Politics, Leadership, Politics, Leadership, and Social Controland Social Control
The BIG QuestionsThe BIG Questions What does political anthropology cover? What are the major cross-cultural forms of political
organization and leadership? How are politics and political organization
changing? How do different cultures maintain social control? What are cross-cultural patterns of social conflict
and violence? How does cultural anthropology contribute to
world peace and order?
Political AnthropologyPolitical Anthropology
focuses on human behavior and thought as it it relates to power in both stateless and state societies who has power and who does not? how much power do certain people have? how do people obtain and maintain power? how is power abused? how are politics and government organized? what are the relationships between politics and
other aspects of culture?
Politics and CulturePolitics and Culture is politics a human universal?
depends on how you define politics the term comes from the Greek word
“politikos,” meaning of/relating to citizens similar to the Greek work “polis,” meaning
city both having to do with a more complex level
of civilization
when looked at in more general terms, politics is the process where groups of people make collective decisions
which is something we can apply cross-culturally
Politics and CulturePolitics and Culture
all societies have some form of organization and social control involves making and enforcing rules and
settling disputes the degree to which these things are
institutionalized varies politics from a cross-cultural perspective
can be analyzed in terms of the use of: power authority influence
PoliticsPolitics power
the ability to bring about results can be done through forceful means
authority the right to take certain forms of action based on status differs from power in that power can be wielded
without authority influence
the ability to achieve a desired end by exerting social or moral pressure on a person or group
Political OrganizationPolitical Organization existence of groups for the purposes of controlling
people's behavior and maintaining social order the distribution of power within a group or groups societies differ in their political organization based on
three key dimensions: 1) extent to which political institutions are distinct from
other aspects of the social structure in small-scale societies, distinctions might not be clear, ex: the
family unit might be the only structure or institution
2) extent to which authority is concentrated into specific political roles
that is, are political roles ordered hierarchically with more power at the top levels
Political OrganizationPolitical Organization 3) level of political integration
the size of the territorial group that comes under the control of the political structure
these dimensions help us categorize the many forms of political organization into four main types bands tribes chiefdoms states
roughly correspond with major modes of livelihood
overlap/blending occurs
BandsBands basic social unit found in many foraging societies
longest-standing form of political organization characterized by being kinship based and having
no permanent political structure flexible membership
most bands number between 20 and 50 people may make up larger group that congregates from time
to time conflicts within bands minimal and are solved
informally leave one band and join another
BandsBands bands are integrated by kinship and marriage and
not by politics no political allegiances
political life is embedded within the wider social structure hard to determine what is a political decision and what is
a decision based on family dynamics leadership roles in band societies are informal
all members are equal, with leaders having authority or influence based on respect, but not coercive power
levelling mechanisms
often change
The MbutiThe Mbuti indigenous pygmy group from
Congo foragers basically egalitarian
band as highest form of organization leadership depends on context (ex:
those good at hunting, will lead a hunt)
decisions made as a group, discussed around campfire
disagreements or offenses may result in scorn, beating, or banishment
Simple BandsSimple Bands usually no larger than one's extended
family structured in this way as well
leadership informal elder male members serving as leaders major decisions through consensus of all
adult members allied with other bands through marriage usually have names as identifiers
often associated with prominent geographical feature in territory
Composite BandsComposite Bands groupings of families
sometimes in the hundreds less cohesive
leadership still informal, yet more defined big men whose leadership is based more
on influence rather than authority are able to hunt larger herds of animals
have to cooperate to maneuver herds into situations of mass slaughter, such as cliffs
ex: Comanche of southern Great Plains
TribesTribes comprises several bands or lineage
groups share a similar language and lifestyle occupy distinct territory often connected through clan structure,
where people claim descent from a common ancestor
more formal than a band kinship still the primary basis for membership 100 to several thousand people
associated with horticulture and pastoralism
TribesTribes more formal leadership than band
qualifications include hard worker, generous, and good social skills
part-time basis in charge of determining movements of people and
herds, planting and harvesting, and times for feasts and celebrations
relies on authority rather than power confederacies are tribal formations that meet from
time time for things like festivals segmentary model involves gathering of confederacies
during times of threat, who break up once threat is gone
ChiefdomsChiefdoms political organization that includes permanently
allied tribes and villages under one chief who possesses power large populations
integrate a number of local communities in a formal and permanent way
centralized and socially complex hereditary systems of social ranking and economic
stratification chiefly versus non-chiefly groups; difference in status chiefship is an office that must always be filled
if a chief dies or retires, a new one must take their place often a member of previous chief's family
ChiefdomsChiefdoms chief's duties include:
regulation of production and redistribution of goods
solving disputes planning and leading raids on other groups sometimes decisions are made in
conjunction with an advisory council historical chiefs have included both men
and women women rulers very prominent in West Africa
ex: Ashanti of Ghana and Edo of Nigeria
State SocietiesState Societies a centralized political unit
encompassing many communities includes a bureaucratic structure leaders possess coercive power most formal and complex form of
political organization have taken various forms; are not just
“modern,” examples include: Greek city-states kingdom of Bunyoro in Uganda, dating
back to the 16th century
Origin of StatesOrigin of States Neolithic Revolution
regulation of production and distribution of goods and labor
providing services irrigation, priests, social servants
why would people choose to give up some of their autonomy to join state societies?
