change Convention in Kyoto,
Japan in 1997
To reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that developed countries
send into the atmosphere to 5.2% below their 1990 levels, by theyear 2012.
The Kyoto Convention was a follow up to the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, where governments decided that the world should reduce
greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by 2000. Because this
voluntary approach had not worked, many governments saw the need for
a legally binding global agreement to cut greenhouse gases.
The Kyoto Convention developed a broad agreement to cut greenhouse
gases, which was called the Kyoto Protocol. Since then there have been a
number of meetings to finalize the rules for the implementation of theKyoto Protocol on climate change, so that countries can approve the
Protocol in their parliaments.
5-Propose and suggest some aspects to reduce the
environmental marine impact on environmental due to:
(1) Oil spill accident
(2) Collision accident
(3) Leakiness of ballast water
(1) Oil spill accidents
Oil spill facts
Spill Prevention and Response
One of the major lessons of the Exxon Valdez oil spill was that the spill
prevention and response capability in Prince William Sound was
fundamentally inadequate.
In March 1989, nearly 11 million gallons of oil spread slowly over open
water during three days of flat calm seas. Despite the opportunity to skimthe oil before it hit the shorelines, almost none was scooped up. A
response barge maintained by Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was
out of service and unavailable for use. Even if it had responded, there
were not enough skimmers and boom available to do an effective job.
Since that time, several significant improvements have been made in oil
spill prevention and response planning.
(2) Collision accidents
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Recent estimates are that one-third of all oil pollution of the worlds
oceans is caused by activities generally characterized as marine
transportation.
Tankers understandably are the single largest contributor of such
pollution.The pollution damage threat from any vessel to ocean ecosystems and
surrounding environments is serious and substantial. Both short term and
long term effects of oil pollution have been assessed, resulting in general
agreement that oil spills must be reduced from their present level.
The world tanker fleet has greatly expanded in recent years principally
through a major use of supertankers which now number 623 ships
totaling 127 million dwt or over one half of the world tanker tonnage. An
equivalent number of supertankers are now under construction throughout
the world.
Technical Improvements
It is necessary to treat the oil pollution problem on a total systems
basis in order to make meaningful improvement.
Fitting double bottoms or double hulls on tankers offer a
significant degree of protection from oil pollution in the event of
grounding and/or collision accidents.
Inert gas systems can substantially reduce risks of tank explosions
and resulting major casualties.Improved maintenance, inspection and survey procedures can help
alleviate tanker structural failure problems.
A substantial portion of tanker accidents are caused by human error
and improvements in the training and licensing of shipboard personnel
are greatly needed.
Vessel traffic systems and other navigational aids are also in need
of continual upgrading and improvement.
The International Pollution Convention of 1973 provides some
major improvements in the regulation of tanker caused pollutionworldwide and deserves U.S. efforts to ratify.
The Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 provides authority to
the U.S. Coast Guard for certain regulatory action independent of
international treaty, if necessary.
The National Transportation Safety Board needs to have more
autonomous investigative authority than now exists in the case of
marine accidents.
3-For Leakiness of ballast water
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Exotic organisms may be carried in ballast water and in the sediments in
ballast tanks aboard foreign going ships. If these organisms are
discharged into coastal waters in New Zealand they may become
established in the local environment. This could displace native species,
damage the ecology and affect human health and the economy.New Zealand currently has in place voluntary controls on discharge in
New Zealand territorial waters of ballast water loaded in foreign waters.
The controls, based on International Maritime Organization
recommendations are presently administered by the Ministry of
Agriculture Quarantine Service under the Biosecurity Act 1993 and after
01 July 1997, by the Ministry of Fisheries.
To minimize the risk of introducing exotic marine organisms into New
Zealand via ballast water discharges, masters and officers of ships
observing the voluntary controls are asked to take note of the following:
When discharging ballast water
The best way to prevent exotic organisms from entering through ballast
discharges is to avoid discharging ballast in New Zealand waters.
