NEW YORK

2020NHSMUN

IAEAInternational Atomic Energy Agency

Background Guide

Email: info@imuna.org

Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992

Web: www.nhsmun.org

Dear Delegates,

NHSMUN 2020 is almost here! I can’t wait to meet you all and have some of the best MUN de-bates ever! But first, an introduction. My name is Talha Iqbal. I am the Session I Director for the International Atomic Energy Agency. Currently, I am a sophomore at Princeton University intend-ing to major in international policy and minor in global health and American studies. When taking breaks from the chaos of college academia, I participate in my school’s International Relations Council, write for the Daily Princetonian, and breakdance (I’m sort of a beginner still but I am improving). I first joined NHSMUN four years ago as a delegate. This year will be my third NHS-MUN conference. I loved my experience in the past and knew I had to come back; I hope you feel the same after our upcoming session!

My Co-Director, Lucy, and I have created a useful Background Guide for you all which covers key issues involving the IAEA’s mandate. Topic A, “Nuclear Techniques for Containing Vector-Borne Diseases,” looks at nuclear technology as a way to control the spread of pathogens to improve public health, promote crop growth, prevent sickness, and more. It is a unique topic which I hope will show the vast number of lesser known uses for nuclear technology. Topic B, “Legal and Regu-latory Frameworks for Nuclear Energy Development,” is a more traditional issue dealing with the technical nuances that lawmakers must first address before developing nuclear technology. Potential debates involve licensing nuclear technology, promoting emergency preparedness, establishing ac-countability, and enhancing national safety legislation. Both topics have a lot of substantive mate-rial to offer prior to debate. I recommend that you make use of the annotated bibliography and perform additional research for your country’s position.

Because it is a MUN conference, you will be expected to promote your country’s policies and stance on the issues at hand. I understand that this may be difficult, especially if this is your first confer-ence or you do not agree with your state’s position. But over my time with MUN, I have seen del-egates perform well in such circumstances and am confident that you can too. As always, reach out to me or Lucy if you have any questions regarding the topics, need clarifications on the Background Guide, or anything else about the IAEA prior to conference. See you all in March!

Sincerely,

Talha Iqbaltalha.iqbal@imuna.orgInternational Atomic Energy AgencySession I

Secretary-GeneralVijittra Puckdee

Director-GeneralAlthea Turley

Chiefs of StaffAlex Burr

Walker Heintz

Delegate ExperienceLuis GonzálezMerve Karakas

Domestic PartnershipsMaura Goss

Odion Ovbiagele

Global PartnershipsRenata Koch

Salmaan Rashiq

Internal AffairsLia Lee

Natalie O’Dell

Under-Secretaries-General

Michael BeeliJill Bendlak

Rose BlackwellAnnica DenktasRahul FrancisOmar Mufti

Jonathan PackerAkanksha Sancheti

John WoodAlisa Wong

Email: info@imuna.org

Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992

Web: www.nhsmun.org

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to NHSMUN 2020! My name is Lucy and I am your Session II Director for the Interna-tional Atomic Energy Agency. I am so excited to see what this year’s conference has in store!

For a little bit about me, I am currently in my third year of studies at the University of Toronto. Since I am pursuing a double major in Neuroscience and Psychology, taking on the IAEA has been a perfect balance of my interest in political debate and application of my background in science. Beyond school, I dedicate a fair chunk of my time to playing rugby with my varsity and club teams—and of course to NHSMUN. This is my third year working with this incredible staff; I was the Assistant Director for the Organization of American States for NHSMUN 2018, then the Director for the International Court of Justice for NHSMUN 2019, and I am back again for NHSMUN 2020 with the IAEA! I sincerely hope you all will find your NHSMUN experience to be as enjoyable as I have.

The topics we have chosen to simulate for this committee are ones less commonly explored when pertaining to the governance of nuclear energy, but I am confident in your ability to take on this challenge. Topic A, “Nuclear Techniques for Containing Vector-Borne Diseases,” addresses short-comings in public health with innovative methods to identify and eradicate vectors of disease. Topic B, “Legal and Regulatory Frameworks for Nuclear Energy Development,” tackles complications in safety and security that precede the expansion of nuclear technologies. While both topics do neces-sitate some scientific knowledge, it is important that you do not get too wrapped up in the technical components of these issues and rather, focus on how nuclear energy is applied in each case.

This Background Guide is meant to help you frame the issues and serve as a reference point to supplement your own research. That being said, if you have any questions about the topics or the committee in general, please do not hesitate to reach out to either me or Talha. We would love to hear from you! See you in New York!

Best,

Lucy Kimlucy.kim@imuna.orgInternational Atomic Energy AgencySession II

Secretary-GeneralVijittra Puckdee

Director-GeneralAlthea Turley

Chiefs of StaffAlex Burr

Walker Heintz

Delegate ExperienceLuis GonzálezMerve Karakas

Domestic PartnershipsMaura Goss

Odion Ovbiagele

Global PartnershipsRenata Koch

Salmaan Rashiq

Internal AffairsLia Lee

Natalie O’Dell

Under-Secretaries-General

Michael BeeliJill Bendlak

Rose BlackwellAnnica DenktasRahul FrancisOmar Mufti

Jonathan PackerAkanksha Sancheti

John WoodAlisa Wong

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Table of Contents

Background Guide 1

A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5

A Note on Research and Preparation 7

Committee History 8

Simulation 10

Nuclear Techniques for Containing Vector-Borne Diseases 11

Introduction 12

History and Description of the Issue 12

Current Status 21

Bloc Positions 25

Committee Mission 28

Legal and Regulatory Framework for Nuclear Energy Development 29

Introduction 30

History and Description of the Issue 31

Current Status 39

Bloc Analysis 43

Committee Mission 46

Research and Preparation Questions 47

Important Documents 48

Works Cited 51

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A Note on the NHSMUN Difference

Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,

Welcome to NHSMUN 2020! My name is Althea Turley and I am this year’s Director-General. Thank you for choosing to attend NHSMUN, the world’s largest Model United Nations conference for secondary school students. We are thrilled to welcome you to New York City in March!

As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to help transform today’s brightest thinkers into tomorrow’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and acces-sible programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience and this idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.

Debate founded on strong knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN can facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff members produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic overviews (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the com-plexities and nuances inherent in global issues. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our committees develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and evolving, NHSMUN also produces update papers that are intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are published and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates should delve further into their topics.

Extremely prepared and engaged staff: The detailed knowledge that our directors provide in this background guide through diligent research is aimed at spurring critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN. Prior to the conference, our Directors and Assistant Directors are trained rigorously through copious hours of both virtual and in-person exercises and workshops in an effort to provide the best conference experience possible. Beyond this, our Directors and Assistant Directors read every posi-tion paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the committee experience to delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all delegates’ thoughts can be heard.

Emphasis on participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make a dramatic impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN too. We believe that in order to properly delve into an issue and produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of Procedure and our staff are focused on making every voice in the committee heard, regardless of each delegate’s country as-signment or skill level. However, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN delegates are well researched and aware of the UN’s priorities and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustain-able Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to also connect students with other action-oriented organizations at the conference to encourage further work on the topics.

Focused committee time: NHSMUN prohibits the use of any electronic devices during committee sessions. We feel strongly that face-to-face interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior committee experiences and allow for the free flow of ideas. Ensuring a no-technology policy is also a way to guarantee that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. We staff a very dedicated team in our office who type up and format draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on communication and collaboration. Please note that the dais is permitted a laptop to communicate with members of Senior Staff and for other administrative needs.

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Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lies education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity. NHSMUN seeks to reward schools whose students excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop an environment in which delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around the world. We always prioritize a dedication to teamwork and encourage our delegates to engage with others in a diplomatic and inclusive manner. In particular, our daises look for and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as delegates do in the United Nations.

Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has actually said in the committee. Our topics are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of that committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the appropriate time period). This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to do first-hand research by reading the actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported We also incorporate real UN and NGO experts into each committee through our committee speakers program and arrange for meetings between students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they are representing. No other conference goes so far to deeply immerse students into the UN System.

As always, I welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2020 and would be happy to dis-cuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates.

Delegates, it is my sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an incredible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. I look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference.

Best,

Althea Turley Director-General

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A Note on Research and Preparation

Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the conference’s intellectual and cosmopolitan perspective. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your com-mittee. This document is designed to give you a description of the committee’s mandate and the topics on its agenda. We do not intend to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each of you to critically explore the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in March. Delegates must be prepared to intelligently utilize your knowledge and apply it to your country’s unique policy.

The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage—they can help transform a sometimes-overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.

An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate a given state’s views in writing. Ac-cordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation (the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a posi-tion paper for both topics on the committee’s agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to participate in the research for both topics, to ensure that both students are prepared to debate no matter what topic is selected first. More information about how to write and format position papers can be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To sum-marize, position papers should be structured into three sections, described below.

I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s coun-try. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic background, but rather focus on the details that are most important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.

II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the policy in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy. Compari-sons with other global issues are also appropriate here.

III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions of each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify potential obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the country’s policy.

Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard margins and font size. We recommend 2-4 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the country you are representing at NHSMUN 2020 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.

Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before 14 Febru-ary 2020. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before 24 January 2020. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned prior to your arrival at the conference.

Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via the email submitted at registration. If delegations are unable to submit their position papers on time, they should contact us at info@imuna.org as soon as possible.

Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.

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Committee History

In the boom of nuclear technology in the 1950s, the International Atomic Energy was born to help manage the dangers and opportunities of this technology. In December of 1953, President Eisenhower gave his Atoms for Peace Speech, in which he emphasized the goal to discover “the way by which the miraculous inventiveness of man shall not be dedicated to his death, but consecrated to his life,” harnessing the power of nuclear weapons for peaceful rather than destructive means.1 He proposed the creation of an international agency to encourage collaboration among nations rather than hostility and atomic secrecy. At first, the Soviet Union was reluctant, fearing that advancements of civilian nuclear technology could also lead to advancements in military technology.2 However, in 1955, the UN General Assembly held a conference in Geneva on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, and the Soviet Union agreed to the proposal.3 The IAEA’s statute was adopted by 81 countries on 23 October 1956 in New York, with 23 members initially serving on the Board.4 As defined in Article II of the IAEA Statute, the Agency would “seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world.”5 The IAEA’s headquarters were established in Vienna, Austria, and the Agency was established as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” orga-nization; it was an autonomous organization within the United Nations framework that set out to safeguard the world from the dangers of nuclear energy and funnel nuclear energy technology into the advancement of global society.6

Created as an entity independent from national governments, the IAEA serves as a global forum for nuclear cooperation, nuclear safety standards, and technological knowledge and guidance.7 Though its written mandate has remained constant, the way in which it has carried out this mandate has changed with the global political climate.8 To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, the IAEA supported the development of binding treaties on the use of nuclear technology.9 The IAEA’s has also vastly expand-ed the support it provides to countries to develop and properly manage their nuclear energy technologies.10 However, by the early 1980s, the demand for nuclear power plants declined significantly, especially after the 1986 Chernobyl accident, and the IAEA’s priorities shifted towards implementing safety guidelines.11 Today, the IAEA focuses mostly on facilitating global nuclear energy cooperation, supporting nuclear energy programs in developing countries, establishing safeguards on nuclear energy dangers such as radiation, and promoting research on the growing applications of atomic energy technology.12

The IAEA’s role in managing a technology so volatile and powerful has made it unique among international organizations. It now consists of 171 member states and reports annually to the UN General Assembly and, in the case of members’ noncompli-ance, to the UN Security Council.13 Its headquarters are located in Vienna, Austria, but the Agency also collaborates with IAEA Liaison Offices in New York, United States and Geneva, Switzerland; laboratory and research centers in Seibersdorf, Austria, Monaco, and Trieste, Italy; and regional safeguards offices in Toronto, Canada and Tokyo, Japan.14

IAEA inspectors regularly visit nuclear facilities, ensuring that governments are adhering to their commitments to the peaceful 1 “Atoms for Peace speech,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified 1 December 2018, www.britannica.com/event/Atoms-for-Peace-speech.2 Bertrand Goldschmidt, “The Origins of the International Energy Agency,” IAEA Bulletin 19, No. 4 (1977): 12-19.3 Ibid.4 Ibid.5 “The Statute of the IAEA,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/statute#a1-2.6 “History,” IAEA, www.iaea.org/about/overview/history.7 “The IAEA Mission Statement,” IAEA, https://www.iaea.org/about/mission.8 David Fischer, History of the International Atomic Energy Agency: The first forty years (Vienna: IAEA, 1997).9 Ibid.10 “History.”11 Fischer, “History of the International Atomic Energy Agency.”12 “International Atomic Energy Agency,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified 30 September 2013, https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Atomic-Energy-Agency.13 James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),” Nuclear Threat Initiative, https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/international-atomic-energy-agency/.14 “IAEA Offices and Contact Information,” IAEA, https://www.iaea.org/contact.

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use of nuclear technology.15 The General Conference of the IAEA meets in regular annual sessions and elect the Director-Gen-eral and members to the Board of Governors, review annual reports, approve the IAEA budget, and review new applications for membership.16 Today, the IAEA Board of Governors is composed of 35 members and carries out committee functions such as establishing safety standards and authorizing the Director-General to implement them.17 The administrators of the IAEA assist with the enforcement of various treaties that ensure the safe handling of nuclear technology and materials. Some of these trea-ties include the Convention on Nuclear Safety and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.18 The most well-known IAEA-related treaties is the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.19

Member states have some reporting responsibilities to the IAEA. If IAEA safeguards are adopted, it is also the re-sponsibility of states to responsibility apply them. The IAEA does not have the power to force any state to accept IAEA inspectors, so it relies on states to follow the Agency’s guidelines. Although inspections are often welcomed, some states have refused to accept them or sought to limit the total number of IAEA inspectors that are permitted. These constraints make it more difficult for the IAEA to deploy small corps of inspectors at its disposal and to carry out the necessary verification activities on nuclear guidelines. However, the IAEA, although reliant on states, has been successful in fulfilling its mandate: to promote safe, secure, and peaceful nuclear technologies for the world.20

15 Ibid.16 “IAEA Factsheet,” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication, August 2018, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/18/08/the-iaea-policy-making-organs-providing-guidance-for-the-agency-work.pdf.17 Ibid.18 Ibid.19 Ibid.20 “History,” IAEA, www.iaea.org/about/overview/history.

10|IAEAsIMUlATIon

Simulation

This simulation at NHSMUN 2020 will allow all delegates to participate equally in a vibrant debate. Delegates must thoroughly familiarize themselves with their country’s policies so that they can accurately represent them when the committee discusses each topic. The goal of this committee will be to build a consensus to support and pass a resolution that thoroughly addresses the topics under discussion, while also respecting the differing goals and opinions of all member states. With this goal in mind, del-egates should develop and support resolutions that align with their country’s policies. Each country must work towards finding compromises without abandoning their own country’s goals in favor of the resolution. The resolutions should, therefore, aim to improve the situation while allowing each country to stay on policy and accomplish what their government believes is important.