three theories: voluntaristic hydraulic coercive
Voluntaristic Theory of State FormationVoluntaristic Theory of State Formation
put forth by archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1936) introduction of intensive agriculture during
Neolithic created food surpluses surpluses freed up segment of population
from food production allowed them to engage in new occupational
roles increase in specialization necessitated more
political integration to mediate and protect special interest groups and provide economic superstructure to enable optimum efficiency
Hydraulic Theory of State Hydraulic Theory of State FormationFormation
put forth by Karl Wittfogel (1957) suggested that farmers using small-
scale irrigation in arid or semi-arid areas recognize the economic advantages of surrendering autonomy
benefits of merging multiple small communities into larger entities to provide large-scale irrigation
archaeological evidence suggests that large states developed before introduction of large-scale irrigation (Mexico and Mesopotamia)
Coercive Theory of State FormationCoercive Theory of State Formation set forth by Robert Carneiro (1970)
suggested that the state is a direct result of warfare
only operates under certain environmental conditions
areas that have limited land for agriculture and need to expand in order to support populations
ex: Incas of Peru – Inca state developed in narrow valleys by the ocean
land pressure created competition, competition created warfare
centralized political units developed to conduct warfare and administer to subjugated peoples
State SocietiesState Societies states have more power over their members and
state leaders have more responsibilities: engage in international relations
may use force defensively to maintain borders or offensively to expand territory
monopolize the use of force and maintenance of order through various mechanisms
laws, courts, police maintain armies and other enforcement groups membership is defined by the state, not necessarily by
birth sometimes not all citizens are granted equal rights
State SocietiesState Societies states keep track of their citizens
through census systems states have the power to tax
citizens cash taxes are a new occurrence, in-
kind taxation (tribute of goods) previously
states manipulate information done in order to “protect the state
and its leaders” directly through censorship,
restriction of access, or propaganda indirectly through influence on the
media
Symbols and the StateSymbols and the State states and state leaders often
utilize symbols to maintain power monumental architecture
direct symbol of the ability to use power to organize labor and resources
incorporation of religious leaders and institutions
inter-relationships between powerful structures
ideology as a tool specific kinds of clothing
elite versus “one of the people”
Gender and the StateGender and the State contemporary states are generally
hierarchical and patriarchal exclude members of lower classes and
women from equal participation highly patriarchal states maintain male
dominance through ideologies the imposition of purdah in Muslim
theocracies pre-Communist China's beliefs on strength
and dependability of women versus men trend in socialist states of attempts of
increasing women's roles in politics quotas for parliamentary positions
Gender and the StateGender and the State only 16 percent of the world's
parliamentary members are women regional differences range from
40% in Scandinavian states, to 8% in Arab states
some notable female politicians: Indira Gandhi in India Golda Meir in Israel Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan Michele Bachelet in Chile Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf in Liberia
many come from political families
Changing Politics: The Changing Politics: The Emergence of the Nation-StateEmergence of the Nation-State
nation and state, although used in combination, are two distinct concepts
nation a group of people who share a common symbolic identity,
culture, history, and often, religion state
a particular type of political structure distinct from a band, tribal society, or chiefdom
the term nation-state refers to a group of people sharing a common cultural background and unified by a political structure that they all consider legitimate
Changing Politics: The Changing Politics: The Emergence of the Nation-StateEmergence of the Nation-State
important to note that modern nation-states do not really fit this definition populations that live within them are
rarely homogeneous encompass a variety of cultural groups some of them really do not like each
other and others who would like their own autonomous state
for example, Palestinians living on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in Israel are constantly in conflict with the Israeli state
Imagined CommunitiesImagined Communities
Benedict Anderson (1983) suggested that states employ symbolic strategies to create/maintain shared identity: imposition of a national language construction of monuments and
museums that emphasize unity use of songs, dress, poetry, and
media messages nationalism
Changing PoliticsChanging Politics
transnationalism reaching beyond or transcending national borders