If ballast discharges cannot be avoided they should be limited to that
required for safety and stability requirements and should follow this given
order of preference -
a. ballast from deep ocean exchange;
b. ballast loaded in New Zealand waters;
c. ballast loaded in foreign open sea waters;
d. Ballast loaded in foreign ports.
6-Investigate the means of keeping marine environment
intact from pollution?
As hard as people might try, accidents do occur inevitably. However,
there are ways to limit such accidents and spills and avenues to ensure
that response is immediate.
What's Being Done to Make Shipping Safer?
Double hulls or double bottoms are being introduced and, since 1993, is a
requirement for all new tankers. Ships' crews must be well trained and
experienced. Electronic charting is being introduced. It is a computer-
based video display that allows navigators to track the ship's course in
relation to hazards, and warns the navigator of potential danger, both
visually and audibly. All ships must have radar systems to improve
navigation. A technology known as "load-on-top" allows oil and water
mixtures from cleaning to separate, resulting in less pollution. Strict fire
safety regulations apply on board.
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Comparison between a conventional and a double hull.
Vessel Design
There are a few common designs for large ships, including double hullsand double bottoms. Each design has its advantages and drawbacks.
Although structural improvements to ships make tanker traffic safer,
recent advances like double hulls will not eliminate spillage under all
circumstances.
Oil Storage and Handling
As much as 92 percent of all oil spills involving tankers happen at a
terminal when oil is being loaded or discharged. Precautions at terminals
include monitoring oil flows, regular inspections of hoses and
connections, and routine checks of tank levels. Weather conditions are
monitored closely. Dikes around storage tanks prevent oil from escaping
if an accident does occur.Marine Traffic Control
Marine traffic control systems are in place in many major shipping areas.
The systems can be as simple as traffic lanes in heavily traveled waters or
they can be very sophisticated networks. Governments are introducing
control systems for marine operations similar to those we take for granted
at airports. But no matter how simple or complex, traffic control greatly
minimizes collisions and the risk of ships running aground.
Controlling Pollutants by TaxationTaxation can be utilized to encourage or discourage certain activities in
addition to raising funds to support government programs. Pollution
would be allowed, but it would be taxed at a rate proportional to the
environmental insult. This general philosophy is followed at the present
time by requiring that polluters pay fines roughly proportional to the
amount of pollution.
Some economists suggest that a tax on pollution will simply be a license
to pollute and therefore encourage pollution rather than discourage it.
Other economists, however, indicate that pollution taxes should be basedon the severity of the pollution with some sort of graduated tax. A little
pollution requires a little tax; a large pollution requires a larger tax. An
important aspect of this concept is that the words little and large must be
accompanied by monetary values that reflect the true and total cost to
society of these pollutants. Taxation economists believe that anyone
utilizing the resource should pay for it because it really belongs to
everyone, and if environmental quality is degraded then the individual
responsible for it should pay for that degradation.
International Covenants
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There are a few international covenants under which US operates. The
Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization ( IMCO) has
sponsored three conventions resulting in a number of regulations. The
first of these was the 1954 Oil Pollution Convention. This convention
places limitations on the rate of discharge, the oil content, and thedistance from land for oily ballast discharge water from ships. The
enforcement of this convention is left up to the flag state, that is, the
country where the ship is registered.
The second convention was the 1971 amendment to the Oil Pollution
Convention, which branched out, in a different direction by addressing
vessel design. Unfortunately this part of this amendment has not been
ratified by any maritime nations.
7-State briefly marine pollution sources, causes, and effects.
Rubbish dumped in the drain
Toxics
Toxic waste is the most harmful form of pollution to marine creatures.
Once a form of toxic waste affects an organism, it can be quickly passed
along the food chain and might eventually end up as seafood, causing
various problems. Toxic wastes arrive from the leakage of landfills,
dumps, mines and farms. Sewage and industrial wastes introducechemical pollutants like DDT and Sevin. Farm chemicals (insecticides
and herbicides) along with heavy metals (e.g. mercury and zinc) can have
disastrous effect on marine life.