To start committee, after delegates have been introduced to the dais, they will first debate the setting of the agenda and then progress to substantive debate, which will deepen and progress throughout the following sessions. There will be two main forms of discussion in this committee: formal debate and caucusing. Formal debate consists of delegates adding themselves to the speakers list to be formally recognized before the rest of the committee for a specified length of time. When delegates appear before the committee, it is their opportunity to give an overview of their country’s position. It is imperative that all delegates re-main respectful of others during this time and observe all procedural rules in order for delegates to be heard and for the speaker’s list to flow smoothly. The chair will move down the speakers list, allowing each country who has volunteered their name to speak for a set amount of time and present their concerns to the committee.

Caucusing can be done in one of two ways: moderated and unmoderated. The speakers list will be suspended for both types of caucuses. Moderated caucuses flow similarly to formal debate, but delegates’ speaking times are often shorter, and each caucus has a specific topic that delegates must discuss in their comments. A moderated caucus will allow more speakers to address the assembly without having to wait for their turn to come on the speakers list. Unmoderated caucuses suspend formal rules of debate for a designated period of time during which delegates are free to move around the room and informally discuss policy and potential solutions with one another. The majority of writing for working papers and draft resolutions will occur during these unmoderated caucuses.

The topics in this committee are challenging and will require a great deal of research. Because NHSMUN emphasizes compro-mise and innovative problem solving, pre-written resolutions are not allowed at this conference. While your delegation may have some informal ideas about possible solutions before committee begins, you may not bring them to the conference in resolution form; this would defeat the purpose of the committee, which is to work together and compromise. Working papers and resolu-tions are collaboratively created by starting with solutions, first just as a set of ideas. These solutions are formatted into a working paper, then voted upon as draft resolutions, and finally presented as resolutions in plenary if passed in committee. Throughout this process and the debates, the dais staff will be available at all times to help delegates with any concerns or questions they may have. The dais is always happy to help delegates not only with substantive questions related to the topics under discussion, but also with adjusting to the procedural aspects of Model UN.

During the conference, the chair will be moderating the committee and setting up a general direction for the flow of debate. However, it is truly up to the delegates to decide how the committee proceeds, and it is up to the delegates to make the confer-ence and committee the best that it can be. Delegates are welcome to contact the dais at any time for help, both before and during the conference, as they are there to answer any questions. They will help to make sure the committee runs smoothly and is a success.

IAEA

NHSMUN 2020

Photo Credit: Erik F Brandsborg

Topic A:Nuclear Techniques for Containing Vector-Borne Diseases

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Introduction

1 “Vector-Borne Diseases: Understanding the Environmental, Human Health, and Ecological Connections, Workshop Summary,” Institute of Medicine Forum on Microbial Threats, 2008, accessed 23 September 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK52939. 2 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1, “A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases,” WHO, 2014, accessed 23 September 2019, apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/111008/WHO_DCO_WHD_2014.1_eng.pdf?sequence=1.3 Ibid.4 AB Knudsen and R Slooff, “Vector-Borne Disease Problems in Rapid Urbanization: New Approaches to Vector Control,” World Health Organization 70, no. 1 (1992), accessed 23 September 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2393336/pdf/bullwho00040-0014.pdf. 5 Ibid.6 “Keeping the Vector Out: Housing Improvements for Vector Control and Sustainable Development,” World Health Organization, 2017, accessed 23 September 2019, apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259404/9789241513166-eng.pdf;jsessionid=647731372C5FE28CFB0ACCC877B02271?sequence=1.7 Ibid.8 Ibid.9 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1, ““A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases.” 10 Ibid.11 Ibid.12 Ibid.

Vector-borne diseases are responsible for about half of the world’s burden of infectious disease.1 Infections total over a billion people internationally per year and are the cause of significant illness, disability, and over a million deaths annually.2 Vector-borne illness refers to illnesses that are spread through vectors, some other medium, to another organism. Often, vectors refer to “arthropods”—insects—but they can be any organism that carries diseases between other organisms. Thus, the risk of spreading diseases prevails in the impoverished regions of the tropics, where the state of the en-vironment aggravates impoverished conditions and poses problems for vector proliferation.3 Slums and inadequate housing constitute much of these regions with a high population density, which increases the likelihood of exposure and contact with disease vectors.4 Houses in these junctures do not meet standards for size or hygiene and are oftentimes constructed by the migrating families them-selves—who are unqualified to make proper structural decisions for their own accommodations.5 As a result, entry points in unsecured doors or windows, unsealed cracks in walls or floors, and unfitted ceilings give vectors effortless access to urban populations.6 Lack of air conditioning and sanitation facilities in such dwellings additionally harbor warmth and human odor that attract vectors.7 These settlements also lack waste management systems and the plumbing infrastructure for water supply and drainage. This forces the usage of water storage vessels and open containers, gutters, or house-hold garbage like tires or plastic bottles that collect stagnating water form optimal breeding sites for mosquitoes.8 These considerations make the problem of vector control about alleviating social and economic inequalities, as well as an international health concern.

The dangers of these elevated transmission risks are com-pounded by the increasing resistance of vectors to control methods.9 Vectors and the pathogens they carry are becoming progressively resilient to the finite number of drugs and insec-ticides currently used to combat disease, which have compli-cated state capacity for detecting and dealing with outbreaks.10 Capacity building for public health involves strengthening skills, resources, and systems in place for states to administer disease response strategies. Chemical treatments are effective, relatively inexpensive, and widely available, and have been piv-

otal to past successes in the control of diseases like malaria and dengue.11 However, diminished sensitivity to insecticides means that states must moderate their reliance on this method and look to integrate alternative strategies while they try to delay and reverse resistance.12

History and Description of the Issue

The threat of vector-borne disease re-emergence and weak-ening of conventional vector control strategies have spurred

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the IAEA’s interest in developing more effective programs. They aim to incorporate nuclear techniques into contempo-rary vector management practices to improve extermination efforts. At the forefront of nuclear technologies is the sterile insect technique (SIT), which achieves population eradication by radiation-induced sterility.13 Although praised for being en-vironmentally friendly, the SIT is costly and highly specific, requiring an immense amount of preparation, resources, and laboratory work to develop and implement.14 As a developing technology, the long-term success, outcomes, and effects on biodiversity are also not well-known, despite positive initial assessments.15 While the SIT is still a growing field of vector management, it has already managed to acquire a reputation as an auspicious solution for addressing vector-borne disease.16

The IAEA and other related bodies advocate for integrated vector management (IVM) programs to contain diseases which combine various methods, including insecticides and the SIT. This background guide will discuss central aspects of infectious diseases and explore how a vector-targeted re-

13 VA Dyck, J Hendrichs, and AS Robinson, “Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and Practice in Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management,” International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005, accessed 23 September 2019, link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/1-4020-4051-2.pdf.14 Ibid.15 Ibid.16 Ibid.17 Anthony James Wilson et al., “What is a vector?” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 372, no. 1719 (2017): 2, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5352812/pdf/rstb20160085.pdf. 18 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1, “A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases.” 19 Albin Fontaine et al., “Implication of Haematophagous Arthropod Salivary Proteins In Host-vector Interactions,” Parasites & vectors 4, no. 187 (2011): 6, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3197560/pdf/1756-3305-4-187.pdf.20 Wilson, “What is a Vector?” 21 A Marm Kilpatrick and Sonia Altizer, “Disease Ecology,” Nature Education Knowledge 3, no. 10 (2010), www.nature.com/scitable/knowl-edge/library/disease-ecology-15947677/.22 Ibid.

sponse may be the key to solving this issue.

Characteristics of Vector Borne Diseases

Of the many types of disease vectors, haematophagous ar-thropods—insects that consume blood—are some of the most common and the most dangerous to humans, and they are thus considered as the main type of vector by the Euro-pean Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 17 Vectors contract disease when they consume the blood of an infected animal. After the disease incubates in the vector, it is able to spread the disease to hundreds more animals when it feeds on them.18 Transmission occurs with the injection of the ar-thropod’s saliva, for example through a bug bite, which serves to promote feeding, but has also been found to inadvertently play a role in enhancing the passing of infection.19

By understanding how pathogens work, it becomes apparent how biological agents specifically function in their interac-tions with pathogens and other hosts. Thanks to evolutionary forces, the strength of vector organisms is largely unaffected by (and possibly even benefit from) the pathogens that or-ganisms carry.20 This characteristic grants the vectors contin-ued survival and reproductive success, which maintains their populations and perpetuates contagion.21 However, humans and other animals do not share the same immunities as vec-tors and are easily affected by transmitted diseases.22 Human susceptibility to infection brings into focus another type of vector: anthropocentric, those pertaining only to cases afflicting human populations.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), at least 17% of all communicable diseases worldwide are vector-borne, most of which pose significant risk for sickness, dis-

This photo shows mosquito larvae collecting on the surface of an open container of water

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ability, and loss of life.23 Widely known vectors include flies, ticks, fleas, and other bugs, but mosquitoes are thought to be the most prominent; this is due to the quantity and degree of illnesses they are implicated in, as well as mosquitoes’ adapt-ability to diverse environments and interventions.24 As such, the IAEA has concentrated most of its efforts on controlling diseases transmitted by mosquitoes and tsetse flies.25 The fol-lowing table outlines major diseases of concern tackled by the IAEA and accompanying information.26

One shared attribute of the above diseases is that they are found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions.27 Vectors depend on the external environment to regulate their own in-ternal body temperature, which means they require and thrive in the stable ambient climates found along the equatorial belt.28 This attribute marks the features characteristic of vec-tor-borne diseases: seasonal and sporadic outbreaks.29 When

23 “Vector-Borne diseases,” WHO, 31 October 2017, accessed 23 September 2019, www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases.24 “Mosquitoes: World’s Deadliest Animal,” Barcelona Institute for Global Health, 18 August 2017, www.isglobal.org/en_GB/-/mosquito-el-animal-mas-letal-del-mundo.25 “Insect Pest Control Laboratory,” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, accessed 23 September 2019, www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/ipc-laboratory.html.26 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1. “A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases.” 27 Krisztian Magori and John M Drake, “The Population Dynamics of Vector-Borne Diseases,” Nature Education Knowledge 4, no. 4 (2013), www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-population-dynamics-of-vector-borne-diseases-102042523.28 Ibid.29 Ibid.30 Ibid.31 Robert W Sutherst, “Global Change and Human Vulnerability to Vector-Borne Diseases,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17, no. 1 (2004): 139, cmr.asm.org/content/cmr/17/1/136.full.pdf.

a pathogen is introduced in a climate that fosters vector pro-liferation, intermittent transmissions can quickly propagate and turn into an epidemic.30 Vectors are attuned to the tem-perature and humidity of their surroundings, so this strongly influences the geography of vector-borne disease. Delegates should possess a good understanding of the characteristics of vector borne diseases in order to properly introduce solutions in committee.

Causes and Effects of Disease Transmission

Considering the importance of climate on the distribution of vector-borne diseases, the growing impact of climate change on this issue is undeniable. Higher temperatures and increased precipitation and flooding create more optimal settings for mosquitoes to rapidly reproduce.31 Still, climate change is not the only thing driving the resurgence of vector-borne disease.

Disease Vector Pathogen Global burden

Malaria Anopheles mos-quitoes

Plasmodium parasites

219 million cases and 435000 deaths in 2017, pre-dominantly in sub-Saharan Africa and India.

Dengue Aedes aegypti mos-quitoes

Dengue virus 390 million cases annually, endemic to Latin America, Asia, Africa, and threatening outbreak in Europe and North America.

Chikungunya Aedes mosquitoes Chikungunya virus

Observed mostly in Africa, Asia, India, but begin-ning to affect the Americas.

Yellow fever Haemagogus, Aedes mosquitoes

Yellow fever virus

200000 cases and 30000 deaths annually, endemic to Africa and South America.

Japanese en-cephalitis

Culex mosquitoes Japanese encephalitis

virus

Over 50000 cases and 10000 deaths annually, in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.

Lymphatic fila-riasis

Aedes, Anopheles, Culex mosquitoes

Filarial para-sites

Over 120 million cases, predominantly in South-east Asia and Africa, and throughout the tropics.

Human African trypanosomiasis

Tsetse flies Trypanosoma parasites

Endemic to sub-Saharan Africa.

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Changes in the world population and widespread urbanization have changed how humans interact with each other, some-times at an extremely accelerated pace.32 Without the infra-structure to support urban development, these cities are then faced with immature health and sanitation systems that fail to ensure the well-being of local inhabitants.33 Unsanitary liv-ing conditions caused by overcrowding, substandard water supplies, or waste disposal, and under-equipped public health services make them ideal places for vectors to dwell and dis-ease to appear.34 Other urban expansion practices, like defor-estation or building dams and irrigation channels, can also increase risk of communicable disease in the region.35 When natural territories are disturbed, they expose local populations to vectors and vector-borne diseases that may have previous-ly occupied the space - particularly if these activities are not planned proficiently or executed in a controlled manner, as is usually the case.36 Breaking up habitats in this way can also have secondary consequences not yet well known, as physi-cal alterations in the land modify points (and populations) of access for mobile vectors and are likely to transform disease distribution accordingly.37

Globalization has also helped the spread of vector-borne dis-eases. As increased global trade and travel encourages more frequent contact between distant regions, vectors and patho-gens now have new avenues to disperse over wide geographic areas.38 Because of this, communicable diseases endemic to certain regions have materialized in new environments that

32 Duane J Gubler, “Resurgent Vector-Borne Diseases as a Global Health Problem,” Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Issues 4, no. 3 (1998), wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/4/3/98-0326_article. 33 John Scott, “The Risks of Rapid Urbanization in Developing Countries,” Zurich, 14 January 2015, www.zurich.com/en/knowledge/articles/2015/01/the-risks-of-rapid-urbanization-in-developing-countries.34 Ibid.35 “World Health Day: Combatting Vector-Borne Diseases a Priority,” United Nations University, 8 April 2014, ourworld.unu.edu/en/world-heath-day-combatting-vector-borne-diseases-a-priority.36 Sutherst, “Global Change and Human Vulnerability to Vector-Borne Diseases.”37 Ibid.38 Ibid.39 Scott, “The Risks of Rapid Urbanization in Developing Countries.”40 “Global Health Impacts of Vector-Borne Diseases,” National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,” 21 September 2016, accessed 23 September 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK355538/.41 “Mosquitoes, Malaria and Agriculture,” BASF Global, last modified 23 September 2019, agriculture.basf.com/en/Pest-Control/Commit-ment-to-Public-Health/Mosquitoes-malaria-and-agriculture.html.42 Ibid.43 Ibid.44 Ibid.45 “Vector-Borne Diseases.” Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats.46 Ibid.47 Ibid.48 Ibid.

are vulnerable to this sudden exposure.39

The impacts of vector-borne diseases can be severe. In ad-dition to endangering millions of lives, they are the cause of considerable and lasting suffering, leaving permanent disfig-urement or physical impairment in their wake.40 Besides the obvious health detriments of human infection, vector-borne diseases also have the potential to place a heavy economic burden on the people and countries they affect. Patients must also cover substantial health care costs while disease prevents them from working.41 For small farms typical of the regions where these diseases are regularly found, farmers will be trou-bled by sickness about five times a year.42 If they are ill at critical harvest periods, this can amount to loss of up to 60% of their crops.43

At the state level, vector-borne disease can markedly diminish GDP to cripple economic growth and perpetuate poverty.44 Once livestock are infected, states must take action to arrest further circulation of the pathogen, which includes limitation of trade.45 One of the first health emergencies called by the WHO to significantly compromise the international market was an outbreak of the plague in India in 1994.46 The WHO also enacted the International Health Regulations in an at-tempt to quarantine the disease.47 This imposed a travel and trade embargo that cost India and the world economy USD three billion and USD six billion, respectively.48