the interconnectivity between people, despite national boundaries
involves globalization and migration democratization
transformation from authoritarian to democratic regimes
includes: end of torture, liberation of political prisoners, lifting of
censorship, and toleration of opposition relaxation versus true democratization
StatisticsStatistics according to Freedom House, an organization
that tracks political trends: by the end of 2005, 22 of the world’s 192
governments were electoral democracies, up from 66 countries 18 years earlier
between 1975 and 2005: number of free countries increased from 40 to 89 number of partially free countries increased from 53 to 58 number of countries deemed not free declined from 65 to
45
DifficultiesDifficulties despite general trend toward democracy, there
have been some obstacles change problematic
transformation from highly authoritarian to democratic nonfit between Western-style democracy and local
political traditions based on aspects such as kinship or tribal allegiance
arrests, violence, and sometimes murder of protesters in various countries Iran, Yemen, Syria, Libya
EgyptEgypt in Egypt, Hosni Mubarak was
ousted after an 18 day demonstration he was in power for 30 years while he claimed to have been fairly
elected by the democratic process, many question the validity of these elections
influenced by recent events in Tunisia, the people called for his resignation by protesting in Tahrir Square, a major public place in the capitol of Cairo
role of social media
EgyptEgypt during this revolution, many people suffered
violence and death as many as 150 people died during these protests
and around 2,000 people were reported to be injured
there have, however, been some major steps forward in reforming the political process
Internet and DemocracyInternet and Democracy
in order for the Internet to be a democratizing force, it must provide access to all people, not just those who can afford the technology
governments and corporations have often been complicit in inhibiting the spread of free information
Western technology firms have helped the Chinese government limit free expression by blocking access to political websites and selling filtering equipment
Internet and DemocracyInternet and Democracy in December 2005, at the
request of the Chinese government, Microsoft closed down the blog of a Chinese journalist who was critical of the government
officials at Yahoo! admitted it had helped the Chinese government sentence a dissident to 10 years in prison by identifying him as the sender of a banned e-mail message
Critical Legal AnthropologyCritical Legal Anthropology
legal anthropology looking at the way laws serve to maintain social
cohesion functionalist approach
critical legal anthropology is a critique of the status quo the study of how law and judicial institutions serve
to maintain and expand dominant power interests rather than protecting marginal people
focuses on state-level societies where this degree of inequality is most prominent
Systems of Social ControlSystems of Social Control social control
mechanisms by which behavior is constrained and directed into acceptable channels, maintaining conformity
every society must ensure that most of the people behave themselves most of the time depending on the size and complexity of a given
society, these methods of social control will be more or less formal
can be as informal as simply learning through socialization what is allowed, or as formal as mandates, sanctions, or laws
Social ControlSocial Control two major instruments/mechanisms:
norms accepted standards for how people should
behave usually unwritten and learned
unconsciously found in all societies
laws binding rules created through custom or
official enactment defines correct behavior and the
punishment for misbehavior more common and more elaborate in
state-level societies
Informal Social ControlsInformal Social Controls most often found in small-scale societies, but
sometimes used in state-level societies in combination with more formal methods ostracization
forcing the offender to leave the group public opinion
what the general public thinks about an issue this forms the basis of social pressure to behave
Informal Social ControlsInformal Social Controls
degradation ceremonies deliberate societal mechanisms designed to publicly
humiliate someone who has broken a social norm corporate lineages
kinship groups whose members engage in daily activities together
often help socialize people into correct behavior as well as exerting pressure and control over its members
ex: making sure that marriages are fairly planned and correctly performed
Formal Social ControlsFormal Social Controls also practiced in a variety of societies
some only done in state societies, some only in non-state, some in both
song duel (often performed by the Inuit) means of settling disputes over wife stealing involving the use of
song and lyrics to determine one’s guilt or innocence the more abusive and cleverly written a song is against other
person, the more cheers one gets whoever has the best song is determined the winner
Formal Social ControlsFormal Social Controls oaths
the practice of having the supernatural bear witness to the truth of what a person says
