Marine pollution Questions & answers

7/29/2019 Marine pollution Questions & answers

1/16

Alexandria University

Faculty of Engineering

Dept. of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture

By/

Basem Elsayed TawfekNo: 21

1-what is meant by global pollution? Give examples.


2/16

From the beginning of the industrial revolution, pollution has become an

increasing concern. With the development technology there has come the

threat of acid rain, global warming (the Greenhouse effect), and the

deterioration of the protective Ozone layer around the Earth. Thedestruction of the Ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiation to get

through into our atmosphere creating problems such as the increased risk

of developing skin cancer. Air pollution has brought a significant increase

in respiratory diseases and illnesses, such as asthma and bronchitis.

Examples:

Mounting air pollution--Uncontrolled garbage--Water scarcity--Global

climate change--soil pollution--water pollution

2- Show how interaction between the pollution types & their

assessment?

Pollution types are:

Air Pollution:

Human contamination of Earths atmosphere can take many forms and

has existed since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating,and cooking. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th

centuries, however, air pollution became a major problem. As early as

1661 British author and founding member of the British Royal Society

John Evelyn reported of London in his treatise Fumifugium, the

weary Traveller, at many Miles distance, sooner smells, than sees the City

to which he repairs. This is that pernicious Smoake which fullyes all her

Glory, superinducing a sooty Crust or Furr upon all that it lights.

Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the

stratosphere. Excessive production of chlorine-containing compounds

such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (compounds formerly used in

refrigerators, air conditioners, and in the manufacture of polystyrene

products) has depleted the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole

above Antarctica that lasts for several weeks each year. As a result,

exposure to the Suns harmful rays has damaged aquatic and terrestrial

wildlife and threatens human health in high-latitude regions of the

northern and southern hemispheres.

Water pollution:
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577413/Air_Pollution.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576614/Stratosphere.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577413/Air_Pollution.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576614/Stratosphere.html


3/16

The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the worlds population

grows. From 1940 to 1990 withdrawals of fresh water from rivers, lakes,

reservoirs, and other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed

in the United States in 1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39

percent was used for electric power generation, and 12 percent was usedfor other utilities; industry and mining used 7 percent, and the rest was

used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes.

Sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers

and pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that about 37 percent of

the countrys lakes and estuaries, and 36 percent of its rivers, are too

polluted for basic uses such as fishing or swimming during all or part of

the year. In developing nations, more than 95 percent of urban sewage is

discharged untreated into rivers and bays, creating a major human healthhazard.

Soil Pollution

Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during

a long process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most

plant growth and is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution

is a buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens (disease-

causing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and

animal life.

Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil

quality, caused soil pollution, and enhanced erosion. Treating the soil

with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides interferes with the

natural processes occurring within the soil and destroys useful organisms

such as bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. For instance,

strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil with methyl bromide to

destroy organisms that may harm young strawberry plants. This process

indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and leaves the soil

sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This resultsin heavy fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and

streams.

Solid wastes:

Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics

and other synthetic materials, metals, and wood. Billions of tons of solid

waste are thrown out annually. The United States alone produces about

200 million metric tons of municipal solid waste each year (see SolidWaste Disposal). A typical American generates an average of 2 kg (4 lb)


4/16

of solid waste each day. Cities in economically developed countries

produce far more solid waste per capita than those in developing

countries. Moreover, waste from developed countries typically contains a

high percentage of synthetic materials that take longer to decompose than

the primarily biodegradable waste materials of developing countries.Areas where wastes are buried, called landfills, are the cheapest and most

common disposal method for solid wastes worldwide. But landfills

quickly become overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water.

Incineration, or burning, of waste reduces the volume of solid waste but

produces dense ashen wastes (some of which become airborne) that often

contain dangerous concentrations of hazardous materials such as heavy

metals and toxic compounds. Composting, using natural biological

processes to speed the decomposition of organic wastes, is an effective

strategy for dealing with organic garbage and produces a material that canbe used as a natural fertilizer. Recycling, extracting and reusing certain

waste materials, has become an important part of municipal solid waste

strategies in developed countries. According to the EPA, more than one-

fourth of the municipal solid waste produced in the United States is now

recycled or composted. Recycling also plays a significant, informal role

in solid waste management for many Asian countries, such as India,

where organized waste-pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as

plastics, which they use or resell.

Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that may be deadly or

harmful to people or the environment and tend to be persistent or no

degradable in nature. Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable

or radioactive substances, including industrial wastes from chemical

plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural wastes such as pesticides and

fertilizers, medical wastes, and household hazardous wastes such as toxic

paints and solvents.

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated eachyear. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons

70 percent from the chemical industry. The use, storage, transportation,

and disposal of these substances pose serious environmental and health

risks. Even brief exposure to some of these materials can cause cancer,

birth defects, nervous system disorders, and death. Large-scale releases of

hazardous materials may cause thousands of deaths and contaminate air,

water, and soil for many years. The worlds worst nuclear reactor

accident took place near Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986

The accident killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation andrelocation of more than 200,000 more, and sent a plume of radioactive


5/16

material into the atmosphere that contaminated areas as far away as

Norway and the United Kingdom.

3-Greenhouse shed effect is being now rated to be more over the

world caused thermal heating of the environment. Discuss briefly thisstatement, given an example?

Greenhouse gases trap heat energy rising from the earth and prevent it

from escaping into outer space. This warms up the earth and the lower

atmosphere. The main gases which trap the heat are carbon dioxide,

methane, nitrous oxide, fluorocarbons and water vapor.

Nature produces just enough greenhouse gases to keep the lower

atmosphere warm. The problem is that since the Industrial Revolution

began in the 1800s, we have tripled the amount of greenhouse gases inthe atmosphere, mainly by burning fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil to

make electricity and gas. We create even more when we use electricity,

petrol and gas in our homes, factories, cars and other transport, and when

we clear and burn native vegetation.

The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has upset the delicate

balance of nature, and traps more energy than the atmosphere needs. This

is causing the atmosphere to warm up.

4-Kyoto convention for anti heating of the environment?


6/16

It is an agreement made:

by governments at the UN Climate Change Convention in Kyoto,

Japan in 1997

To reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that developed countries

send into the atmosphere to 5.2% below their 1990 levels, by theyear 2012.

The Kyoto Convention was a follow up to the Earth Summit in Rio de

Janeiro in 1992, where governments decided that the world should reduce

greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by 2000. Because this

voluntary approach had not worked, many governments saw the need for

a legally binding global agreement to cut greenhouse gases.

The Kyoto Convention developed a broad agreement to cut greenhouse

gases, which was called the Kyoto Protocol. Since then there have been a

number of meetings to finalize the rules for the implementation of theKyoto Protocol on climate change, so that countries can approve the

Protocol in their parliaments.

5-Propose and suggest some aspects to reduce the

environmental marine impact on environmental due to:

(1) Oil spill accident

(2) Collision accident

(3) Leakiness of ballast water

(1) Oil spill accidents

Oil spill facts

Spill Prevention and Response

One of the major lessons of the Exxon Valdez oil spill was that the spill

prevention and response capability in Prince William Sound was

fundamentally inadequate.

In March 1989, nearly 11 million gallons of oil spread slowly over open

water during three days of flat calm seas. Despite the opportunity to skimthe oil before it hit the shorelines, almost none was scooped up. A

response barge maintained by Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was

out of service and unavailable for use. Even if it had responded, there

were not enough skimmers and boom available to do an effective job.

Since that time, several significant improvements have been made in oil

spill prevention and response planning.

(2) Collision accidents


7/16

Recent estimates are that one-third of all oil pollution of the worlds

oceans is caused by activities generally characterized as marine

transportation.

Tankers understandably are the single largest contributor of such

pollution.The pollution damage threat from any vessel to ocean ecosystems and

surrounding environments is serious and substantial. Both short term and

long term effects of oil pollution have been assessed, resulting in general

agreement that oil spills must be reduced from their present level.

The world tanker fleet has greatly expanded in recent years principally

through a major use of supertankers which now number 623 ships

totaling 127 million dwt or over one half of the world tanker tonnage. An

equivalent number of supertankers are now under construction throughout

the world.

Technical Improvements

It is necessary to treat the oil pollution problem on a total systems

basis in order to make meaningful improvement.

Fitting double bottoms or double hulls on tankers offer a

significant degree of protection from oil pollution in the event of

grounding and/or collision accidents.

Inert gas systems can substantially reduce risks of tank explosions

and resulting major casualties.Improved maintenance, inspection and survey procedures can help

alleviate tanker structural failure problems.

A substantial portion of tanker accidents are caused by human error

and improvements in the training and licensing of shipboard personnel

are greatly needed.

Vessel traffic systems and other navigational aids are also in need

of continual upgrading and improvement.