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Commercial limitations to states, coupled with the deplet-ing numbers of healthy livestock and expenses funneled into prevention and control measures, results in major financial losses.49 The costs associated with handling bluetongue vi-rus infections in cattle, in profits lost from sickness, death, trade restrictions, and paying for vaccinations, can amount to roughly three billion USD.50

Vector management

Because of the turbulent nature of epidemics, obstructing vector infestation has been deemed the best method for dis-ease prevention.51 Vector management is especially important for diseases for which there are currently no viable vaccines or treatments.52 Chemical interventions have traditionally been favored because they are convenient and cost-effective, but such treatments are losing some traction because of the ex-tent to which their application has led to vector resistance to insecticides.53 Popular chemical treatments consist of: insec-ticidal nets, fumigating indoor and outdoor target surfaces, water treatment, and repellents.54 Other environmental and biological control strategies are also used, including: partitions for water storage containers to restrict mosquito access to potential breeding grounds, introducing predators to feed on mosquito larvae, or genetically modifying mosquitoes so they can no longer reproduce or transfer pathogens.55

The present approach to administering these interventions is called integrated vector management (IVM). This technique proposes the selective merging of various methods in order to maximize disease control but minimize cost and deleterious 49 Ibid.50 “Vector-Borne Diseases,” Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats.51 Ibid.52 K Bourtzis, “The Sterile Insect Technique as a Tool for Control of Insect Vectors and Vector-Borne Diseases,” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 53, (2016): 24, www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(16)31283-8/fulltext.53 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1,”A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases.” 54 Ibid.55 Ibid.56 “Vector-Borne Disease,” WHO, 2019, accessed 23 September 2019, www.who.int/heli/risks/vectors/vector/en/.57 Ibid.58 Ibid.59 “Sterile Insect Technique,” IAEA, accessed 23 September 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique.60 Ibid.61 Ibid.62 “Mosquitoes,” National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/mosquitoes.63 FeiFei Jiang, “Scientists Take Aim at Sixteen Seconds of Mating,” IAEA Division of Public Information, 11 August 2008, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/no-love-deadly-mosquitoes.64 Aabha Dixit, “Nuclear Technique Can Help Control Disease-Transmitting Mosquitoes,” IAEA Office of Public Information and Com-munication, 3 February 2016, last modified 23 August 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/nuclear-technique-can-help-control-%E2%80%98zika%E2%80%99-mosquitoes.

impacts on both environment and public health.56 Environ-mental and biological controls are considered before chemi-cals, which bring more severe detriments to the local ecolo-gy.57 Ultimately, though, use of insecticides are not eschewed if alternatives are not fitting.58 One measure that is becoming high in demand as a constituent part of the IVM is the SIT. Originally developed in the United States as a generic pest control mechanism, the SIT has since been engaged in experi-mentation with the IAEA to suppress disease transmission.59

SIT is a safe and sustainable way to prevent mosquito repro-duction, where sterility is induced by ionizing radiation be-fore release into the wild.60 Mosquitoes of the same species as the target population are bred nonstop to accumulate enough numbers for large-scale release. Males are picked out and then their reproductive cells are exposed to X-rays or gamma radia-tion, which leave them effectively infertile.61

Female mosquitoes are the only carriers of disease because only female mosquitos feed on blood, so sterile males are mass-reared to mate with them.62 Although incapable of ren-dering offspring, these sterile males provide competition for the unaltered males. Since a female mosquito only mates once in her lifetime, if it mates with a sterile male, all of the eggs will remain unfertilized and will never hatch.63 This, in turn, slowly culls mosquito populations so that spread of vector-borne disease can eventually be stopped.64

While vector management is the principal course of action to contain illness, surveillance and early diagnosis are just as im-portant. Monitoring and collecting data regarding symptoms

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indicative of vector-borne disease and deaths disclose which groups and regions need more attention and enable states to respond sooner to suspected cases. Laboratory testing of in-fected persons by the nuclear-derived technique called reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can accu-rately identify viruses so that appropriate protocols can be ini-tiated.65 This technology previously used radioactive isotopes, but now uses fluorescent markers to screen for viruses in a given sample.66 It has been employed successfully in detect-ing incidences of diseases like Zika and Ebola in a matter of hours.67

Implementation and Accessibility

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory (IPCL) works out of Seibersdorf, Austria to assist over 75 countries with SIT programs.68 They house more than 125,000 male and female mosquitoes in their facilities for breeding purposes; eggs and larvae are left to de-velop in ordered holding trays, irradiated at the pupae stage, then held as sterile adults in specialized cages, pending de-ployment.69

In order for the SIT to secure desired results, millions of ster-ile males must be flooded into the target area. Otherwise, the likelihood of them mating with the wild female population is too low for the process to be productive. Past methods of delivery were land-based, making the process unnecessarily demanding and difficult to apply over large distances.70 It was for this reason that the IPCL proposed the use of drones. These remote-controlled (or the desired route can be pre-

65 “IAEA Trains Experts to Use Diagnostic Tools for Quick Zika Detection,” IAEA, 5 April 2016, www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressre-leases/iaea-trains-experts-to-use-diagnostic-tools-for-quick-zika-detection. 66 “IAEA Joins Effort to Stem Ebola Outbreak,” World Nuclear News, 15 October 2014, accessed 23 August 2019, world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/IAEA-joins-effort-to-stem-Ebola-outbreak.67 Ibid; “IAEA Trains Experts to Use Diagnostic Tools for Quick Zika Detection.”68 “Preventing Procreation: The IAEA’s Research for Mosquito Control,” IAEA, 24 April 2015, 23 August 2019 www.iaea.org/newscen-ter/multimedia/photoessays/preventing-procreation-iaeas-research-mosquito-control.69 Ibid.70 “IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos,” IAEA, 19 April 2018, 23 September 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-conducts-successful-test-of-drones-in-fight-against-disease-transmitting-mosquitos. 71 Katherine J Wu, “Do Not Fear the Drones Air-Dropping 50,000 Mosquitoes From Above,” Smithsonian.com, 20 August 2018, www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-not-fear-drones-air-dropping-50000-mosquitoes-above-180970068/.72 “IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos.”73 “How to Reduce Zika Using Flying Robots,” 12 June 2017, WeRobotics, 23 September 2019, blog.werobotics.org/2017/06/12/aerial-robotics-to-reduce-zika/.74 “The Latest on Drones for Disease Vector Control,” WeRobotics, 8 January 2018, 23 September 2019, blog.werobotics.org/2018/01/08/drones-for-disease-vector-control/.75 “How to Reduce Zika Using Flying Robots.”76 “The Latest on Drones for Disease Vector Control.”

programmable) aircrafts would open doors for reaching tracts of land with no road access and could fly at heights ideal for accurate expulsion.71 In partnership with FAO and WeRobot-ics, the IAEA developed an aerial apparatus for the release of sterile mosquitoes.72

Building the prototype mainly involved considerations for transport and dispatch.73 Around one million mosquitoes are confined to the small container inside of the drone, so they need to be kept dormant at a cool 4-10 degrees Celsius during the flight.74 The timing of uncooling is also essential, so that the mosquitoes will be active again and able to fly once they are freed.75 The exit mechanism is the most intricate compo-nent of the drone. It must be designed in such a way that mos-quitoes’ delicate wings and bodies are not harmed upon re-lease and it must be designed to execute controlled expulsion at a rate of 50,000-100,000 mosquitoes per square kilometer.76

The red/black apparatus in the bottom center of this photo is WeRobotic’s drone based Aerial Mosquito Release Mechanism

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Laboratory and field tests have brought about the more recent model, which bears 50,000 mosquitoes at a total weight under ten kilograms.77 The device tested positively in Brazil in March of 2018 against mosquitoes carrying the Zika virus.78 These developments in the administration of the SIT hold implica-tions for the future of vector control. With the IAEA consis-tently exploring original ideas and adding new devices to their arsenal, this is merely a sign of big things to come.

Like with Brazil, the Technical Cooperation Programme of the IAEA offers aid to regions affected by vector-borne disease.79 They equip states with the technology to manage the disease as well as the training and expertise to properly benefit from the aid.80 The IAEA advocates for states working together to supplement each other’s capacity for vector control.81

Challenges to Efficient Management

While the SIT has the power to be a potent vector control strategy, it is limited by its species’ specificity. Sterile males can only contend for mating with females if they are of the same species.82 The SIT is well-suited for diseases like dengue, which is spread only by the Ae. aegypti mosquito, but would struggle to cover a different disease like malaria, which has several different vector species.83

Mass-rearing technologies for vector species is also of press-ing concern, in light of the high quantities needed for effective SIT administration. Mass production of tsetse flies is under-

77 “IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos.”78 Ibid.79 IAEA 18-01142, “IAEA Technical Cooperation Programme: Sixty Years and Beyond -- Contributing to Development,” IAEA, April 2018, accessed 23 September 2019, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/STIPUB1802_web.pdf.80 Ibid.81 Ibid.82 Luke Alphey et al., “Sterile-Insect Methods for Control of Mosquito-Borne Diseases: An Analysis,” Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10, no. 3 (2010): 297, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2946175/pdf/vbz.2009.0014.pdf. 83 Ibid.84 IAEA-MBP, “Model Business Plan for a Sterile Insect Facility,” Joint FAO/IAEA Programme, January 2008, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/IAEA-MBP_web.pdf.85 Ibid.86 Miklos Gaspar, “New Method Advances Research on Controlling Mosquitoes Using Nuclear Techniques,” IAEA Office of Public Informa-tion and Communication, 6 January 2017, accessed 22 September 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/new-method-advances-research-on-controlling-mosquitoes-using-nuclear-techniques.87 Ibid.88 James K Biedler et al., “Exploring the Sex-Determination Pathway for Control of Mosquito-Borne Infectious Diseases,” Genetic Control of Malaria and Dengue, 2016, accessed 23 September 2019, reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0001706X13002209?token=7175E6CBE256AB29C574663DAD575A3262AB5C2AB209A2EC2106B1D70A6B1223DA4CF82FEE696611A359F2AA95A69D6E.89 Michelle EH Helinski, Badria El-Sayed, and Bart GJ Knols, “The Sterile Insect Technique: Can Established Technology Beat Malaria?” IAEA, 2006, accessed 21 September 2019, edepot.wur.nl/51377.90 Ibid.

way at the IPCL, with progress being made with their semi-au-tomated tsetse production units, but similar mechanisms have yet to be constructed for large-scale mosquito production.84 Nevertheless, the IPCL continues to make small upgrades to refine the current mosquito breeding process, such as observ-ing temperatures conducive to larvae growth.85

Another aspect of this technology that has stagnated move-ment towards mass production and needs to be overcome is in isolating males from females. Sex differentiation of Aedes mosquitoes is done manually in SIT testing facilities, with re-searchers hand-picking female pupae for removal by size.86 While this may have sufficed for the relatively low numbers of SIT field projects conducted initially, it is impractical for sustaining the kinds of larger scale operations being worked towards for the future. There are two promising initiatives in the works to expedite this process. The first is a sorting instru-ment developed in Spain that discards the larger females and retains a good 80% of the males.87 The second, an endeavor by the FAO and the IAEA to generate a genetic sexing tool to yield only male mosquitoes for SIT.88 Machine separation of pupae has been criticized for a success rate that is still too low to service actual SIT operations.89 Because the range of male and female mosquito sizes converge in the middle, sex separa-tion done in this way will likely not get much better. Although more difficult and time-consuming, genetic sexing is the fa-vored strategy of the two.90 Sexing strains can induce lethality in females or generate sex-specific markers on the bodies of

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mosquitoes so that male/female differentiation becomes con-crete, rather than contingent on perceptions of size.91 Once a genetic sexing strain is generated for one vector species, it can be applied to all other projects specific to that taxon, so the production value of this technique is very high.92

Although sterile males are released into populated areas, whether or not any given male mosquito will encounter a wild female is inherently governed by chance. The best that the SIT projects can do to help their performance is to try to make these sterilized males as competitive as possible to maximize female attraction over indigenous males.93

The action of SIT is only observable in subsequent generations of vectors. It takes effect gradually and is a long-term solution that cannot expect immediate results. It is also intended to regulate disease over a broad region, not protect against cases of singular infection of a given individual.94 Overtime, it will suppress the vector population so that transmission becomes less probable, but it does not mean that individuals in the re-gion are unilaterally safe.95 Finally, as with any public program, 91 Konstantino Bourtzis, “New CRP: Generic Approach for the Development of Genetic Sexing Strains for SIT Applications (D44003),” IAEA Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, 15 January 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/new-crp-generic-approach-for-the-development-of-genetic-sexing-strains-for-sit-applications-d44003.92 Helinski, El-Sayed, and Knols, “The Sterile Insect Technique.”93 Alphey et al., “Sterile-Insect Methods for Control of Mosquito-Borne Diseases.” 94 Ibid.95 Ibid.96 Ibid.97 “Preventing Procreation.”98 FAO/IAEA Agricultural and Biotechnology Laboratories, “Insect Pest Control Laboratory.” 99 Ibid.100 Jeremie Roger Lionel Gilles and Mac Vreysen, “Development of Standardized Mass Rearing Systems for Male Anopheles Arabiensis Mosquitoes,” Joint FAO/IAEA Division, www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/crp-g34001-evaluation-report.pdf. 101 Ibid.

states must have the resources to maintain SIT efforts. Rela-tively few countries possess the infrastructure, personnel, and financial ability (or sufficient external reinforcement and guid-ance) to pull off successful vector control attempts.96 This lack of capacity is an opportunity for the IAEA to support countries in need of support, training, or assistance.