a formal declaration, usually performed in combination with a ritual act like signing a document or swearing on the Bible
ordeals painful and possibly life-threatening test inflicted on someone
suspected of wrongdoing some ordeals have nothing to do with the potential guilt of a
person for example, some African societies put the accused's hand
into boiling water, if that person is not guilty, the god or gods of that society will prevent harm from coming to them
Legal SystemsLegal Systems
legal systems can be informal or formal, simple or complex
self-help legal systems are more like the former found in societies without centralized political
systems band or tribe-level societies
can be further divided into familial and mediator systems
Self-Help Legal SystemsSelf-Help Legal Systems familial
if offended, individual or family becomes the authority the community supports the victim and the
consequences of the crime are recognized by consensus
ex: Comanche wife-stealing mediator
slightly more formal offended party still has authority but a third party is
called upon to negotiate a solution mediator cannot impose settlement, but is generally
agreed upon ex: Nuer leopard-skin chiefs
Court SystemsCourt Systems the court holds authority in this system
exist only in societies with centralized political leadership
chiefdoms or states operate with formal public hearings, including
judges separation between criminal law and civil law can be divided into three categories:
incipient courts courts of mediation courts of regulation
Court SystemsCourt Systems incipient courts
sometimes found in tribal societies, but mostly chiefdoms
judicial authorities meet, sometimes informally, to privately discuss issues and their solutions
evidence not formally collected, nor are the parties consulted
courts of mediation judges attempt to reach compromise solutions that will
restore social cohesion based on cultural norms and values
courts of regulation use codified laws, much like our own
Social Control in StatesSocial Control in States increased specialization of roles related to law
police, judges, lawyers policing - exercise of social control through processes of
surveillance and the threat of punishment trials and courts
court system where lawyers, judges, and juries are used to ensure justice and fairness in determining guilt and punishment
power-enforced punishment prisons - forcible detainment, emerged with state capital punishment - requires great deal of power
ex: Aztecs
Social Conflict and ViolenceSocial Conflict and Violence most, if not all, societies face conflict, despite any
mechanisms for social control that are in place vary in scale
some only involve two people, others multiple groups include:
interpersonal conflict banditry feuding ethnic conflict revolution warfare nonviolent conflict
Interpersonal ConflictInterpersonal Conflict usually only involves a couple of people
household disputes between family members or roommates
between neighbors or residents of the same town
over resources or territory between people in a relationship
dating, spousal violence can be fairly nonviolent or very violent
yelling at your neighbor over their dog murdering your neighbor for stealing your
cattle
BanditryBanditry aggressive conflict that involves
socially patterned theft practiced by a person or group who
are socially marginalized and gain status from this illegal activity
sometimes a form of creating social ties Crete, Greece: stealing and counter-
stealing of sheep until a mediator comes in and resolves the tension by creating loyalty between two parties
mythification Robin Hood
FeudingFeuding intergroup aggression that involves long-term,
retributive violence may be lethal between families, groups of families, or tribes motivated by revenge exacerbated by change or outside stress/pressure
ex: Thull village in northern Pakistan Hatfields and the McCoys
West Virginia Union versus Confederates
Ethnic ConflictEthnic Conflict two main reasons:
when a dominant group tries to oppress or even eliminate a subordinate group
when a subordinate group attempts to gain more autonomy
while identity (ethnicity = common language, history) is often at the heart, functional reasons also play a role scarcity of land and resources as
pressure ex: Central Asia where many ethnic
groups exist and with the effects of the Cold War
RevolutionRevolution a form of conflict involving illegal
and usually violent actions by subordinate groups that seek to change the status quo
occurs in a variety of societies monarchies, colonies, developing
countries, totalitarian states urban versus rural origins for
revolutions cities as origin, ex: Iran, Egypt agrarian revolutions, ex: French,
Russian
WarfareWarfare definition of war has changed over time
is it always officially declared? does one always know who one's enemy is?
we can define war loosely: organized conflict involving group action directed against
another group using lethal force critical military anthropology
study of the military as a power structure views armed forces through critical lens:
how is the military used as an instrument of power or oppression?
how has militarization (intensification of labor and resources that are allocated to maintaining militaries) affected society?