The International Pollution Convention of 1973 provides some

major improvements in the regulation of tanker caused pollutionworldwide and deserves U.S. efforts to ratify.

The Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 provides authority to

the U.S. Coast Guard for certain regulatory action independent of

international treaty, if necessary.

The National Transportation Safety Board needs to have more

autonomous investigative authority than now exists in the case of

marine accidents.

3-For Leakiness of ballast water


8/16

Exotic organisms may be carried in ballast water and in the sediments in

ballast tanks aboard foreign going ships. If these organisms are

discharged into coastal waters in New Zealand they may become

established in the local environment. This could displace native species,

damage the ecology and affect human health and the economy.New Zealand currently has in place voluntary controls on discharge in

New Zealand territorial waters of ballast water loaded in foreign waters.

The controls, based on International Maritime Organization

recommendations are presently administered by the Ministry of

Agriculture Quarantine Service under the Biosecurity Act 1993 and after

01 July 1997, by the Ministry of Fisheries.

To minimize the risk of introducing exotic marine organisms into New

Zealand via ballast water discharges, masters and officers of ships

observing the voluntary controls are asked to take note of the following:

When discharging ballast water

The best way to prevent exotic organisms from entering through ballast

discharges is to avoid discharging ballast in New Zealand waters.

If ballast discharges cannot be avoided they should be limited to that

required for safety and stability requirements and should follow this given

order of preference -

a. ballast from deep ocean exchange;

b. ballast loaded in New Zealand waters;

c. ballast loaded in foreign open sea waters;

d. Ballast loaded in foreign ports.

6-Investigate the means of keeping marine environment

intact from pollution?

As hard as people might try, accidents do occur inevitably. However,

there are ways to limit such accidents and spills and avenues to ensure

that response is immediate.

What's Being Done to Make Shipping Safer?

Double hulls or double bottoms are being introduced and, since 1993, is a

requirement for all new tankers. Ships' crews must be well trained and

experienced. Electronic charting is being introduced. It is a computer-

based video display that allows navigators to track the ship's course in

relation to hazards, and warns the navigator of potential danger, both

visually and audibly. All ships must have radar systems to improve

navigation. A technology known as "load-on-top" allows oil and water

mixtures from cleaning to separate, resulting in less pollution. Strict fire

safety regulations apply on board.


9/16

Comparison between a conventional and a double hull.

Vessel Design

There are a few common designs for large ships, including double hullsand double bottoms. Each design has its advantages and drawbacks.

Although structural improvements to ships make tanker traffic safer,

recent advances like double hulls will not eliminate spillage under all

circumstances.

Oil Storage and Handling

As much as 92 percent of all oil spills involving tankers happen at a

terminal when oil is being loaded or discharged. Precautions at terminals

include monitoring oil flows, regular inspections of hoses and

connections, and routine checks of tank levels. Weather conditions are

monitored closely. Dikes around storage tanks prevent oil from escaping

if an accident does occur.Marine Traffic Control

Marine traffic control systems are in place in many major shipping areas.

The systems can be as simple as traffic lanes in heavily traveled waters or

they can be very sophisticated networks. Governments are introducing

control systems for marine operations similar to those we take for granted

at airports. But no matter how simple or complex, traffic control greatly

minimizes collisions and the risk of ships running aground.

Controlling Pollutants by TaxationTaxation can be utilized to encourage or discourage certain activities in

addition to raising funds to support government programs. Pollution

would be allowed, but it would be taxed at a rate proportional to the

environmental insult. This general philosophy is followed at the present

time by requiring that polluters pay fines roughly proportional to the

amount of pollution.

Some economists suggest that a tax on pollution will simply be a license

to pollute and therefore encourage pollution rather than discourage it.

Other economists, however, indicate that pollution taxes should be basedon the severity of the pollution with some sort of graduated tax. A little

pollution requires a little tax; a large pollution requires a larger tax. An

important aspect of this concept is that the words little and large must be

accompanied by monetary values that reflect the true and total cost to

society of these pollutants. Taxation economists believe that anyone

utilizing the resource should pay for it because it really belongs to

everyone, and if environmental quality is degraded then the individual

responsible for it should pay for that degradation.

International Covenants


10/16

There are a few international covenants under which US operates. The

Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization ( IMCO) has

sponsored three conventions resulting in a number of regulations. The

first of these was the 1954 Oil Pollution Convention. This convention

places limitations on the rate of discharge, the oil content, and thedistance from land for oily ballast discharge water from ships. The

enforcement of this convention is left up to the flag state, that is, the

country where the ship is registered.