Research and Development of Techniques

The FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory (IPCL) con-ducts many studies for the development of the SIT. They ana-lyze the effects of handling and radiation on mating behavior and competition between sterilized and untouched males in model habitats and additionally look into prospects for ad-vancing mass-rearing procedures.97 The current major focus for progress in breeding mosquitoes is to improve holding ar-eas, make separation of larvae and pupae more efficient, and raise the sexual competitiveness of sterile males.98 For tsetse flies, the IPCL also seeks to improve holding and feeding sys-tems, along with the process of sexing tsetse pupae.99

The IPCL collaborates with member states to work on Co-ordinated Research Projects (CRPs), addressing problems or gaps in knowledge in nuclear applications to vector control. The CRP on Development of Standardized Mass Rearing System for male Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes is one such project that manufactured novel technology for the produc-tion of mosquitoes.100 From their research, the IAEA opti-mized both the equipment used and quality of diet provided in mass-rearing operations, leading to superior development and survival of mosquito larvae.101 The tray rack system used to hold developing larvae was redesigned to better control the temperature and volume of water inside the trays, to model authentic breeding grounds and to provide easier access for

This photo shows a lab technician in the Seibersdorf Entomology Unit separating tsetse flies by sex

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workers to give food.102 These tray racks are also assembled in a structured manner that is mindful of the facility’s lim-ited space and operating costs for heating/cooling and filling/draining the trays.103 The changes prescribed by this project would lower rearing and labor expenses while simultaneously expanding production capacity for the IPCL, so that they have more resources to transfer to external mosquito control pro-grams. These findings have also been relayed to member states to incorporate into their own SIT-vector control ventures.104

A notable CRP that concluded in January 2019, on the topic of exploring genetic, molecular, mechanical and behavioral 102 Ibid.103 Ibid.104 Ibid.105 “Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behavioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes,” IAEA, accessed 23 September 2019, www.iaea.org/projects/crp/d44001.106 Konstantino Bourtzis, “Successful Completion of the CRP D44001 - Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behavioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes,” IAEA Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, 25 April 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/successful-completion-of-the-crp-d44001-exploring-genetic-molecular-mechanical-and-behavioural-methods-of-sex-separation-in-mosquitoes. 107 Bourtzis, “New CRP.”108 Ibid.

methods of sex separation in mosquitoes, recognized the need for efficient sex separation systems and worked to rem-edy this.105 The researchers developed genetic sexing strains as well as alternative sex separation tools for Aedes and Anopheles mosquito species using target genes.106 Developing a genetic sexing strain involves linking inheritance of a selectable mark-er to sex, where the marker chosen decides the subsequent sex separation process.107 If the selected marker is morphologi-cal, males and females can be sorted by physical differences, whereas if the marker is a temperature-sensitive lethal (tsl) gene, females can be killed off under high temperatures that males can survive.108 Such strains make it possible to prepare

These are the larval tray racks used in the Insect Pest Control Laboratory for mass rearing SIT mosquitoes

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only male mosquito supplies with more certainty. In making sex separation of mosquitoes easier, sexing tools ensure that no stray females will be released and ultimately lower costs for mass-rearing.109 Because SIT is most effective when males are exclusively released, the overall impact of implementing these sexing strains will be to make SIT operations more economi-cal. After these techniques are put through extensive trial runs and certified, they can be absorbed into current SIT practices against mosquito vectors.110 New focuses for the evolution of genetic sexing strains have also stemmed from this project. A March 2019 CRP will take on the challenge of isolating gene markers and mutations that could be generalized across vari-ous species, as well as attempt to create strains that will fix sex determination pathways to only yield male mosquitoes.111

Another domain of ongoing research by the IAEA addresses whether irradiation can subdue vectoral capacity of tsetse flies.112 In the SIT, exposure to ionizing radiation simply steril-izes males to forcibly control vector populations, but ques-tions remain on whether it could also influence their ability to pick up and transfer disease.113 This is the concept of raising vector refractoriness, so that treated tsetse flies might be able to resist contracting the parasite in the first place.114 Microor-ganisms in the gut of arthropods have been associated with increased immunity to viral and parasitic pathogens, which may interfere with the vectoral capacity of insect hosts so that they are incapable of disease transmission.115 This area of study can also be artificially reproduced in mosquitoes. Anti-pathogenic strains can be engineered, modifying genetic path-ways to enhance antiviral resistance.116

109 “Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behavioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes.”110 Ibid.111 Bourtzis, “New CRP.”112 IAEA-314-D42015-CR-.2, “Enhancing Vector Refractoriness to Trypanosome Infection,” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Tech-niques in Food and Agriculture, 5 December 2014, www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/Enhancing-Vector-2nd-RCM-Report.pdf.113 Ibid.114 Ibid.115 Ibid.116 Paolo Gabrieli, Andrea Smidler, and Flaminia Catteruccia, “Engineering the Control of Mosquito-Borne Infectious Diseases,” Genome biology 15, no. 11 (2014), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4282146/pdf/13059_2014_Article_535.pdf.117 “Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behavioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes.”118 “Coordinated Research Projects,” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, accessed 23 August 2019, www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/coordinated-research-ipc.html.119 Thomas A Miller, “Let High-Tech Genetically Modified Insects Counter Dengue,” BioScience 61, no. 8 (2011), academic.oup.com/biosci-ence/article/61/8/586/336957. 120 Paulo Paes de Andrade et al., “Use of Transgenic Aedes Aegypti in Brazil: Risk Perception and Assessment,” WHO 94, (2016), accessed 23 September 2019, www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/94/10/16-173377.pdf; “IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos.”121 Ibid.

The breakthroughs that have been made in the SIT and global response to vector-borne disease as a result of the IPCL’s re-search projects have been far-reaching in their applications to public health. These CRPs birth the development of innova-tive tools and approaches to IVM, so that they can later be shared with affected countries. Coordinated Research Proj-ects, like the ones described above, are valuable sources of in-formation for both the IAEA and member states to integrate into established vector management strategies. Solutions par-ticularly based around the SIT are highly requested by states that continue to endure outbreaks of vector-borne disease, as others have shown to be inadequate and unsustainable.117 The IPCL is tasked with coordinating a network with institutions and member states to apply their research in Field Projects that address these problems.118

Current Status

Emerging Technologies

Sequential to the development of the SIT, persistent experi-mentation on mosquitoes led to the creation of a technique known as “release of insects with dominant lethal genes” (RIDL).119 The company that engineered this technology, Oxitec, also produced the OX513A transgenic mosquito, ap-proved by the WHO for release in Brazil to fight dengue and Zika.120 This transgene was classified as self-limiting, which meant that mosquitoes expressing the gene now had a timer on their lifespan.121 RIDL involves the insertion of one gene

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of dominant lethal type in male mosquitoes.122 A dominant lethal gene only needs one copy of the allele to take effect and when expressed, it will kill the mosquito that carries it.123 In this vector control model, expression of RIDL can be arti-ficially repressed in the laboratory-reared larvae by providing the antibiotic tetracycline in their diet.124 Without this com-pound, wild mosquito offspring that inherit the RIDL trait are conditioned to die before they reach adulthood.125 Concerns regarding the repercussions of introducing genetically modi-fied organisms to native ecosystems have been brought for-ward, but risk assessments of the OX513A strain showed no threat to public safety and is set for commercial use.126

In contrast to SIT, RIDL makes use of delayed lethality that

122 Miller, “Let High-Tech Genetically Modified Insects Counter Dengue.”123 Hoang Kim Phuc et al., “Late-Acting Dominant Lethal Genetic Systems and Mosquito Control,” BMC Biology 5, no. 11 (2007), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1865532/. 124 Luisa Reis-Castro, “Genetically Modified Insects as a Public Health Tool: Discussing the Different Bio-Objectification Within Genetic Strategies,” Croatian Medical Journal 53, no. 6 (2012), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3541591/pdf/CroatMedJ_53_0635.pdf.125 Ibid.126 De Andrade et al., “Use of Transgenic Aedes Aegypti in Brazil.”127 Phuc et al., “Late-Acting Dominant Lethal Genetic Systems and Mosquito Control.”128 Ibid.129 Ibid.130 Ibid.131 Phuc et al., “Late-Acting Dominant Lethal Genetic Systems and Mosquito Control.”132 Ibid.133 Miller, “Let High-Tech Genetically Modified Insects Counter Dengue.”134 Katherine E Bliss, “Health in Latin America and the Caribbean: Challenges and Opportunities for US Engagement,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, April 2009, csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/media/csis/pubs/090422_bliss_healthlatina-mer_web.pdf.135 De Andrade et al., “Use of Transgenic Aedes Aegypti in Brazil.”

complements equilibration of oscillating vector population densities so that they can stabilize more quickly.127 This low-ers the critical input ratio needed for total elimination so that fewer RIDL mosquitoes are required for the same level of control offered with the SIT.128 Increasing the release rate of mosquitoes simply reveals RIDL to be more effective than SIT while decreasing the release ratio reveals that only RIDL is capable of eradicating the wild population.129 The advantag-es of the RIDL technique lay primarily in cost reduction and the prescribed lethality of the modified gene.130 Since these mosquitoes and their progeny have already been assigned their life expectancies (typically a short two days), there is no worry over how their release could impact the environment.131 It is also believed that RIDL males are more competitive than classical SIT males in terms of mating success.132

Laboratory testing showed RIDL mosquitoes to be on equal footing as wild males and field studies in the Cayman Islands indicated their suppression potential to be at least 80%.133 These statistics present the RIDL as a formidable technique in the making.

Case Study: Zika Outbreak in Brazil

The Federative Republic of Brazil is a pioneer of health in the Latin American region, known for its advanced policy and outreach programs regarding communicable disease, leading especially in genetically-based vector control.134 Brazil was the first to approve commercial release of OX513A mosquitoes, where preliminary SIT drone tests have returned promis-ing results.135 Reining in the epidemic also entailed aid from the IAEA’s Technical Cooperation Programme to effectively

Diagram of RIDL

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administer the SIT.136 States wishing to follow suit can learn from studying the progress of the Zika situation in Brazil.

Although signs of the Zika virus manifested in northeastern Brazil as early as December 2014, the first definitive diag-nosis did not occur until May 2015.137 Previous test results positive for Zika lacked certainty because of similarities to other existing viruses in Brazil: dengue and chikungunya.138 This was also the first time that the Zika virus had appeared in the Americas.139 The Zika virus was historically considered a rare disease, as it had minimal human contact and mostly kept to monkeys residing in the jungle canopies of Africa.140 Relatively small outbreaks hit several islands in Pacific Asia, most notably French Polynesia in 2013 with 30,000 infections, before moving into the Americas.141 A traveler from French Polynesia visiting Brazil was the first recorded case to have brought the virus into the region.142

The Zika virus belongs to the same taxonomic class as den-gue, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis.143 Being part of the Flavivirus genus means that these viruses are transmitted through the bite of insects that are endemic to tropical and subtropical zones.144 Flaviviruses are also known for their abil-ity to produce new genetic strains that promote their spread through populations, which can lead to devastating epidemic potential and unforeseen consequences.145 The Zika virus ex-hibited this quality when it entered Brazil, quickly overwhelm-ing all areas in Latin America and the Caribbean that held Ae-des mosquitoes.146 Since this region had never been exposed to the virus in the past, the Latin American population had no

136 “IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos.”137 Rachel Lowe et al., “The Zika Virus Epidemic in Brazil: From Discovery to future Implications,” International Journal of Environ-mental Research and Public Health 15, no. 1 (2018), accessed 23 September 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5800195/pdf/ijerph-15-00096.pdf.138 “One Year into the Zika Outbreak: How an Obscure Disease Became a Global Health Emergency,” WHO, 5 May 2016, www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus/articles/one-year-outbreak/en/.139 Ibid.140 Ibid.141 Ibid.142 Ibid.143 Carlo Amorin Daep, Jorge L Munoz-Jordan, and Eliseo Alberto Eugenin, “Flaviviruses, an Expanding Threat in Public Health: Fo-cus on Dengue, West Nile, and Japanese Encephalitis Virus,” Journal of Neurovirology 20, no. 6 (2014), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331079/pdf/nihms-633656.pdf.144 Ibid.145 “One Year into the Zika Outbreak: How an Obscure Disease Became a Global Health Emergency,” WHO.146 Ibid.147 Ibid.148 Lowe et al., “The Zika Virus Epidemic in Brazil.” 149 “One Year into the Zika Outbreak: How an Obscure Disease Became a Global Health Emergency,” WHO.

built-up immunity to slow the outbreak.147 The adaptability

of vectors of Zika, especially the Aedes aegypti mosquito, to

rapidly urbanizing cities and their preference for human blood

also helped the disease to proliferate to the extent that Brazil

was sent into a state of crisis by 12 November 2015.148

In October 2015, there was a flare-up in the number of re-

ported cases of microcephaly that scientists later confirmed

to be linked to Zika.149 Microcephaly is characterized by ab-

normalities in the nervous system and impaired brain growth

Map showing the spread of the Zika virus. Countries in red have more than one million confirmed cases. Countries in orange have between 1,500 and one million confirmed cases. Countries in the lightest orange have fewer than 1,500 confirmed cases.

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that stifle physical and neural development.150 The undersized head of newborns from mothers infected during pregnancy became a hallmark feature of Zika that struck the world.151 Later research also found Zika to be a cause of Guillain-Barre syndrome, a peripheral nerve disorder that affects the muscles, with severity ranging from general weakness to paralysis.152 Even though the majority of Zika infections produce mild or no symptoms, the possibility of acquiring these two serious neurological conditions led the WHO to designate the Zika virus as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 1 February 2016.153

Brazil’s response to the epidemic was one centered around vector control. Their approach involved a combination of spraying pesticides in dominant breeding grounds, the ster-ile insect technique, and biological control inserting Wolbachia bacteria in Aedes mosquitoes to thwart transmission.154 This mosquito eradication campaign succeeded in lowering Zika incidence by 95% to terminate their national public health emergency by May 2017.155

The IAEA’s role in this accomplishment was through a triad of education, research, and administration, and as a benefac-tor. The association organized a meeting in Brazil with inter-national experts to review current data on Aedes control and advise on IVM strategies, which stated the merits of prompt Zika virus detection and integration of SIT into control mea-sures.156 The IAEA donated RT-PCR technologies specialized for Zika diagnosis and gamma cell irradiator needed to extend

150 Ibid.151 “Brazil General Health Risks: Zika Virus,” International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers, 10 July 2019, 23 September 2019, www.iamat.org/country/brazil/risk/zika-virus.152 Ibid.153 Ibid; “One year into the Zika Outbreak: How an Obscure Disease Became a Global Health Emergency,” WHO.154 J Weston Phippen, “Brazil Declares an End to Its Zika Health Emergency,” The Atlantic, 12 May 2017, www.theatlantic.com/news/archive/2017/05/brazil-ends-zika-emergency/526509.155 Ibid.156 Luciana Viegas, “IAEA Helps Brazil Step up the Fight Against ‘Zika’ Mosquitoes,” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication, 23 February 2016, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/iaea-helps-brazil-step-up-the-fight-against-zika-mosquitoes.157 Ibid.158 “The Zika Virus Mosquitoes: How can the Sterile Insect Technique Help?” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communications, No-vember 2016, 23 September 2019, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16/11/zika-virus-mosquitos-how-can-sterile-insect-technique-help.pdf.159 Ibid.160 Ibid.161 “Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations, accessed 23 September, sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs.162 Ibid.163 Nicole Jawerth and Miklos Gaspar, “How the IAEA Will Contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals,” IAEA Office of Public Infor-mation and Communication, 25 September 2015, accessed 23 September, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/how-iaea-will-contribute-sustainable-development-goals.164 “Sustainable Development Goal 3,” United Nations, accessed 23 September, sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg3.

sterile male mosquitoes mass-production, as well as hosting workshops and professional training seminars for using these equipment.157 The IAEA also facilitated the consolidation of SIT programs by incorporating findings of IPCL investiga-tions and other innovative submissions, such as the pilot proj-ects releasing sterile insects from drones.158 Technical Coop-eration Projects of this kind are well funded by powerhouses like the US, France, and Japan, to develop and transfer SIT on a global scale.159 The IAEA is a resource for providing similar support to manage other vector epidemics, and continues to study and refine techniques to pass on to afflicted member states.160

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted in September 2015 following the Millennium Development Goals for 2015.161 The seventeen SDGs central to the agenda pursue global equality and prosperity, and list targets and in-dicators for each goal to be met.162 The IAEA covers many of these goals in their activities, working to encourage states’ competence in nuclear science applications to health and hu-man welfare.163

SDG 3 is ‘good health and well-being,’ which directly relates to this topic with its focus on infectious diseases.164 Efforts to increase surveillance and interventions for neglected tropi-cal diseases like dengue or Human African trypanosomiasis have steadily decreased the number of reported cases since

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2010.165 The IAEA assists states in expanding their capacity for disease management by developing and providing nuclear techniques for early detection and eradication, which also re-lates to SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure and SDG 17: Partnership For the Goals.166 Through its Technical Cooperation Programmes, the IAEA invests in research for the development of innovative technologies to make it uni-versally accessible.167 They facilitate the sharing of knowledge and collaboration with member states to aid the global fight against vector-borne disease.168

SDG 17 is also reflected in international capacity-building ef-forts against disease. An economic model of global malaria expenditure showed that current Development Assistance for Health (DAH) was insufficient in keeping up with the plans outlined in the Global Technical Strategy for Malaria, 2016-30.169 This proposal for malaria prevention and eradication calls for an annual USD 6.6 billion of funding by the year 2020, a far cry from the estimated USD 4.3 billion disbursed in 2016.170 For the low-income states most encumbered by disease, their domestic financing programs need the support of external DAH to share the burden of malaria.171 DAH investments sourced from agencies like the US President’s Malaria Initiative, the Global Fund, and Unitaid, have been indispensable in mobilizing global partnerships for reducing malaria.172 The demand for additional collaboration and fund-ing is not limited to malaria, however, but applies to all vec-tor-borne diseases. National cooperation and solidarity within public and private health sectors is fundamental to executing a practical and sustainable control policy.173

165 Ibid.166 Jawerth and Gaspar, “How the IAEA Will Contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals.”167 Ibid.168 Ibid.169 Annie Haakenstad et al., “Tracking spending on malaria y source in 106 countries, 2000-16: an economic modelling study,” Lancet Infec-tious Diseases 19 (2019), www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/laninf/PIIS1473-3099(19)30165-3.pdf.170 Ibid.171 Ibid.172 Ibid.173 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1, “A Global Brief on Vector-Borne Diseases.” 174 “Global Vector Control Response 2017-2030,” World Health Organization, 2017, apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259205/9789241512978-eng.pdf?sequence=1.175 “Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable,” UN Statistics Division, unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-11/.176 Knudsen and Slooff, “Vector-Borne Disease Problems in Rapid Urbanization.” 177 Bliss, “Health in Latin America and the Caribbean.”178 “Preparing the Nation to Address Vector-Borne Diseases Threats,” CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, accessed 23 September 2019, www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/about/prepare-nation.html.179 Bliss, “Health in Latin America and the Caribbean.”