Nonviolent ConflictNonviolent Conflict James Scott's (1985) term
“weapons of the weak” nonviolence utilizes methods that do
not require resources marginalized people do not often have
resources to use or the political capital and protection needed for open, organized political activity
can include hunger strikes, protests, sit-ins, desertion, feigned ignorance, slander, humor
famous figures: Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
Key ThemesKey Themes we can roughly categorize political organizations
in terms of aspects like power, authority, and influence the 4 types of political organization also roughly
correspond with the modes of livelihood different societies have many different ways of
maintaining social control there are also a variety of ways that conflict can
occur in societies political organizations and forms of social control
have changed over time and will continue to change
Social Inequality and Social Inequality and StratificationStratification
The Big QuestionsThe Big Questions
How does identity relate to inequality?
What are social groups and how do they vary cross-culturally?
What is social stratification and inequality?
What is the difference between caste and class?
What are some of the reasons for inequality?
IdentityIdentity
identity often serves as the basis for the formation of social groups, as well as the origins of social stratification and inequality
often based on micrcultural traits like “race,” ethnicity, class, and gender
Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity
“race” refers to the classification of people into groups on the basis of supposedly homogeneous and largely superficial biological traits such as skin color or hair characteristics
ethnicity refers to a shared sense of identity among a group based on heritage, language, and culture
both often serve as a way for people to identify themselves and others
RaceRace race is one of the main bases for inequality
racism often based on notion that different “races” act and think certain ways because of a biological basis (brain size, head shape)
Boas set out to de-link allegedly inborn, racial attributes from behavior
ex: people with similar head size from different cultures behaved differently, while people with different head sizes within the same culture behaved similarly
for Boas and his students, race was not a biological reality
we see today that race is, however, a social reality > cultural construct
ClassClass class is a category based on a person's
economic position in society usually measured in terms of income or wealth manifested in terms of lifestyle
identifying markers such as dress, cars, houses, even type of speech used
class also serves as a means for identification of self and other haves vs. have nots rich vs. poor
Social GroupsSocial Groups
what kinds of groups do people form/belong to that are not on the basis of kin relationships?
how are people classified in such groups? do they join them or are they born into
them? what holds these groups together? how do groups deal with leadership
and participation?
Social GroupsSocial Groups
a social group is a cluster of people beyond the domestic unit who are usually related on grounds other than kinship common groupings include microcultural distinctions
such as race/ethnicity, gender, age, and institutions shape group identity, organizations, and relationships
among and between groups
the presence and amount of social groups varies from society to society; some cultures group people according to kinship while others emphasize other social relationships more
Social GroupsSocial Groups
two basic categories of social groups: primary
consists of people who interact with each other on a face-to-face basis, knowing each other personally
involves more accountability in terms of rights and obligations
ex: college clubs
secondary consists of people who identify with each other on some
common ground but who may never meet with one another or interact with each other personally
ex: members of online communities/forums
Social GroupsSocial Groups
formal vs. informal many groups are formally organized, often including
actual membership and recognition ex: members of the American Anthropological
Association
other groups are informal and are characterized by being smaller and less visible more often know each other personally organization is less hierarchical do not have legal recognition
Social GroupsSocial Groups
on the continuum ranging from smaller, primary groups to larger and more formal groups friendships clubs and fraternities countercultural groups cooperatives self-help groups
FriendshipFriendship close social ties between at least
two people informal voluntary, people choose their friends primary, personal interaction involving
mutual support (financial, emotional) generally non-kin, often between
social equals with exceptions depending on rigidity of stratification
takes different forms in different cultures and microcultures
Clubs and FraternitiesClubs and Fraternities defined in terms of a sense of
shared identity and objectives can be homogeneous or
heterogeneous in terms of certain microcultural aspects ex: Intervarsity Christian Fellowship
(institution and religion vs. ethnicity and age)
ex: Abelam men's houses can be inclusive or exclusive
free to everyone vs. paying dues ex: books clubs vs. college honor
societies
Countercultural GroupsCountercultural Groups
sometimes people identify themselves, or are identified by others, as outside of the mainstream culture
these people often still group themselves based on similarities in beliefs, backgrounds, and
experiences despite variation within and between these
groups, a common theme is the importance of bonding and shared initiation
GangsGangs groups of people, found mainly in
urban areas, who are often considered a social problem by law enforcement can be formally (street gangs,