Mercury-- touted most dangerous toxic
Top priority is usually given to control the pollutant that poses a threat to
human health, the most serious being conservative pollutants, especially
mercury.
Major sources of mercury include rivers, marine outfalls and direct
dumping. Natural inputs like the weathering of mercury-bearing rocks,
volcanic gases also contribute to mercury in the ocean.
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Dissolved mercury in the sea is adsorbed onto particulate matter and also
forms stable complexes with organic compounds occurring in the sea.
Inorganic mercury can also be can also be easily accumulated by living
organisms.
A classic example of mercury poisoning happened in Minamata, a smallJapanese coastal town dependent on fishing for a livelihood. In 1952, a
nearby factory produced vinyl chloride and acetaldehyde, which required
mercuric sulphate as a catalyst. Typically 300-1000g of mercury is lost
for each ton of acetaldehyde produced, 5% of which is in the form of
methyl mercury. Mercuric chloride when used as a catalyst produced 1g
of methyl mercury per ton of product. Accumulated contamination was as
high as 200p.p.m mercury at the factory outfall.
The effects began with the death of a large amount of fish in the early
1950s. This later affected birds, cats, pigs, and humans. Birds lostcoordination to fly. Cats were seen running in circles and foaming at the
mouth. Local residents called these occurrences "the disease of the
dancing cats". Later, the disease was termed "Minamata Disease" when
humans began to have symptoms of methyl mercury poisoning.
Mercury poisoning causes fish kills.
Other Toxic Materials
Toxic materials are substances derived from industrial, agricultural,
household cleaning, gardening and automotive products. They do not
always kill wildlife, as mentioned in the introduction, but they can
threaten inland and coastal waters.
Examples of toxic materials include:
Dioxins
Sources of dioxins come from bleaching paper and are used in the process
of making herbicides. Dioxins and related compounds degrade slowly and
are toxic to marine life. They cause genetic chromosomal aberrations in
marine life and are suspected of causing cancer in humans.
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PCBs
PCBs are used in the making of pre-1970s electrical equipment and
hydraulic fluids. Developmental problems in children and reproductive
problems in some other animals have been linked to PCBs. Slowly
degrading PCBs accumulate as they pass along the ocean food web.
PAHs
Sources of PAHs include Oil Spills, road run off, and burning wood and
coal.
Marine life and a few people have suffered ill effects from PAHs. PAHscause genetic and chromosomal problems in fish and most marine
organisms.
Sewage and fertilizers
The discharge of sewage can cause public health problems either from
contact with polluted waters or from consumption of contaminated fish or
shellfish. The discharge of untreated sewage effluents also produces
long-term adverse impacts on the ecology of critical coastal ecosystems
in localized areas due to the contribution of nutrients and other pollutants.
Pollution due to inadequate sewage disposal causes nutrient enrichmentaround population centers, and high nutrient levels and even
eutrophication near treatment facilities and sewage outfalls.
Around the world, untreated sewage flows into coastal waters, carrying
organic waste and nutrients that can lead to oxygen depletion, as well as
disease-causing bacteria and parasites that require closing beaches and
shellfish beds (See Figure 4)
The inadequate number of sewage treatment plants in operation,
combined with poor operating conditions of available treatment plants,
and the disposal practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are
likely to have an adverse effect on the ocean.Oil
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The sites most vulnerable for accidents are areas where tankers and
barges move through restricted channels and in the vicinity of ports. In
spite of regulations established, tankers and barges do not always use port
facilities for the disposal of bilge and tank washing and wastes, and a
significant amount of oil, which exceeds that from accidental oil spills(See Figure 5), is discharged into the coastal areas this way.
The impact of oil pollution on the ecology of coastal and marine
ecosystems is particularly destructive following massive oil spills caused
by maritime accidents. However, gas exchange between the water and
the atmosphere is decreased by oil remaining on the surface of the water,
with the possible result of oxygen depletion in enclosed bays where
surface wave action is minimal. Coral death results from smothering
when submerged oil directly adheres to coral surfaces and oil slicks affect
sea birds and other marine animals. In addition, tar accumulation (See
Figure 6) on beaches reduces tourism potential of coastal areas.