Shortcomings in vector control have also shed light on the relevance of SDG 1: No Poverty, SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation, SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities, SDG 11: Sustain-able Cities and Communities, and SDG 13: Climate Action.174 SDG 11 reconciles recent trends of urban sprawl with the lagging quality and quantity of infrastructure to cater to the rapidly growing populations.175 Overburdened cities contrib-ute to global poverty and unsanitary conditions, and become hotspots for vectors to overrun.176 By reducing inequalities between states and sharing the responsibility of achieving these SDGs, the disproportionate effects of disease on im-poverished regions can be eliminated. Delegates should work to include the SDG agenda throughout their solutions.

Bloc Positions

Technology-Rich Countries

The technology-rich bloc is comprised of states that are at the head of the world’s technical advancement. They over-see many cooperative activities for disease surveillance and other projects devoted to developing technological assets.177 The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is well-funded in order to investigate and diversify prevailing vector control strategies in the laboratory, and disseminate findings for the benefit of all.178 The CDC offers training to Latin American and Caribbean states in disease preparation, identification, and response as a safeguard for the integrity of the region.179 The US also partakes in collectives like the Global Health Security Initiative (GHSI), along with Canada,

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Mexico, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Ja-pan.180 Countries engaged in these kinds of organizations are key players in confronting problems with the health care sec-tor, as they relentlessly search for progressive technologies to reform vector management.

The technological giants also tend to be the most resilient to epidemics. They already possess the knowledge and execu-tive structure to continue performing, regardless of how the environment transforms.181 Their systems are robust and can endure a great deal of extraneous stress before they are forced to adapt.182 These states are in a position where they are at liberty to seek out novel instruments for vector control. Due to this resistance to outbreaks and vector-borne disease, tech-nology-rich countries frequently monitor outbreaks and assist 180 Ibid.181 “Defining Resilience, Adaptive Capacity, and Vulnerability,” Interdisciplinary Teaching about Earth for a Sustainable Future, 11 January 2018.182 Ibid183 “Preparing the Nation to Address Vector-Borne Diseases Threats,” CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases.184 “Defining Resilience, Adaptive Capacity, and Vulnerability,” Interdisciplinary Teaching about Earth for a Sustainable Future.185 Ibid.

in other states if needed. Often, these countries are the lead-ers in research for new ways to combat vector-borne illness, with the CDC in the United States being the most well-known example.183

Countries with High Adaptive Capacity

“Adaptive capacity” refers to the power to adapt to fluctua-tions in environment due to climate change, as opposed to trying to stop climate change before it comes to make its mark.184 Adaptive capacity is illustrated in the practical skills and operations that are employed when responding to dis-turbances that undermine the environmental, social, and eco-nomic security of a state.185 Examples of adaptive behaviors within the context of vector-borne disease could be a state creating and administering vaccines to immunize its citizens

CDC Building in the United States

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after the outbreak of a new virus, vector control techniques, or implementing public policies for personal protective mea-sures to reduce contact with vectors.

States with high adaptive capacity are able to react effectively to changing conditions that escalate transmission potential. The United States is one country to have demonstrated such adaptive capacity. Between 1980 and 1999, the document-ed number of mosquitoes infected with dengue was much greater in Texas than in three Mexican states combined, yet Mexico had 1,000 times the number of human cases.186 The main reason for this discrepancy was that housing in Texas had air conditioning and screens on windows and doors that deterred mosquito entry whereas the Mexican states did not have functional barriers in place.187 Research models that were mindful of climate change influences similarly predicted a de-cline in malaria and dengue correlating with improved health practices.188

Similarly, adaptive capacity is measured in ability to adapt in the future. Specifically, in a study of adaptive capacity in South America, Costa Rica and Panama were found to be of high adaptive capacity.189 This was due to both country’s ability to reduce reliance on staple crops and land based on factors like climate change. However, some countries like Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua were also cited as being of medium capacity.190 These findings show that regardless of level of development or technology, adaptive capacity can also depend on geographic location, economic susceptibility to climate change, as well as weather patterns.186 Charles B Beard and Rebecca J Eisen, “Vector-Borne Diseases,” The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment, 2016, s3.amazonaws.com/climatehealth2016/high/ClimateHealth2016_05_Vector.pdf. 187 Ibid.188 Kevin Louis Bardosh et al., “Addressing Vulnerability, Building Resilience: Community-Based Adaptation to Vector-borne Dis-eases in the Context of Global Change,” Infectious Diseases of Poverty 6, no. 1 (2017), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5725972/pdf/40249_2017_Article_375.pdf.189 Claudia Bouroncle et al., “Mapping Climate Change Adaptive Capacity and Vulnerability of Smallholder Agricultural Livelihoods in Central America: Ranking and Descriptive Approaches to Support Adaptation Strategies,” Climate Change, 28 September 2018, accessed 23 September 2019, link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10584-016-1792-0190 Ibid191 “Defining Resilience, Adaptive Capacity, and Vulnerability,” Interdisciplinary Teaching about Earth for a Sustainable Future.192 Lancet, “Experts Warn of a Surge in Vector-Borne Diseases as Humanitarian Crisis in Venezuela Worsens,” Medical Xpress, 22 February 2019, accessed 23 September 2019, medicalxpress.com/news/2019-02-experts-surge-vector-borne-diseases-humanitarian.html. 193 Ibid.194 WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1.195 Ibid.196 Ibid.197 Bardosh et al., “Addressing vulnerability, building resilience.”

Countries with Low Adaptive Capacity

States in this bloc are limited by their vulnerability to disease exposure. These countries tend to be less wealthy or have un-reliable systems of governance and thus cannot acclimate with the necessary speed or force.191 This is apparent in the case of Venezuela, whose public health care network crumbled and enabled the spread of several vector-borne diseases.192 The ongoing humanitarian crisis dissolved twenty years of bolster-ing vector management faculties in the region, causing the prevalence of malaria to rise by 71% from 2016 to 2017.193

Low adaptive capacity also means that these states do not have the resources or experience to devise their own vector control initiatives.194 Many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, lack a widespread presence of entomology spe-cialists or university programs to cultivate future expertise.195 Despite carrying the highest burden of disease, these states often have the least amount of data on the significant vectors and diseases in their vicinity.196

Studies amongst small-scale farmers in Africa and Asia have also found that adaptive capacity is correlated with livelihood diversification, property ownership, and ability to participate in the policies and resources of the area.197 This shows that a lack of adaptive capacity can also stem from low accountabil-ity or influence of local communities in increasing their adap-tive capacity. It also shows that adaptive capacity concerns can be felt throughout any state, no matter how developed, be-cause often the problems can stem on a local level too.

These areas would benefit from an IVT strategy comprised

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of insecticide treatments and Sterile Insect Techniques. Ap-plications in Ghana showed aerosol pesticide spraying to be the most time- and cost-efficient method to clear the densely packed pockets of tsetse flies, complete with the release of sterile males to attend to those remaining.198

Committee Mission

The objective of the IAEA is to promote and advance peace-ful uses of atomic energy for the purposes of global prosperi-ty and security.199 One aspect of international wellness that the IAEA dwells on is a pursuit of universal standards of health. They conduct scientific research to further knowledge and proficiency in nuclear technologies and apply isotopic tech-niques to mitigate deficiencies in public health programs.200 The IAEA is a resource for member states trying to implement Technical Cooperation Projects, to guide and equip them with the external funding and support they need to run a successful campaign. The IAEA does not commit to taking on financial responsibilities for projects firsthand but may allocate its own resources in some circumstances.201 Functions of the IAEA in relation to vector-borne disease and management coincide with these provisions. One of many areas of activity by the Technical Cooperation Programme prioritizes human health in policy and regional development.202 The IAEA maintains that collaboration and bidirectional exchanges with member states and relevant organizations is the best way for all to stay vigilant and access important information about vector con-trol, especially considering the transnational nature of mobile vectors.203

198 Yahaya Adam, “Evaluation of Risk Factors of Animal Trypanosomosis in Ghana, and the Monitoring of the Impact of Disease and Vector Eradication Intervention in the Upper West Region of Ghana,” Microbiology and Parasitology, 21 February 2019, accessed 23 September 2019, tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02045146/document. 199 “The Statute of the IAEA,” IAEA, accessed 23 September 2019, www.iaea.org/about/statute. 200 Ibid.201 Ibid.202 “Policy Basis,” IAEA, www.iaea.org/services/technical-cooperation-programme/policy.203 Ibid.

IAEA

NHSMUN 2020

Photo Credit: Photorush

Topic B:Legal and Regulatory Framework for Nuclear Energy Development

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Introduction

1 “World Energy Needs and Nuclear Power,” World Nuclear Association, Updated February 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-li-brary/current-and-future-generation/world-energy-needs-and-nuclear-power.aspx.2 Ibid.3 Ibid.4 “Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries,” World Nuclear Association, published June 2019, accessed 23 June 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profilesothers/emerging-nuclear-energy-countries.aspx.5 “Nuclear Power is the Most Reliable Energy Source and Its Not Even Close,” Office of Nuclear Energy, 27 February 2018, accessed 23 Sep-tember 2019, www.energy.gov/ne/articles/nuclear-power-most-reliable-energy-source-and-its-not-even-close6 The Rockefeller Foundation, “One billion people don’t have access to electricity and this map shows you who.” Mashable, published Sep-tember 15, 2017, mashable.com/2017/09/15/one-billion-people-dont-have-access-to-electricity/7 Editors of the Beam, “The impacts of bringing electricity to rural and vulnerable populations,” The Beam, published November 16, 2017. medium.com/thebeammagazine/the-impacts-of-bringing-electricity-to-rural-and-vulnerable-populations-be3bbd25ee6b.8 P. Kelly, “IAEA safeguards: some pros and cons.” Physics in Technology, Vol. 17 No. 2, published 1986, iopscience.iop.org/arti-cle/10.1088/0305-4624/17/2/I019 Leore Ben-Chorinand Stephen Pifer, “Everything you need to know about the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit,” The Brookings Institute, published March 24, 2016. 10 “Israel criticizes IAEA for stalling inspection of secret Iranian sight,” Israel News, published October 3, 2018, www.tv7israelnews.com/israel-criticizes-iaea-for-stalling-inspection-of-secret-iranian-site/.11 Yukiya Amano, “Challenges in Nuclear Verification,” IAEA Publications, published April 5, 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/

By the year 2040, global estimates forecast that energy consumption will be 50% higher than the cur-rent consumption rate.1 The world’s energy needs increase every day, but flaws and liabilities related to old forms of energy production have made finding alternative sources of energy an imperative.2 Although many governments and the public are often skeptical about the potential of nuclear energy, it currently provides 10% of the world’s total electricity.3 It even is one of the primary economic in-dustries for countries like Hungary and Slovakia.4 The IAEA should thus maintain a continuous and active role in regulating this technology as its use prevails.

Nuclear energy is one of the best options for providing clean, sustainable energy while meeting global market demand.5 As one of the lowest carbon-emitting energy sources, nuclear energy surpasses every traditional form of energy produc-tion. Today, an estimated 1.2 billion people have little to no access to electricity, severely restricting their opportunities for economic and social development.6 Without sufficient power, entire countries and individual citizens both suffer from re-duced access to education, healthcare, and nutrition.7 Achiev-ing many of the points in the IAEA’s mandate would make significant progress on the UN’s long-term sustainable devel-opment goals.

With the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weap-ons, the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Ac-cident, and their annual reports, the IAEA has made great strides to promote the peaceful use of nuclear technology. However, the IAEA still remains challenged when it makes an effort to add newer frameworks for nuclear energy develop-ment.8 While its safety standards serve as a guide for develop-ing countries, many member states utilize their right to nation-

al sovereignty to maintain their own national standards—at times heightening international tensions, as has occurred with North Korea and Iran recently.9

The majority of the agency’s resolutions remain nonbind-ing and, as a result, are inconsequential to a number of en-vironmental groups and member states. Countries like Israel criticize the agency for being too lenient with volatile states.10 Others, like Pakistan, suggest that the IAEA is dominated by larger countries which limit economic and social development for least developed and developing countries. These issues concern the world’s limited access to nuclear energy and can be attributed to the legal framework of the IAEA’s policies on building new infrastructure. The current framework of the IAEA requires continuous updates to accommodate for changes in nuclear law, including provisions for standard and emergency procedures.

Yukiya Amano, the Director-General of the IAEA, addressed many challenges to the issue of verification and regulation at nuclear facilities worldwide in an open address in April 2019.11 His speech highlighted how nuclear technology today

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can be almost indistinguishable between a weapon and an en-ergy source.12 Such a concern is especially significant when a member state resists pressure from the global community. According to Amano, there is a clear delineation of responsi-bility between member states and the IAEA, one in which the IAEA provides technical guidance to the policy decisions of Member states’ own governments.13 Without accountability, member states and the IAEA cannot have the mutual relation-ship necessary to further develop nuclear energy.