organized crime syndicates) or informally (youth gangs) organized
include symbolic markers of inclusion (tattoos, colors, clothing)
rituals of initiation ex: Masta Liu in the Solomon
Islands (youth) or the Yakuza of Japan (syndicate)
CooperativesCooperatives
economic groups in which surpluses are shared among the members and decision making is based on the democratic principles of one person = one vote most common forms are agricultural and credit, but
can also include craft cooperatives organized around groups of people who use their skills to make items like clothes, furniture, or pottery
done for economic, political, and social reasons being able to form groups allows people to provide more
products and have more power, but also allows for bonding and the sharing of ideas
Case Study: Sugar Case Study: Sugar Farming in Farming in
Western IndiaWestern India state of Maharashtra sugar industry largely owned and operated through
farmer cooperatives despite shareholder's only growing one to two acres of
sugar cane, sugar industry is huge part of state's economy, rivaling iron and steel industries
as a group, they are able to pay for expensive processing machinery
due to simple rural stratification practices, cooperatives thrive here, unlike in northern India
Self-Help GroupsSelf-Help Groups formed to achieve specific
personal goals coping with illness (depression,
cancer, PTSD) or bereavement lifestyle changes (weight loss) ex: AA, NA, Weight Watchers
with the increase in use of the Internet, self-help and other social groups have been able to form large, virtual communities for people in widespread areas of the world
Social StratificationSocial Stratification consists of hierarchical relationships between
different groups, as though they were arranged in layers
stratified groups may be unequal on a variety of measures material resources, power, education, and status
people in dominant groups are usually interested in maintaining social order while people in subordinate, less powerful groups are more interested in change
appeared late in human history, most likely with emergence of agriculture
Social InequalitySocial Inequality Weber (1946)
suggested there are three basic criteria by which one can measure the level of social inequality
how much access do people have to: wealth (material objects that have value in a society) power (the capacity to produce intended effects on
oneself, other people, social situations, or the environment)
prestige (social honor or respect within in a society) these aspects often interrelated, but can also
operate independently ex: classical pianists might have prestige, but little wealth
Types of SocitiesTypes of Socities
Fried (1967) distinguished three types of societies based on
levels of social inequality: egalitarian rank stratified
Egalitarian SocietiesEgalitarian Societies recognize few differences in status, wealth,
and power no person or group has appreciably more of
these traits than any other personal differences in skill and/or knowledge,
of course, occur high esteem is earned, not able to be transformed
into wealth or power, and cannot be transferred to heirs
number of high status positions not fixed any person capable can fill these positions
commonly found in highly mobile foraging societies
ex: !Kung people, Inuit, and Hadza of Tanzania
Rank SocietiesRank Societies societies in which people have unequal
access to prestige and status but not unequal status to wealth and power fixed number of high status positions
ex: position of chief is largely hereditary, but standard of living is not noticeably different from an ordinary person
most prominent examples found in Oceania and Native American groups of the Northwest Coast ex: Nootka of British Columbia
people ranked within families based on primogeniture (eldest child, usually son, has rights to inherit the family's estate)
Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies
characterized by considerable inequality in power, wealth, and prestige this inequality is both permanent and formally
recognized by members of that society (institutionalization)
therefore, some people or groups have little or no access to basic resources while others have no or very little barriers to the acquisition of such things
the more complex the society, the more complex the system of stratification
Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies
two main forms of stratified societies: class caste
connected to the two main forms of status or position: ascribed achieved
Status/PositionStatus/Position how does one acquire their status? ascribed status/position
a person's standing in society based on qualities that the person has gained through birth
achieved status/position a person's standing in society based on qualities
that the person has gained through action while achieved status is often associated with
the class system (potential for social mobility) and ascribed status is associated with the caste system, there are exceptions
Achieved Status: ClassAchieved Status: Class class is closely tied with economics
class and status do not always match (getting money in disreputable ways)
generally informal one does not sign up to be a member of the middle
class groups under specific class headings (labor unions,
country clubs) generally thought to be achieved by means
of attaining wealth can also be ascribed, ex: heirs and heiresses
are born into rich families and generally stay that way while poor people born into poor families generally stay that way as well
Theories of ClassTheories of Class class is central to Marxist theory
Marx suggested that, in terms of Industrial Europe, one could separate society into the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the haves and the have nots
because the haves have access to the means of production (resources), they are able to exploit the have nots
