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8/7/2019 Lecture 1 2011 Politics (2)
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Politics, statehood and international
governance
Dr Sarah Bracking
Lecture 1
1st February 2011
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Objectives
This lecture introduces the module andthe subject sub-discipline of politics anddevelopment in the context of post-war
politics and international governance.
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Outline
1 What is politics and development?
2 Political science
3 Theories of power
4 What are nation-states and how dothey work politically in terms ofdelivering wellbeing to citizens?
5 What is international governance?
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1.1 Politics and development: complex genealogy
Political science (circa 1960s): institutional focus,generally uses quantitative methodology, studies politicalinstitutions, parties, voting systems.
Political sociology: from Weber or earlier, particularlystrong from the post-structuralist and cultural turn in the
social sciences. Focus on discourse, ideology and power,Gramsci, Foucault, Bourdieu. Uses qualitativemethodology.
Politicalliberalism: resonates with the tradition ofEnglish classical liberalism and political economy(Hobbes and Locke). Uses normative, but historicalmethodology. [next week]
In development, political liberalism is dominant andpolitical development advocates liberaldemocratisation.
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2 Political science
Political science generally concerned withthe processes, principles, and structureof government and of political
institutions. Quantitative, comparative and normative
political science methodologies are mosteffective when evaluating broad regimetypes and long-run institutional changes.
Techniques used around polling andpredictive public opinion sampling alsohave a utility to planners and politicalrepresentatives.
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2.1 Political science research
Is outcome oriented, based in measuringinstitutional features such as numbersand types of representatives, rather than
about social processes that underpin andinfluence these outcomes.
The standardisation of politics intocategories of regime types, electoral
systems, political parties does notaddress the specific and local in theresearch process.
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2.2 Political research in development
Traditional political science has categorisedpoor people as living in environments whichlack democratic norms of representationand accountability, such as in Freedom
House terms, societies which are partlyfree or unfree (Freedom House, 2003 seealso Human Rights Watch, 2003).
Arguments can quickly become circular: alack of power leads to poverty, poor people
have a lack of power, and a consequence ofbeing poor is to, again, have little power. Few signposts to the policy maker in terms
of when to intervene, and what to do, indevelopment.
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2.3 Has found
Two broad trends relevant to the politicsof development. Poor people
have very few positive relationships withformal political institutions measured by theirrepresentation and likelihood of participatingin voting processes (Beetham et al, 2002).
Are likely to have weak means to holdpolitical and economic elites to account andwith which to claim rights to resources(International IDEA, 2000).
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2.4 Within the modernist tradition
Political science is about the application of science,normally using quantitative methods, to understandingpolitical processes and procedures, for example, in studiesof voters and voting
Power is understood as instrumental and about outcomesin decision-making processes
An agency-centred, measureable, objective contest ofplural interests
For example, Dahl, classic definition of power: A has power over B to the extent that s/he can get B to do
something that B would not do otherwise (1957, p.201)
See Colin Hay, (1997)
Political science still tends to maintain a pluralist view ofpower
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3 But sociological concept of power expands
discipline of politics
Bachrach and Baratz, 1962, 1970, introduced
non-decision-making where
A devotes his (sic) energies to creating or reinforcing
social and political values and institutional practices thatlimit the scope of the political process to public
consideration of only those issues which are
comparatively innocuous to B (1962, p.948)
Contentious issues removed from chamber An agenda-setting dimension added [to the
agency-centred approach]
classical pluralism undermined11
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3.1 Power
But what if there is no conflict/apparentconsensus, and actors do not perceivethemselves to have an interest, or judge itwrongly [cf. false consciousness]?
Enter Lukes, who discusses when A can influenceor shape Bs preferences is it not the most insidious exercise of power to prevent
peoplefrom having grievances by shaping theirperceptions, cognitions, and preferences in such a waythat they accept their role in the existing order of things,either because they can see or imagine no alternative toit, or because they see it as natural or unchangeable, orbecause they value it as divinely ordained and beneficial?(Lukes, 1974, p.24)
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3.2 Hays solution
Colin Hay (1997), if power is decision-making, agenda-setting and preference-shaping, can we go beyondbehaviouralism [and idea of real and perceivedinterests, which invites elite judgement?]
[in Politics 17(1) ps. 45-52] Distinguish between identifying where power exists,
or its analysis, from its critique.