History and Description of the Issue

The IAEA, established in 1957, was the first global institution focused on the safe uses of nuclear technology.14 The agency slowly developed a procured set of rules and guidelines to limit the threat of nuclear proliferation and promote the posi-tive usage of this new technology. Similar to different bodies of the United Nations, the IAEA lacks enforcement power and participation is voluntary.15 While the Agency does have the power to set safety standards, conduct inspections, and define procedures, national sovereignty is a protected issue for member states.16

Nuclear Security Efforts

The IAEA has introduced a number of legal safety mecha-nisms to ensure that nuclear security is their primary priority as an organization. Since 2006, the Agency has continuously published its “Nuclear Security Series” which outlines objec-tives for the IAEA, recommendations for member states, and legal and technical guidance for implementing security mea-sures. These technical guidelines form the basis of nuclear safety assessment across all departments of the IAEA. They also introduce the proper measures to take in case of an emer-gency. This framework is necessary for the development of

challenges-in-nuclear-verification.12 Ibid.13 Ibid.14 “History,” International Atomic Energy Agency, accessed July 2, 2019, www.iaea.org/about/overview/history.15 “The Statue of the IAEA,” International Atomic Energy Agency Publications, accessed July 6, 2019, www.iaea.org/about/statute#a1-4.16 Ibid.17 “Nuclear Safety and Security,” IAEA Publications, accessed September 4, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-safety-and-security.18 “Responsibilities and Functions of a Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organization,” IAEA, published 2019, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/P1845_web.pdf.19 Ibid.

nuclear technology, especially nuclear power plants which re-quire additional regulations. Nuclear security for power devel-opment can be broken into five different aspects: personnel management of nuclear facilities, installation protocols for power plants, protection against radiation, radioactive waste management, and accident containment.17 The IAEA has pro-tocols in place for each of these parts when the Agency over-sees energy facilities being constructed and maintained.

In secure nuclear energy development, the first step is to as-semble a personnel team which is responsible for running the plant and making independent decisions under IAEA regula-tion. In 2019, the Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organization (NEPIO) system was updated to improve the project hiring process. NEPIO also became responsible for coordinating efforts between member states’ respective na-tional organizations. This management system was later fol-lowed by the Management System Network of Excellence, which takes care of communication issues by providing an online platform for member states to share data, diagnose problems, and log activities. These programs were newer initiatives by the IAEA to better screen scientists and upper management. They also restored greater power to member states’ own governments, diminishing the need for IAEA in-tervention beyond the introduction of the NEPIO system. Developing countries today have made use of the NEPIO system to build their own nuclear energy plants. In 2010, for example, Kenya’s Ministry of Energy developed a domestic atomic agency called the Nuclear Electricity Project Commit-tee.18 The government later managed their nuclear aspirations using NEPIO which established specific facilities for nuclear energy.19 Other countries since then have followed in Kenya’s footsteps.

Historically, nuclear security has remained a national issue dic-

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tated primarily by national policies, thus reserving the role of the IAEA as an advisory entity.20 Part of that role is to outline the process of constructing power plants. The process first begins with siting, where officials analyze a country’s geog-raphy for the ideal construction location.21 At the same time, building designs are drawn up and approved for the commis-sioning phase, where all of the plant’s functions are tested.22 Throughout a plant’s life cycle, a variety of internal and ex-ternal assessments are conducted by national workers and the IAEA (if asked for by the host country’s officials).23 As a backup plan, insurance pools and previously approved fund-ing both finance the decommissioning of power plants.24 The system uses a safety checkpoint approach whereby countries

20 “Nuclear installation safety,” IAEA Publications, accessed September 10, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-installation-safety.21 “Siting of nuclear facilities,” IAEA Publications, Accessed September 10, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/siting.22 “Construction and commissioning of nuclear power plants,” IAEA Publications, accessed September 10, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/construction-and-commissioning-of-nuclear-power-plants.23 “Operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants,” IAEA Publications, accessed September 10, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/construc-tion-and-commissioning-of-nuclear-power-plants.24 “Decommissioning of nuclear plants,” IAEA Publications, accessed September 10, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/decommissioning.25 Kelsey Davenport, “Nuclear Security Summit at a Glance.” Arms Control Association, published April 2017, www.armscontrol.org/fact-sheets/NuclearSecuritySummit.

are not allowed to further pursue new phases of development, unless they successfully meet the standards for their current stage of construction.

One of the most important standards for assessing nuclear se-curity in the modern world comes from the Nuclear Security Summit (NSS), an international platform independent from the IAEA which addresses similar concerns on nuclear se-curity.25 Previous conventions and publications by the IAEA were technical and largely based on supporting nuclear en-ergy in developing countries. The NSS sought to bring the conversation back to the broader international community. Over the course of a six year period, a total of four summits

This is a photo of IAEA employees conducting a training exercise for nuclear inspections

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were held to draft a series of five separate nuclear security plans to prevent nuclear terrorism and improve cooperation between nuclear states.26 These plans associated themselves directly with the United Nations, the IAEA, INTERPOL, and other third party organizations. Pragmatically, there was little difference in the goals of these plans from preexisting ini-tiatives. Instead, these agreements reaffirmed, advocated, and supported current efforts being undertaken by the UN, the IAEA, INTERPOL, and others.27 For that reason, many ar-gue that the summit was ineffective or unnecessary in advanc-ing the nuclear security goals of the world. In total, fifty-three countries participated in efforts to voluntarily execute five ac-tions plans. To be successful, the agreements made by NSS member states required the support of larger international or-ganizations. Thus, these plans were specific to entities such as the IAEA, Interpol, and the UN as a whole. By signing onto the Nuclear Security Plan, states pledged “house gifts” which would provide resources for updating national laws, combat-ing illegal nuclear trafficking, and training security personnel.28 Since the plan was established, it has been renewed every four years to accommodate required changes and keep track of the summit’s goals.29

The summit addressed a number of safety concerns, but quickly gained a controversial legacy in the eyes of the me-dia.30 Unlike prior conventions by the IAEA, the NSS was very political and considered to be exclusive. According to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, “the states at the NSS con-trolled almost 98% of nuclear material in the world.”31 The journal also echoed concerns that discussions at the NSS were having the opposite effect at disarmament talks and that such exclusive conferences disrupted diplomatic relations. Such conferences, while a smaller size in nature, have deep con-sequences for the IAEA as well. When key members like the 26 Ibid.27 “Nuclear Security Summit: 2016: Action Plan in Support of the International Atomic Energy Association,” Nuclear Security Summit, published April 1, 2016, static1.squarespace.com/static/568be36505f8e2af8023adf7/t/56feeeb94d088e7781f9e41c/1459547833689/Action+Plan+-+IAEA_FINAL.pdf.28 Ibid.29 Ibid.30 Leah Matchett, “The controversial legacy of the Nuclear Security Summit,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, published October 4, 2018, thebulletin.org/2018/10/the-controversial-legacy-of-the-nuclear-security-summit.31 Ibid.32 Ibid.33 Mohamed El Baradei et. al, “International law and nuclear energy: Overview of the legal framework,” IAEA Bulletin, Published 1995, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/37302081625.pdf.34 David Ropeik, “The Rise of Nuclear Fear-How We Learned to Fear the Radiation,” Scientific American, Published June 15, 2012.35 El Baradei, 16.

United States are a part of multiple nuclear associations, their actions in one group impact policy in another.32

Strengthening Legal Frameworks

When it first emerged, the promise of nuclear technology was very “paradoxical,” according to Mohamed ElBaradei, a law scholar who worked closely with the IAEA.33 While the benefits of nuclear technology became more known, con-cerns over its potential misuse rose directly as well. The public feared nuclear technology but wanted to welcome it at the same time.34 This was because the same materials and knowl-edge needed to build nuclear power plants could also create bombs. The IAEA addressed these concerns through drafting a solid legal foundation, which consisted of a mix between legally binding safety regulations and prescribed, or recom-mended, standards.35

These legal frameworks primarily tackled issues of technical safety and IAEA-sanctioned operations. Article III of the IAEA’s Statute, for instance, legally holds all of the IAEA’s operations under its own statute as to prevent any workers

This is a photo of world leaders at the first nuclear security summit in 2010

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or affiliates from operating outside of the IAEA’s jurisdic-tion.36 To address concerns in energy plants, five primary top-ics were discussed: government regulation of nuclear power plants, safety in nuclear power plant siting, safety in the design of nuclear power plants, safety in nuclear power operation, and quality assurance for the safety of nuclear power plants. Each of these discussions established base-level standards for member states.37 These regulations were particularly signifi-cant for the IAEA, as they held binding power for the IAEA’s official functions.

The IAEA has introduced a number of standardized proto-cols for the proper use of nuclear energy, ranging from man-aging radioactive waste, to developing methods of transport-ing materials, to physically protecting nuclear sites.38 However, important parts of the IAEA’s legal framework have been rec-ognized as limited in their applications. Only a small number of states decided to incorporate the IAEA policies into their respective national laws, whereas the majority of others felt that the new legal regulations infringed upon national sov-ereignty.39 Under Article III.A.6 of the IAEA Statute, states wishing to receive technical assistance from the IAEA must commit to a pledged agreement regarding nuclear safety stan-dards and measures.40

Other procedures only apply to a small selection of nuclear facilities, since the protection of the protocols cover only a limited number of nuclear installations. Unguarded radioac-tive material during the process of installation and transport is a major threat and the IAEA cannot regulate a significant number of nuclear material, despite their intention to stan-dardize safety.41 While the IAEA was effective at introducing innovative new policies, they lacked the ability to manifest the policies into binding agreements as written.

In 2011, the IAEA published an updated guide to the inter-

36 “The Statue of the IAEA,” International Atomic Energy Agency Publications.37 Ibid, 16.38 Ibid, 16.39 Ibid, 17.40 El Baradei, 16.41 El Baradei, 19.42 “The International Legal Framework for Nuclear Security,” IAEA, Published 2011, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1486_web.pdf.43 Pierre Goldschmidt, “Safeguards Noncompliance: A Challenge for the IAEA and the UN Security Council,” Arms Control Association, Published 2010, www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_01-02/Goldschmidt.44 Ibid.

national legal framework from which they operate, as part of their international law series.42 It reveals a series of binding and nonbinding measures for the IAEA to use when justifying its actions to pursue its statute’s goals. The four primary bind-ing measures come from the influence of the IAEA, the UN, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and Chapter VII of the UN Charter. In order to develop safe nuclear en-ergy, the framework requires adherence to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terror-ism, and resolutions created under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. While each of these acts target various safety aspects of nuclear power development, they all center around the goal of standardization.

The Arms Control Association provides a significant example of the IAEA’s process of conducting itself. Both the IAEA and the UN Security Council (UNSC) work closely togeth-er when assessing “noncompliance” from member states.43 Within the first operative paragraph of resolution 1887, the UNSC addressed the issue in a summit about disarmament and nonproliferation and has worked more closely with the IAEA since then.44 The process begins with the IAEA Sec-retariat, who is responsible for assessing “technical and legal” noncompliance for agreements which individual states have made with the IAEA. The chain of command then follows from the Department of Safeguards to the Director-General, who may report to the UNSC in more severe cases.

To assess noncompliance, suspected states must show an intention to violate their agreement. Examples include pro-hibiting IAEA workers from conducting legal inspections, tampering with safeguard equipment, extensive delaying of safety protocols, denying to show proper documentation, and

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overtly concealing the purpose of nuclear activity.45 Unfortu-nately, the IAEA has undergone scrutiny in the recent past from anti-nuclear groups for being reluctant to exercise the use of the word “noncompliance.” Because noncompliant be-havior leads to a formal investigation, the IAEA utilizes the word conservatively. This action also protects the IAEA’s im-age, which is often portrayed as an overbearing legal authority, particularly by countries that are hoping to avoid investiga-tions. However, in inconsistently exercising their legal authori-ty, the IAEA often undermines their power. For example, for-mer Director-General Mohamed Baradei stressed the IAEA’s “zero tolerance” policy on noncompliance in an address given in November of 2002. Despite this statement, the IAEA ad-ministration failed to act against South Korea and Egypt when they refused to provide environmental samples and access to nuclear sites. Iran and North Korea have also been the subject of great controversy with their nuclear programs, requiring intervention from the international community repeatedly. All of these situations sewed doubt into public confidence with-in the IAEA emphasizing the need to strengthen their legal framework or be more liberal in their use of nuclear energy assessments.46

Expanding Emergency Procedures

Since 1952, there have been over two dozen nuclear accidents worldwide, causing at least USD 100 million in damages or multiple fatalities.47 The two most infamous disasters occurred at Chernobyl in April of 1986 and Fukushima in March of 2011.48 Following the nuclear meltdown in Chernobyl, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 45/190 at their 45 Ibid.46 Ibid.47 Benjamin Sovacool, “The accidental century-Prominent energy accidents in the last 100 years,” Exploration and Production, Published 2009, www.researchgate.net/publication/292759351_The_accidental_century-Prominent_energy_accidents_in_the_last_100_years.48 Mindy Weisberger, “Chernobyl vs. Fukushima: Which Nuclear Meltdown was the Bigger Disaster?” Live Science, Published May 24, 2019, www.livescience.com/65554-chernobyl-vs-fukushima.html.49 A/RES/48/206, “strengthening of international cooperation and coordination of efforts to study, mitigate and minimize the conse-quences of the Chernobyl disaster,” 1 December 1993, accessed 9 September 2019, www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f08e14.html.50 Director-General of the IAEA, “Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident,” IAEA, adopted 26 Sept. 1986. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc335.pdf51 “Experiences and Lessons Learned Worldwide in the Cleanup and Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities in the Aftermath of Ac-cidents,” IAEA Publications (September 2014), accessed 27 September 2019, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1644_web.pdf.52 Benjamin K. Sovacool, A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia (2010), 40:3, 369-400. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00472331003798350.53 Ibid.54 “Comparing Nuclear Accident Risks with Those From Other Sources,” The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: Nuclear Energy Agency (2010), accessed 23 September 2019, www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/reports/2010/nea6861-comparing-risks.pdf.

general conference about improving the notification process of nuclear accidents.49 New precautions were introduced to improve transparency and communication between the IAEA and member states. They included a variety of strategies and guidelines meant to reduce the rate of nuclear accidents.50 A safety guide jointly sponsored with various national energy agencies was also published in 2015, highlighting require-ments for nuclear energy plants to function and the neces-sary infrastructure.51 The shift represented a more proactive approach by the IAEA to combat the devastating effects of nuclear accidents.

However, critics have been skeptical about the effectiveness of newer techniques by the IAEA.52 They argue that devel-oped countries such as the United States have continuously suffered dozens of serious nuclear accidents since the passing of new regulations, with the global community experiencing well over a hundred since 1952.53 These groups favor smaller scale alternative renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power. Proponents of nuclear energy, on the other hand, argue that updating the framework allows countries to take advantage of updated nuclear technologies. An intergovern-mental entity, known as the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), published a report in 2010 which supports this viewpoint. It showed significant decreases in the amount of worker expo-sure to radioactive components and the number of accidental power trips.54 While nuclear technology has vastly improved in the past decades, new disasters regularly undermined efforts to make them more available.