The second convention was the 1971 amendment to the Oil Pollution

Convention, which branched out, in a different direction by addressing

vessel design. Unfortunately this part of this amendment has not been

ratified by any maritime nations.

7-State briefly marine pollution sources, causes, and effects.

Rubbish dumped in the drain

Toxics

Toxic waste is the most harmful form of pollution to marine creatures.

Once a form of toxic waste affects an organism, it can be quickly passed

along the food chain and might eventually end up as seafood, causing

various problems. Toxic wastes arrive from the leakage of landfills,

dumps, mines and farms. Sewage and industrial wastes introducechemical pollutants like DDT and Sevin. Farm chemicals (insecticides

and herbicides) along with heavy metals (e.g. mercury and zinc) can have

disastrous effect on marine life.

Mercury-- touted most dangerous toxic

Top priority is usually given to control the pollutant that poses a threat to

human health, the most serious being conservative pollutants, especially

mercury.

Major sources of mercury include rivers, marine outfalls and direct

dumping. Natural inputs like the weathering of mercury-bearing rocks,

volcanic gases also contribute to mercury in the ocean.


11/16

Dissolved mercury in the sea is adsorbed onto particulate matter and also

forms stable complexes with organic compounds occurring in the sea.

Inorganic mercury can also be can also be easily accumulated by living

organisms.

A classic example of mercury poisoning happened in Minamata, a smallJapanese coastal town dependent on fishing for a livelihood. In 1952, a

nearby factory produced vinyl chloride and acetaldehyde, which required

mercuric sulphate as a catalyst. Typically 300-1000g of mercury is lost

for each ton of acetaldehyde produced, 5% of which is in the form of

methyl mercury. Mercuric chloride when used as a catalyst produced 1g

of methyl mercury per ton of product. Accumulated contamination was as

high as 200p.p.m mercury at the factory outfall.

The effects began with the death of a large amount of fish in the early

1950s. This later affected birds, cats, pigs, and humans. Birds lostcoordination to fly. Cats were seen running in circles and foaming at the

mouth. Local residents called these occurrences "the disease of the

dancing cats". Later, the disease was termed "Minamata Disease" when

humans began to have symptoms of methyl mercury poisoning.

Mercury poisoning causes fish kills.

Other Toxic Materials

Toxic materials are substances derived from industrial, agricultural,

household cleaning, gardening and automotive products. They do not

always kill wildlife, as mentioned in the introduction, but they can

threaten inland and coastal waters.

Examples of toxic materials include:

Dioxins

Sources of dioxins come from bleaching paper and are used in the process

of making herbicides. Dioxins and related compounds degrade slowly and

are toxic to marine life. They cause genetic chromosomal aberrations in

marine life and are suspected of causing cancer in humans.


12/16

PCBs

PCBs are used in the making of pre-1970s electrical equipment and

hydraulic fluids. Developmental problems in children and reproductive

problems in some other animals have been linked to PCBs. Slowly

degrading PCBs accumulate as they pass along the ocean food web.

PAHs

Sources of PAHs include Oil Spills, road run off, and burning wood and

coal.

Marine life and a few people have suffered ill effects from PAHs. PAHscause genetic and chromosomal problems in fish and most marine

organisms.

Sewage and fertilizers

The discharge of sewage can cause public health problems either from

contact with polluted waters or from consumption of contaminated fish or

shellfish. The discharge of untreated sewage effluents also produces

long-term adverse impacts on the ecology of critical coastal ecosystems

in localized areas due to the contribution of nutrients and other pollutants.

Pollution due to inadequate sewage disposal causes nutrient enrichmentaround population centers, and high nutrient levels and even

eutrophication near treatment facilities and sewage outfalls.

Around the world, untreated sewage flows into coastal waters, carrying

organic waste and nutrients that can lead to oxygen depletion, as well as

disease-causing bacteria and parasites that require closing beaches and

shellfish beds (See Figure 4)

The inadequate number of sewage treatment plants in operation,

combined with poor operating conditions of available treatment plants,

and the disposal practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are

likely to have an adverse effect on the ocean.Oil


13/16

The sites most vulnerable for accidents are areas where tankers and

barges move through restricted channels and in the vicinity of ports. In

spite of regulations established, tankers and barges do not always use port

facilities for the disposal of bilge and tank washing and wastes, and a

significant amount of oil, which exceeds that from accidental oil spills(See Figure 5), is discharged into the coastal areas this way.