Definition can be three dimensional, power is abouthow contexts are shaped and about the capacity to
define what is possible for others [cf Habermas andFoucault], ability of A to have an effect over thepossibilities of B (Hay, 1995: 191)
This definition allows power to have a positive effect,power of/to , and also can lay the basis for judging a
negative effect, power over 13
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4.1 State cont:
At least three general perspectives are found:
the narrow concept: the state as a set of
institutions or system of authority
the sloppy concept: the state as the
government of the day
the broad concept: the state as the
configuration of power in society, i.e. defined interms of the social interests, class character, of
the society over which it presides and which it
defends.15
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4.2 Different definitions
1) regards the state as being essentially socially
neutral, above and separate from what is called
civil society, and so capable of being understood in
terms of the operation and development of itsinstitutional processes.
3) regards the state as defending, reinforcing,
preserving and shaping a particular social order.
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4.3 What states do, according to 1)
The nation-state, liberal ideal form assumesterritorial integrity, sovereignty, and legitimacy,and then (rationally)
R
egulates the domestic economy Manages fiscal and monetary policy
Provides social services and welfare
Defines and defends a common sense of social order andpurpose
It arbitrates (or represses) social disputes
Defends the rule of law, the legal system
Defends the rule of money, the currency
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4.4 What states do (according to 3)
The Coercive function: preserving order, ensuringsocial control, defending the status quo. There ismost agreement on this function [Weber, Lenin,Hobbes, etc]
The Legitimation function: obtaining consent forauthority, ensuring social consensus andcohesion, representing class power as socialpower. [Weber, Gramsci, Habermas, Offe]
The social reproduction function: reproducingnation, state and society, i.e. defending the
territory of the state, ensuring economic growthand progress, directing economic developmentand policy, managing social provision and social
investment.18
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4.5 But not all states are the samePost-colonial states (Mick Moore):
Shaped in unequal, pre-existing system
Have a disconnect between the state and the citizen
Suffer from: Incomplete state formation
Unnatural birth
History of external control
Unearned state income
Declining cost of military superiority
International criminal networks
Competitiveness of aid donors
(See also Moore, M (2001) Understanding Variations in Political Systems in DevelopingCountries: A Practical Framework, November, IDS Working Paper)
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4.6 The State as nation, territory and institution:
a universal framework
Sense of
stateness
Boundary Practices Others Key processes
State as
nation
State as a
community;
state as a
national people
Discursive:
belonging;
communal or
shared national
identity
Inclusion/
exclusion from
full citizenship;
national
ceremony
Women;
ethnic and
religious
minorities;
partial
citizens
Citizenship;
nationalism;
racism; patriarchy;
incarceration
State as
territory
Geo-politicallybounded area of
administrative
sovereignty
Physical:administrativel
y policed
political
frontier/border
Border controls;customs;
defence;
maintenance of
a standing army
Other nation-states; other
foreign
offices;
foreign
citizens
Geo-politics;diplomacy; war
(hot and cold);
defence;
immigration
State as
institution
State as an
assemblage of
coordinated
apparatuses,
institutions and
practices
Practical:
institutional
reach into the
private sphere,
the economy
and civil
society
Mode of
intervention;
extent of state
regulation,
surveillance and
funding
Apparatuses of
he private
sphere
(family); civil
society
(church,
media); and
the economy
(firms)
Bureaucracy; legal
and economic
regulation;
surveillance;
taxation and
subsidization
Reproduced from Hay, C (1996)Re-stating Social and Political Change, (Open University), p.13
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5. Politics becomes governance
The institutionalist political science tradition is
dominant in politics and development, and power
is generally occluded
Governance speaks to positivist, rational andinstitutional views of progress
Governance is also heavily embedded in liberalism
Well governed societies have democratically
constituted authority and rational public policy
geared to the public good
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5.2 Governance: definition
[Governance] resumes older and broader meanings ofgovernment and governing that are not necessarily tied tothe nation-state and, in some ways, have become
obscured by the rise of the liberal national state and itsidentification of government with the government, i.ewith the body that claims supreme authority within agiven territory and its various apparatuses. It givesparticular emphasis to issues of the government of
human conduct in all contexts, by various authorities andagencies, invoking particular forms of truth, and usingdefinite resources, means and techniques
(Dean, (1999) Governmentality: Power and Rule in Modern Society, Sage p.2-3)24
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Tutorial discussion points:
Good governance and the state
Some general discussion questions:
What is the character of politics in development theory?
What is governance and how does this differ frompolitics?
What role should states play in development?
What role does politics play in meeting developmentobjectives (or not)?
How well do concepts of governance work in southernstates?
What role can advocacy and non-governmentalorganisations play in improving political outcomes?
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Conclusion: Impasse in politics and
development interventions?
Is there a widespread failure to think outsidenormative expressions of what should be and whatpolitical institutions should look like?
Is this due to the overwhelming neoliberalparadigm dominant in political science?
(see Bracking, 2005; Hickey, 2010)
How would this paradigm be escaped andempirically informed modelling of politics becarried out?
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