Marine pollution from land-based activities
Mining and Dredging
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causes delay. A loose-leaf format facilitates regular updating and there
should be provision for listing and dating amendments.
Strategy
The strategy section should cover eight main areas: Introduction; Risk
Assessment; Resources at Risk and Priorities for Protection; Response
Strategies; Organization and Management; Equipment, Supplies Servicesand Manpower; Communications & Control; and Training, Exercises and
Updating Procedures.
In the introduction, the authority or lead agency responsible for the
formulation and implementation of the plan and an explanation of the
statutory requirements, if any, should be defined. The geographical
coverage of the plan should be outlined and reference made to interfaces
with other plans.
The expected frequency and size of spills and the types of oil likely to be
encountered should be addressed. Historical spill data where availablemay allow a quantitative assessment. The number of calls made by
vessels, particularly tankers, is relevant. A range of possible spill
scenarios can be developed from an analysis of oil related activities and
the types of oil handled in or transported through the area. The probable
movement and fate of slicks should studied and recorded. Details of oil
types and prevailing meteorological and oceanographic conditions should
be annexed.
Amenity areas, ecologically sensitive areas, sea water intakes, fisheries,
mariculture, seabirds and marine mammals and other resources likely tobe threatened by oil spill should be identified. Since it will not be
possible to give equal protection to all sensitive resources, priorities need
to be determined. Account should be taken of the practical problems as
well as the relative economic and environmental values of each resource
and their sensitivity to oil pollution. Seasonal variations e.g. of beaches
and breeding areas should be noted. Information on the location and
sensitivity of resources and priorities for protection is frequently provided
in the form of maps annexed to the contingency plan.
Clean-up strategies should be determined in relation to the perceived risk
and agreed response priorities. Account should be taken of the limitations
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of spill control techniques and the most appropriate equipment chosen for
the anticipated weather conditions and oil types. Shoreline clean-up
strategies should be prepared for the types of coastline likely to be
encountered. Predetermined temporary waste storage sites and disposal
routes should be detailed. Maps detailing strategies and restrictions,access points and waste sites should be annexed.
The outline of the response organization and the responsibilities of those
likely to be involved should be detailed. Central coordination under a
single organization which has complete responsibility for handling the
operation should be considered in order to minimize confusion. However,
procedures for coordination between organizations should be outlined.
The size of the response organization will depend on the area covered by
the plan, the severity of the threat and the sensitivity of any threatened
resources. Relevant government departments, advisors and experts shouldbe annexed.
The siting of response equipment and the procedures for mobilization
should be determined. An inventory of available equipment should be
annexed. Provision for food clothing, shelter, medical facilities and other
logistics support should be also detailed. The availability of back-up
support should be recorded, both nationally and internationally. In the
latter case, provision should be made for customs and immigration
procedures as well as financial arrangements. The manpower required to
respond to a spill should be estimated. Additional manpower may be
required in the case of large spills. Contractors and other sources of
manpower should be annexed.
The establishment of a fully equipped communications centre should be
predetermined to ensure that the correct information is passed to the
correct people. The centre should act as a central channel for all
information. Where clean-up operations are conducted over extended
distances, portable communications centers should be located close to the
scene of operations. Supplies of charts, maps, reports, manuals etc.
should be provided for. Accurate recording of all actions and
maintenance of appropriate documentation related to the use ofmanpower, equipment and materials as well as expenditure is vital for
future reference and the submission of claims for compensation.
Training programs should be developed for all levels of response
personnel. Exercises should be held at regular intervals to ensure the plan
functions correctly and to familiarize all participants with its contents.
Detailed equipment should be mobilized and deployed to test its actual
availability and performance. An oil spill provides the best opportunity
for improving a plan. Events should be reviewed soon after clean-up has
been completed and the plan revised on the basis of lessons learnt.