conflict between the classes will eventually lead to the downfall of capitalism
Theories of ClassTheories of Class Durkheim (1895) viewed class differences as basis
for social solidarity two main forms of solidarity:
mechanical cohesion among similar groups less enduring relationships created due to lack of mutual
need organic
cohesion among groups with different abilities and resources more enduring relationships created due to need and the
provision of complementary resources to different groups suggested that mechanical more associated with
less complex society
Ascribed StatusAscribed Status ascribed systems of stratification usually based on
divisions of people into unequally ranked groups, for ex. on the basis of “race,” ethnicity, and caste
“race” racial stratification results from contact (colonization,
slavery, migrations) between two formerly separate groups
discrimination often intrinsically linked with class ex: South African policy of apartheid
legally sanctioned segregation, white dominance began with migration and settlement of Europeans (Dutch) depictions of Africans as lazy and lustful served as rationale
for slavery and domination, despite black majority
Ascribed Status: EthnicityAscribed Status: Ethnicity according to Comaroff (1987), ethnicity is
a sense of group membership based on a shared sense of identity because this often comes out of a shared
history, it can serve as the basis for the claiming of entitlements to resources (ex: land)
can also serve as yet another way to put people into groups
ex: the Chinese government has strict definitions for group membership, with the Han ethnic group being the majority
minority groups often live on (literal) margins of society, such as Tibet, Yunnan, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia
Ascribed Status: CasteAscribed Status: Caste rigid form of social stratification in
which membership is determined by birth and social mobility is basically nonexistent
the caste system a form of social stratification linked
with Hinduism in which a person is born into a particular group
found mainly in Hindu India, as well as Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Fiji
based on sacred Hindu texts that categorize society into four major categories or varnas
The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System Madelbaum (1970)
according to a Hindu origin myth the four varnas originated from the body of primeval man
the highest caste, the Brahmans (priests and scholars), came from his mouth
the Kshatriyas (warriors) emanated from his arms
the Vaishyas (merchants) came from his thighs and the Shudras (cultivators, laborers, and
servants) sprang from his feet therefore, there is a religious/ideological
aspect to this system of social stratification based around the notion of purity
higher castes = more pure
The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System
the first three varnas go through a ritual ceremony of initiation and “rebirth” to symbolize their high status, purity, and “twice-born” nature
The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System beneath the four varnas is a
group that is considered to be so low that they are outside of the system itself formerly known in English as
“untouchables” based on the idea that higher
castes are not allowed to touch them for fear of literal and spiritual contamination
have adopted the term dalit, meaning “oppressed” or “ground down”
The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System
within the four main varnas are hundreds, maybe even thousands, of local groups known as jatis (birth group) ex: brahmans can be divided into priestly and non-
priestly jatis, priestly brahmans can be divided into household priests, temple priests, and funeral priests
it is of note that despite the strict rules about interaction between castes, there is a large degree of interdependence because of the complex division of labor based on
caste, each jati relies on many others to fulfill their daily needs (Durkheim's organic solidarity)
The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System traditionally caste has been associated with little
social mobility maintained through practice of endogamy, spatial
separation (neighborhoods), use of wealth by upper castes to sponsor festivals
however, “up-casting” exists instance in 4th century BCE where Valmiki, writer of the
Ramayana, was elevated because of his skill at poetry other strategies exists such as gaining wealth, education,
migration, political activism those seeking to elevate status often take on cultural markers of
“twice-born” (wearing sacred thread, practicing vegetarianism) in 1949 the Indian Constitution outlawed discrimination on
the basis of caste; 20th century saw institution of policies, success of which is still debatable
Maintaining InequalityMaintaining Inequality besides physical force, how is inequality maintained?
ideologies ideas and beliefs that legitimize and reinforce inequalities in
stratified societies can be religious or secular ex: heavenly ordained monarchy in Europe vs. political
ideologies concerning the rich and poor can be seen in two main theories for analysis
functional stratification is a way to reward individuals who contribute most
to a society's well-being conflict
stratification benefits mainly the upper stratum and is the cause of most social unrest and conflict in society
Key ThemesKey Themes identity plays a big role in the formation of social
groups, as well as being the basis for social stratification and inequality
social groups can have a variety of beliefs, values, and goals
social stratification and inequality varies depending on the society under study complex societies often have highly complex ways of
organizing society one's status within society can be achieved, ascribed, or
both inequality find its root in things like ideology