The impact of oil pollution on the ecology of coastal and marine

ecosystems is particularly destructive following massive oil spills caused

by maritime accidents. However, gas exchange between the water and

the atmosphere is decreased by oil remaining on the surface of the water,

with the possible result of oxygen depletion in enclosed bays where

surface wave action is minimal. Coral death results from smothering

when submerged oil directly adheres to coral surfaces and oil slicks affect

sea birds and other marine animals. In addition, tar accumulation (See

Figure 6) on beaches reduces tourism potential of coastal areas.

Marine pollution from land-based activities

Mining and Dredging


14/16


15/16

causes delay. A loose-leaf format facilitates regular updating and there

should be provision for listing and dating amendments.

Strategy

The strategy section should cover eight main areas: Introduction; Risk

Assessment; Resources at Risk and Priorities for Protection; Response

Strategies; Organization and Management; Equipment, Supplies Servicesand Manpower; Communications & Control; and Training, Exercises and

Updating Procedures.

In the introduction, the authority or lead agency responsible for the

formulation and implementation of the plan and an explanation of the

statutory requirements, if any, should be defined. The geographical

coverage of the plan should be outlined and reference made to interfaces

with other plans.

The expected frequency and size of spills and the types of oil likely to be

encountered should be addressed. Historical spill data where availablemay allow a quantitative assessment. The number of calls made by

vessels, particularly tankers, is relevant. A range of possible spill

scenarios can be developed from an analysis of oil related activities and

the types of oil handled in or transported through the area. The probable

movement and fate of slicks should studied and recorded. Details of oil

types and prevailing meteorological and oceanographic conditions should

be annexed.

Amenity areas, ecologically sensitive areas, sea water intakes, fisheries,

mariculture, seabirds and marine mammals and other resources likely tobe threatened by oil spill should be identified. Since it will not be

possible to give equal protection to all sensitive resources, priorities need

to be determined. Account should be taken of the practical problems as

well as the relative economic and environmental values of each resource

and their sensitivity to oil pollution. Seasonal variations e.g. of beaches

and breeding areas should be noted. Information on the location and

sensitivity of resources and priorities for protection is frequently provided

in the form of maps annexed to the contingency plan.

Clean-up strategies should be determined in relation to the perceived risk

and agreed response priorities. Account should be taken of the limitations


16/16

of spill control techniques and the most appropriate equipment chosen for

the anticipated weather conditions and oil types. Shoreline clean-up

strategies should be prepared for the types of coastline likely to be

encountered. Predetermined temporary waste storage sites and disposal

routes should be detailed. Maps detailing strategies and restrictions,access points and waste sites should be annexed.

The outline of the response organization and the responsibilities of those

likely to be involved should be detailed. Central coordination under a

single organization which has complete responsibility for handling the

operation should be considered in order to minimize confusion. However,

procedures for coordination between organizations should be outlined.

The size of the response organization will depend on the area covered by

the plan, the severity of the threat and the sensitivity of any threatened

resources. Relevant government departments, advisors and experts shouldbe annexed.

The siting of response equipment and the procedures for mobilization

should be determined. An inventory of available equipment should be

annexed. Provision for food clothing, shelter, medical facilities and other

logistics support should be also detailed. The availability of back-up

support should be recorded, both nationally and internationally. In the

latter case, provision should be made for customs and immigration

procedures as well as financial arrangements. The manpower required to

respond to a spill should be estimated. Additional manpower may be

required in the case of large spills. Contractors and other sources of

manpower should be annexed.

The establishment of a fully equipped communications centre should be

predetermined to ensure that the correct information is passed to the

correct people. The centre should act as a central channel for all

information. Where clean-up operations are conducted over extended

distances, portable communications centers should be located close to the

scene of operations. Supplies of charts, maps, reports, manuals etc.

should be provided for. Accurate recording of all actions and

maintenance of appropriate documentation related to the use ofmanpower, equipment and materials as well as expenditure is vital for

future reference and the submission of claims for compensation.

Training programs should be developed for all levels of response

personnel. Exercises should be held at regular intervals to ensure the plan

functions correctly and to familiarize all participants with its contents.

Detailed equipment should be mobilized and deployed to test its actual

availability and performance. An oil spill provides the best opportunity

for improving a plan. Events should be reviewed soon after clean-up has

been completed and the plan revised on the basis of lessons learnt.

Documents

Marine pollution Questions & answers