The IAEA and other nuclear agencies must assess disputes re-garding the tradeoffs of nuclear power when pursuing newer

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regulations for the international community and for different

countries’ infrastructures. Part of the publicly mixed response

lies in the fact that serious nuclear accidents are primarily ac-

counted for when determining risk. These vary significantly

between countries and the IAEA provides a broad definition

of it as well. Serious nuclear accidents are defined as “an event

that has led to significant consequences to people, the envi-

ronment or the facility.”55

A key aspect of the IAEA’s emergency response plan was the

addition of “international operational arrangements.”56 Some

of their strategies dealt with situational circumstances prior

55 “The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,” IAEA and OECD/NEA (2008), accessed 23 September 2019, web.archive.org/web/20110515164252/ www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/INES-2009_web.pdf.56 “International operational arrangements,” IAEA Publications, Accessed July 7 2019. www.iaea.org/topics/emergency-preparedness-re-sponse/international-operational-arrangements57 Ibid.

to and after a nuclear accident. These arrangements acted as

practical methods for the IAEA to ensure that its emergency

protocols could be executed. They consisted of the Opera-

tions Manual on Emergency Communication, the Response

and Assistance Network, and the Radiation Emergency Man-

agement Plan. These responses depended on the compliance

and assistance of member states to act in case of an emergen-

cy. Countries could donate or register resources to the IAEA

on a voluntary basis, like many of the IAEA’s operations.57

The IAEA developed insurance programs and pools meant

to reduce disaster costs in response to concerns by the public,

This is a photo of the aftermath of the fukushima disaster, looking specifically at Unit 4

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following the Three Mile Island partial meltdown in the Unit-ed States.58 National authorities across the world realized that they would require a strict liability agreement to protect the public from subsequent financial losses in case of a nuclear accident.59 Chernobyl cost approximately USD 235 billion and Fukushima cost USD 180 billion, with costs increasing as time passed by.60 The initial cost of containing the Fukushima di-saster alone passed the nominal GDP of 132 countries.61 Law-makers decided that operators of nuclear power plants would pay for damages, irrespective of the cause. With the introduc-tion of private insurance companies, the burden of cost was made easier on operators too, who now relied on the nuclear insurance pools. These large organizations became necessary for nuclear insurance and security because they provided ways to unify different individual policies and assess risk. Today, the IAEA uses these pools during nuclear installations and safety assessments.62

Developing Power Plants

Nuclear historian Richard Rhodes argued that nuclear ener-gy must be a part of the energy solution to global climate change.63 However, the world has been slow to develop nucle-ar energy and to reduce global climate change. Although the IAEA existed for more than 60 years, only 10% of the world’s total energy comes from nuclear sources including approxi-mately 63,000 power plants across the world, most of which are located in the United States, Western Europe, or Southeast Asia. 64 There are a number of factors which contribute to the 58 Ha-Vinh Phuong, “Reassessing the nuclear liability regime,” IAEA Bulletin: Topical Reports (1985), www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/pub-lications/magazines/bulletin/bull27-1/27105095557.pdf.59 Sebastion M.S. Reitsma, “Nuclear Insurance Pools: Worldwide Practice and Development.” Swiss Nuclear Insurance Pool; 572, accessed 6 July 2019, inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/29/064/29064443.pdf.60 “Japan Fukushima nuclear plant ‘clean-up costs double’” BBC (28 November 2016), accessed 23 September 2019. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38131248.61 “World Economic Outlook Database” International Monetary Fund (April 2019), accessed 23 September 2019, www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/index.aspx.62 Sebastion M.S. Reitsma, “Nuclear Insurance Pools: Worldwide Practice and Development.”63 Richard Rhodes, “Why Nuclear Power Must Be Part of the Energy Solution,” Yale Environment 360 (19 July 2018), e360.yale.edu/fea-tures/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate.64 Brad Plumer, “All of the world’s power plants, in one handy map,” The Washington Post, (8 December 2012), www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2012/12/08/all-of-the-worlds-power-plants-in-one-handy-map/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.b9dbc6fa8ec8.65 John P. Banks and Kevin Massy, “Nuclear Power in Developing Countries? Let’s Talk about It.” Brookings Institute (December 2012) www.brookings.edu/opinions/nuclear-power-in-developing-countries-lets-talk-about-it.66 Fox Butterfield, “Professional Groups Flocking to Antinuclear Drive,” The New York Times, 27 May 1982, www.nytimes.com/1982/03/27/us/professional-groups-flocking-to-antinuclear-drive.html.67 Ray Acheson et al. “Rebuilding the Antinuclear Movement,” The Nation, 1 June 2018, www.thenation.com/article/rebuilding-antinuclear-movement.68 “Nuclear Power in Germany,” World Nuclear Association, March 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/germany.aspx.69 Ibid

slowed development of nuclear energy worldwide, including high costs to building nuclear power plants, the time required to develop effective legal frameworks, the long-term commit-ment required, establishing a safe, sustainable, and non-prolif-eration culture, small infrastructure sizes, and lack of human resources.65

While many IAEA members view the spread of nuclear en-ergy in a positive light, government officials or large sectors of the civilian population in some countries strongly oppose the development of nuclear technologies. This trend, com-monly known as nuclear phase-out, is a part of the anti-nucle-ar movement which was by sparked fear of nuclear disasters and the financial burden imposed by them.66 Germany, Aus-tria, Greece, Australia, and New Zealand are some countries who have stated that they intend to phase out nuclear energy. Many more have political parties and strong oppositions op-posed to further nuclear development.67 For example, public opinion in Germany remains largely opposed to the prospect of nuclear power, resulting in the shutdown of eight plants earlier this year.68 The German legislature passed a law in 2011 that planned for the shutdown of all nuclear power plants by 2022.69 These challenges are especially difficult to overcome because the countries opposed to nuclear power are the ones capable of providing it to others, either because they possess the knowledge, finances, or infrastructure.

Despite these recent movements, the IAEA has released a number of guidebooks, checklists, and requirements outlin-

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ing the process of developing a nuclear power plant from start to finish.70 Countries in the Middle East and Europe have expressed a great deal of interest in starting their own programs.71 For instance, members of the Gulf Cooperation Council, France, and Iran signed a deal in 2006 to develop two large plants in Saudi Arabia which could provide 15% of the electricity in the region.72 Those plants would have the added benefit of providing desalination treatment to further water security in the region. The IAEA conducted a Nuclear Infra-structure Review (NIR) in January of 2019, which decided that Saudi Arabia met the requirements to build a legal frame-work and the physical infrastructure for its nuclear projects.73 This case is only one of a few examples where the IAEA con-ducted a successful project with member states.

Economics of Nuclear Power

Despite all of its benefits, nuclear energy has remained one 70 “Basic infrastructure for a nuclear power project,” IAEA Publications, June 2006, www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/TE_1513_web.pdf.71 Katherine Smith and Reto Giere, “Why Some Nations Choose Nuclear Power,” University of Pennsylvania Kleinman Center for Energy Policy, 23 June 2017, kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/policy-digests/why-some-nations-choose-nuclear-power72 “Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia,” World Nuclear Association, April 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/saudi-arabia.aspx73 Ibid.74 “Cheap Dreams, Expensive Realities,” Union of Concerned Scientists, Accessed 8 September 2019., www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-power/cost-nuclear-power75 Ibid.76 Ibid.77 “Economics of Nuclear Power,” World Nuclear Association, April 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/economic-aspects/economics-of-nuclear-power.aspx.78 Kevin Wang, “Nuclear Power Economic Costs,” Stanford University (May 2018), large.stanford.edu/courses/2018/ph241/wang-k2.79 Ibid.80 Ibid.81 “Radioactive riches - the five countries with the biggest uranium reserves,” Mining Technology, 22 May 2014, www.mining-technology.

of the most costly forms of electricity on the global mar-ket.74 Lewis Strauss, a former chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, predicted that nuclear energy would overtake the world’s entire energy needs in 1954.75 Thirty years later, Forbes magazine held a less optimistic view, labelling the nu-clear energy market “the largest managerial disaster in busi-ness history.”76 This obstacle to obtaining nuclear energy is largely contained within the capital costs, the initial barrier to opening a nuclear power plant.77 These capital costs make up an average of 74% of total energy costs, which is lower than other forms of renewable energy, but still higher than coal at 63% and natural gas at 22%.78 These data indicate that enter-ing the market for nuclear energy is a riskier and less profit-able option for many countries, especially developing states, which may consider building their first nuclear plant. Globally, the US and the EU have similar capital costs for construction; these are still higher than China, South Korea, and India who have further developed their own nuclear capabilities.79

Typically, these expenses can be attributed to the lack of in-frastructure present in many developing states. In addition to the materials needed to build the facility, construction equip-ment, skilled labor, and valuable metals all add to the price tag. Uranium, the main fuel source in a nuclear energy facility, ac-counts for roughly 28% of the operating costs. Another 14% is added for enriching and fabricating the uranium, which is essential for power plants.80 Because of its essentiality in nuclear power, uranium rich countries such as Australia, Ka-zakhstan, Russia, Canada, and Niger have great stakes in the global nuclear trade.81

Even with the financial barrier of capital costs, countries can

This is a photo of an anti-nuclear march in northern Germany following the ar-rival of nuclear waste

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still pursue nuclear energy as an economically viable option because of the low operating costs of nuclear power plants.82 A minor subset of the total generating costs comes from the price of fuel, which is normally stable on the global market.83 Additionally, the costs of decommissioning and waste dispos-al is factored into the final price tag.84 These two processes also account for any safety issues which may arise, in case a nuclear facility must be shut down or its material discarded. With improvements in efficiency undergoing over past years, the industry has also experienced competitive pricing, which further incentivizes governments to consume nuclear energy. This form of pricing is particularly important because the costs of developing nuclear power is typically generated by the operators of power plants.85 Traditionally, federal govern-ments have partnered with private companies and owners to subsidize the development of nuclear energy as well, thereby reducing the cost on a single party. 86 The IAEA assists with this process by providing economic advice on pricing adjust-ments, financial management, and cost evaluation.87 These fi-nancing tools are the most commonly used economic support systems for countries building new nuclear energy facilities.

Investment in nuclear power offers long term stability for both investors and consumers of that energy.88 This stabil-ity offers great appeal to investors when financing projects in developed countries, which already operate nuclear facilities. However, this confidence does not normally travel over to projects in countries without an already established infrastruc-ture presenting a challenge for many developing states.89 The global nuclear energy market is dependent upon short-term price signals, which change depending on the political climate com/features/featureradioactive-riches-the-five-biggest-uranium-rich-countries-4274059/82 “Economics of Nuclear Power.” World Nuclear Association.83 Ibid.84 Ibid.85 “Funding and Finance.” IAEA Publications, Accessed September 8, 2019, www.iaea.org/topics/funding-and-finance.86 Ibid.87 Ibid.88 “Economics of Nuclear Power.” World Nuclear Association.89 Ibid.90 Wayne Marks, “Factors that Affect the Stock Market,” Zacks, Accessed September 8, 2019. finance.zacks.com/factors-affect-stock-market-2405.html.91 Tom DiChristopher, “The US is losing the nuclear export race to China and Russia. Here’s the Trump team’s plan to turn the tide,” NBC News, March 21, 2019, www.cnbc.com/2019/03/21/trump-aims-to-beat-china-and-russia-in-nuclear-energy-export-race.html.92 Ben Aris, “Russia’s Nuclear Power Exports are Booming,” The Moscow Times, 9 May 2019, www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/09/russias-nuclear-power-exports-are-booming-a65533.93 DiChristopher, NBC News.94 Ibid.95 Aris, The Moscow Times.96 Ibid.

of a country, natural or manmade disasters, market psychol-ogy, project length, and many other factors.90

Current Status

One of the driving forces behind many developing countries’ recent acquisition and exploration of nuclear energy is the political, economic, and educational influence of developed states. This influence arises from recent financial investment by larger countries, who have been constructing nuclear proj-ects in smaller ones. The nuclear energy export race, as it is currently labeled, was coined to address this rapid increase in nuclear tech exports on a global scale.91 Within these past decades, the governments and firms from Russia and China in particular have significantly increased the construction of nuclear reactors overseas as an exercise of power and for-eign influence.92 Concerned, the United States has respond-ed with the intention to ramp up their own efforts abroad.93 According to Ed McGinnis, the US National Deputy Assis-tant Secretary for Nuclear Energy, maintaining an edge over nuclear technology is of vital importance to states like the United States.94 This attitude has further fueled larger states to utilize soft power in their diplomacy. Countries exporting nuclear technology argue that exporting nuclear technology is a way to further relations with their allies.95 They also state that transnational nuclear trading provides smaller countries an option for developing their own national programs utiliz-ing state of the art technology.96 Developed countries offer regular discounts and loans at reduced rates for allied states as incentive for earlier investment in nuclear energy.

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Challenges to Developing New Frameworks

The IAEA is responsible for guiding its member states in mat-ters regarding nuclear energy by consolidating and proliferat-ing the relevant information. It also plays a significant role in the establishment of universal legal frameworks that govern the use of nuclear energy. The IAEA struggles to establish more involved forms of regulation due to its perceived inef-ficiency. This perception stems from a variety of factors; for one, the organization has acquired a history of mismanage-ment in the public eye.97 In the early 1990s, when the world believed that Iraq was pursuing a nuclear weapons program, the IAEA was faulted by some for having insufficient safe-guards.98 At the time, the agency only inspected nuclear sites which were declared by the member states, assuming that states would not hide any of their facilities by not declaring them. This system failed and the agency then strengthened its regulations and analytics in order to detect any false decla-rations by the member states. These guidelines dictate many inspections today but have yielded many other concerns about the extent of the IAEA’s oversight power.99

To combat the concerns about their new inspection process, the IAEA has introduced updated regulatory frameworks to provide support for national inspection agencies to execute these inspections on their own.100 The “Handbook for Regula-tory Inspectors of Nuclear Power Plants” provides guidance to newer inspectors. Published annually, these handbooks also outline protocols for weather-related hazards, fire accidents, and long-term correction for minor damages. New inspec-tors are also put through two-year training programs and are paired with veteran workers in order to best prepare them 97 Ann S. Bisconti, “Public opinion on nuclear energy: what influences it,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, (April 2016), thebulletin.org/2016/04/public-opinion-on-nuclear-energy-what-influences-it.98 Anna Weichselbraun, “The IAEA: a nuclear bureaucracy,” U. Chicago: Division of the Social Sciences, (September 2015), socialsciences.uchi-cago.edu/blog/student/iaea-nuclear-bureaucracy.99 Ibid.100 Joanne Liou, “IAEA Handbook for Regulatory Inspectors of Nuclear Power Plants,” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication (May 2019), www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/now-available-iaea-handbook-for-regulatory-inspectors-of-nuclear-power-plants. 101 Ibid.102 “Technical Tune-Up: IAEA Supports Pakistan in Conducting In-Service Inspections,” IAEA Publications, 6 May 2016, www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/technical-tune-up-iaea-supports-pakistan-in-conducting-in-service-inspections.103 “IAEA Mission Says Spain Demonstrates Strong Commitment to Safety, Notes Challenges in Radioactive Waste Management,” IAEA Publications (October 2018), accessed 19 July 2019, www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-mission-says-spain-demonstrates-strong-commitment-to-safety-notes-challenges-in-radioactive-waste-management.104 “IAEA members approve controversial nuclear security plan,” The Hindu, 16 August 2016, www.thehindu.com/news/international/iaea-members-approve-controversial-nuclear-safety-plan/article2450044.ece.105 Ibid.106 John Boureston Tanya Ogilvie-White, “Seeking Nuclear Security Through Greater International Coordination,” Council on Foreign Rela-tions (March 2010), Accessed 22 June 2019, www.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/IIGG_WorkingPaper_1_NuclearSecurity.pdf.

for their jobs. The benefit of this newer approach is that it slowly introduces the proper legal framework for energy de-velopment to developing countries in a manner their govern-ment is comfortable with. This approach hopes to reaffirm the IAEA’s commitment to pursuing its energy goals while allowing member states to lead their own energy projects. This rulebook has already assisted a number of nuclear and non-nuclear countries in energy.101 In May of 2016, the IAEA used these guidelines to conduct pre-service and in-service inspections with the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission for two power plants in development.102 In October of 2018, the Spanish Radioactive Waste Management Agency (ENRESA) and a number of IAEA-affiliated organizations made recom-mendations to the Spanish government to update their radio-active waste system and to address delays in storage facilities; these recommendations eventually led to the decommission-ing of two plants.103

Another example of conflict over the IAEA’s powers lies in the aftermath of the nuclear disaster at the Fukushima-Daiichi power station in Japan. While the event occurred in March of 2011, it has continued to impact the discussion around inter-national and national legislation to this day.104 Countries like Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Canada, and Singapore em-phasize the importance of binding resolutions which would ensure that IAEA safety regulations supersede national laws.105 However, the United States, China, and India have developed a reputation of ignoring recommendations from multilateral organizations like the IAEA.106 This perceived imbalance has promoted the idea that their heavy influence in the IAEA sometimes allows them to set regulations more akin to their

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own national policies and interests.107 In 2016, U.S. Ambas-sador Glyn T. Davies said that “member states and the agency [the IAEA] should utilize existing instruments and programs to undertake their actions” when the Agency tried to intro-duce new binding measures for nuclear security.108

The IAEA’s Nuclear Security Program offers insight into many of the issues surrounding the IAEA. The program pro-vides security measures for developing power plants such as reducing the number of “high-risk materials” (e.g.. enriched uranium), preventing radiological terrorism, and providing human resources.109 While these rights and responsibilities are respected by many member states, the IAEA often encounters challenges to its authority when it wishes to verify security threats.110 In April of 2019, IAEA Director-General Yukiya Amano stated that modern day nuclear technology still pos-sessed the ability to manufacture weapons and that the in-crease in nuclear material continued to pressure the IAEA’s financial budget.111 For some states, the IAEA lacks authority on the international stage. For these reasons, the agency is often relegated as an advisory entity as opposed to an organi-zation with enforcement power.112 Developing the appropri-ate legal framework requires the international community to reaffirm its commitment to the IAEA as a legitimate regulator of nuclear material worldwide.

Modifying the Legal Framework

To strengthen the legal frameworks and policies regarding nu-clear energy, the IAEA and the international community must first determine that a member state can respect the commit-ments they make to the organization.113 Keeping their prom-

107 “IAEA members approve controversial nuclear security plan,” The Hindu. 108 Ibid.109 Boureston, 6.110 Ibid.111 Yuyika Amano, “Challenges in Nuclear Verification,” IAEA Publications, 5 April 2019, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC, USA, www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/challenges-in-nuclear-verification.112 Boureston, 6.113 Bart Dal, Jonathan Herbach, and Kenneth M. Luongo, “The Strengthening Nuclear Security Implementation Initiative,” Nuclear Security Governance Experts Group, October 2015, pgstest.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/nsgeg-snsi-report.pdf.114 Laura Rockwood, “Legal framework for IAEA safeguards,” IAEA Publications (2013), Vienna, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16/12/legalframeworkforsafeguards.pdf.115 Ibid.116 Ibid.117 “Active IAEA Collaborating Centres,” IAEA Publications, Accessed July 19, 2019, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/19/04/collaborat-ing-centres.pdf.118 Ibid.

ises to the IAEA is especially important, because it grants the necessary legal authority to the IAEA. In 2013, the Agency published a document highlighting the legal framework it would use to enter different states into agreement regarding its safety procedures.114 This framework would allow the IAEA to guide discussions over international inspections and power plant development. In it, the IAEA recognizes that while the Agency is not a state under international law, it is entitled to some of the privileges and powers associated with statehood, specifically in reference to treaty moderation.115 Most mem-ber states decided that agreements regarding nuclear energy would begin with a request by concerned member states. Af-ter a series of internal processes, the IAEA would then use the approval of the State and their national laws to finalize any agreement made between the IAEA and relevant states.116

Even with its own facilities and framework, the agency relies upon the respective energy agencies of its members. Member states have the ability to make changes in national policies in order to improve the framework of their energy associations and subsequently, the IAEA. Currently, the IAEA is hosted by at least 15 separate agencies from Hungary, Mexico, Indo-nesia, Malaysia, Brazil, India, and many more States.117 Thus, national policy and willingness to engage strongly shapes the more general guidelines on nuclear energy of the IAEA.118 Member states can prioritize more renewable sources of en-ergy and encourage investment in their industries. States like Equatorial Guinea, Iran, and Cuba tend to prioritize national interests and seclude themselves from outside influence as a result, which reduces transparency and faith in the Agency. Even democratic countries outright refuse to adopt interna-

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tional safety standards due to heavy influence or misinforma-tion.119

In discussing the general process with which the IAEA cur-rently conducts its investigations and proceedings today, it is important to see that the agency has strived to balance itself being a legal authority which also respects national sovereign-ty.120 This is also a cause to one of the greatest challenges to nuclear energy development. When a country has an estab-lished relationship with the IAEA and routinely checks in with the international community, there is less cause to distrust their regime.121 However, the IAEA’s goal of spreading nucle-ar technology for peace cannot occur without introducing it to developing countries, most of which do not currently pos-sess the resources and infrastructure for nuclear energy and are the same states which challenge the IAEA’s mandate.122

The recent agreement between Iran, the five permanent secu-rity council members, and Germany offers a good example of why the legal framework of the IAEA needs improvement. When approved in 2015, the deal showed promise that the IAEA and its key member states could compromise with de-veloping countries like Iran.123 The agreement meant to fa-cilitate nuclear capabilities for Iran and prevent them from acquiring weapons. For many, it is considered a success.124 However, the politicization of the deal in Iran and the United States led to the US’s unilateral withdrawal from the agree-ment, restoring their economic sanctions against the coun-try. The other participants in the deal have not followed suit. From these events, one can see that the IAEA’s legal frame-work and process of formulating agreements is still subjected to the will of its member states’ political divisions.125

Israel and Pakistan have also provided challenges to IAEA regulations in pursuit of nationwide interests.126 The interna-119 “Profile: IAEA, the nuclear watchdog,” BBC.120 Rockwood, IAEA Publications.121 Matthew Bunn, Nickolas Roth, and William H. Tobey, “Revitalizing Nuclear Security in an Era of Uncertainty,” Harvard Kennedy School: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs (January 2019), www.belfercenter.org/NuclearSecurity2019#toc-1.122 Ibid.123 “What’s happening in Iran?” BBC, 24 June 2019, www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/42555015.124 Federica Mogherini, “The Iran deal is a success - and the whole world is safer for it,” The Guardian, 17 January 2017, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jan/17/iran-nuclear-deal.125 Boureston, 8.126 “Profile: IAEA, the nuclear watchdog,” BBC, 24 August 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17117069.127 Ibid.128 Ibid.129 “Sustainable Development Goals,” IAEA Publications, Vienna, Austria, accessed 15 July 2019, www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustain-able-development-goals

tional community generally believes that Israel is in possession of nuclear warheads. Surrounding countries, who are often opposed to Israeli policies, stress that Israel is thus creating instability within the Middle East. However, because the state has never signed the non-proliferation treaty, they are not subject to sanctions or inspections imposed by the IAEA.127 Some member states support Pakistan’s assertion that the IAEA has repeatedly kept nuclear knowledge and research from spreading to developing countries, limiting social and economic growth.128 During times of increased tension, these underlying concerns create friction between the IAEA and key member states. This topic thus reveals that the IAEA must re-visit how it balances voluntary contributions with enforceable regulation and how the agency recognizes its own power to spread nuclear energy to the international community.

Sustainable Development Goals

This issue deals with a number of the United Nations Sustain-able Development Goals. Through the regulation of nuclear infrastructure, the IAEA has its hands in conflict, peace, en-ergy, sustainability, and development. Due to this widespread applicability, it is crucial that the IAEA adhere to the sus-tainable development goals and work with the international community to create a more sustainable future. If gone unad-dressed by the IAEA, the future of the world and its envi-ronment, people, and development could be years behind the SDGs.

To support SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, the IAEA can provide clean, renewable energy to its member states by building and updating the current framework which the IAEA uses to develop nuclear power plants.129 In writing this leg-islation and constructing these plants, the IAEA would also

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accomplish SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure. Possessing nuclear energy would establish an updated infra-structure for participating states and pave the way for coun-tries to build their own projects, further industrializing devel-oping states.130

SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, would also be addressed because nuclear energy is one of the safest and most sustainable forms of energy available to us today. Ad-ditionally, safety is one of the main priorities for the United Nations as a whole. Finally, SDG 13: Climate Action, naturally falls in the purview of this topic, as nuclear power plants pro-duce energy with almost zero carbon emissions.131

Bloc Analysis

States with Strong Nuclear Capabilities

A small number of countries within the IAEA are considered to be “nuclear powerhouses” for their possession of nuclear weapons, power plants, research facilities, and more. Most no-tably, they include the United States, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, China, France, Pakistan, and India.132 These countries are primarily known for their possession of numerous nuclear weapons in addition to other nuclear tech-nologies. Lesser known states include Slovakia, Ukraine, and Hungary who are famous because most of their power comes from nuclear energy sources.133 In terms of power output, Ja-pan, South Korea, and Canada are also industry leaders, hous-ing no fewer than twenty functioning plants each.134

On the world stage and in the IAEA, these countries lead 130 “Sustainable Development Goal 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure,” IAEA Publications, Vienna, Austria, accessed 15 July 2019, www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.131 “Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate action,” IAEA Publications, Vienna, Austria, accessed 15 July 2019. www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.132 “World Nuclear Performance Report 2018,” World Nuclear Association, August 2018, accessed 15 July 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/b392d1cd-f7d2-4d54-9355-9a65f71a3419/performance-report.pdf.aspx.133 “Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries,” World Nuclear Association, June 2019, accessed 23 June 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/infor-mation-library/country-profilesothers/emerging-nuclear-energy-countries.aspx.134 Harrison Jacobs, “The 17 Countries Generating The Most Nuclear Power,” Business Insider, 26 March 2014, www.businessinsider.com/countries-generating-the-most-nuclear-energy-2014-3.135 Charles Tilly, “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime,” In Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, eds. Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 169-191.136 Francis Fukuyama, “The Imperatives of State-Building,” Journal of Democracy 15, no. 2 (2004), pp. 17-31.137 Ben Aris, “Russia’s Nuclear Power exports are booming,” The Moscow Times, May 9, 2019, www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/09/russias-nuclear-power-exports-are-booming-a65533.138 Tom DiChristopher, “The US is losing the nuclear energy export race to China and Russia. Here’s the Trump team’s plan to turn the tide,” CNBC, March 21, 2019, www.cnbc.com/2019/03/21/trump-aims-to-beat-china-and-russia-in-nuclear-energy-export-race.html.

much of the discussions about nuclear technology. They are the best equipped to provide knowledge and equipment to developing countries and other states looking to adopt nuclear power. Their commonality comes from their possession of nuclear technology and economic potential. Such states have the proper infrastructure for housing nuclear technology and strong legislative bodies to effectively enforce regulations. Most of these states are democratic and nationally stable.

A number of conditions and factors lead to these particular states dominating the nuclear industry. The U.S., Russia, the U.K. and France are pioneers in the technology because of experimentation during World War II and subsequent con-flicts.135 The threat of war and availability of financial resourc-es forced their respective armies to invest in this technology for power, research, and even weaponry.136 Pakistan and In-dia’s acquisition of nuclear technology also emerged from the threat of war. The rest of these states, however, gained their capabilities from independent research and individual ar-rangements with the United States, Russia, China and others. Russia itself exports billions of dollars of energy and equip-ment to its closest allies and neighboring states.137 China and the U.S. have entered their own nuclear energy export race utilizing private industry alongside public policy to spread nu-clear tech.138 These conditions have contributed to the current stage of nuclear politics.

States Opposed to Nuclear Power Develop-ment

Following the nuclear meltdowns and disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima, international opinions over the future of nu-clear energy varied greatly. In the United States alone, the Bul-

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letin of the Atomic Scientists reports that a Gallup poll con-ducted in 2016 revealed that 44% of Americans were in favor of nuclear energy while 54% were against it. It also indicated that the public was largely uninformed about the challeng-es and dangers surrounding nuclear energy development.139 Worldwide, a number of states began introducing legislation banning or severely limiting nuclear energy usage. These states passed such rules over concerns from their constituents and reliance upon alternative sources of nuclear energy.140 Many of these States opted out of nuclear energy in order for the IAEA to regulate the industry instead.141

There are a number of reasons that these states have chosen a nuclear-free energy policy. Many European states have cho-sen to pursue wind and hydropower due to its reduced cost and availability in the region. Smaller states in this bloc espe-cially do not require nuclear energy for populations of their size.142 While the United States does not fall into this category, there are many political factions and environmentalists, such as Friends of the Earth International, which exists in 77 coun-tries worldwide, opposed to nuclear energy on the grounds of health risks, national security, and high cost levels.143 Den-mark, for example, was once a front runner in researching nuclear technology and developed plans to build power plants within the country. In 1985, however, the Danish Parliament banned the technology nationwide, opting to use energy from neighboring countries instead.144 Italy is another state who has followed Denmark’s path, similarly opting to import its energy

139 Bisconti, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.140 Fred Pearce, “Industry Meltdown: Is the Era of Nuclear Power Coming to an End?” Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, May 15, 2017, e360.yale.edu/features/industry-meltdown-is-era-of-nuclear-power-coming-to-an-end.141 Ibid.142 Ibid.143 “Ending Dangerous Nuclear Power,” Friends of the Earth, September 24, 2018, foe.org/impact-stories/impact-story-3/; Chris Gard-ner, “10 Reasons Not to Invest in Nuclear Energy,” Center for American Progress, 8 July 2008, www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2008/07/08/4735/10-reasons-not-to-invest-in-nuclear-energy.

144 “Nuclear Energy in Denmark,” World Nuclear Association, May 2019, Accessed 16 July 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-li-brary/country-profiles/countries-a-f/denmark.aspx.145 “Nuclear Power in Italy,” World Nuclear Association, April 2018, accessed 16 July 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/italy.aspx.146 “Korea’s nuclear phase-out policy takes shape,” World Nuclear News, 19 June 2017, www.world-nuclear-news.org/NP-Koreas-nuclear-phase-out-policy-takes-shape-1906174.html.147 Francis S. Lagniton, “Why don’t we just nuke it?” The Manila Times, 9 August 2004, web.archive.org/web/20060223134158/ www.ma-nilatimes.net/national/2004/aug/09/yehey/opinion/20040809opi5.html148 “Nuclear Power in Taiwan,” World Nuclear Association, July 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/nuclear-power-in-taiwan.aspx.149 Ibid.150 “Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries,” World Nuclear Association.

as well.145 Variations in the rural and urban population also cause nuclear energy to be inefficient for certain sectors of these countries.

In Southeast Asia, Taiwan, South Korea, and the Philip-pines have all expressed caution about nuclear energy and have made efforts to curb its spread. While the South Ko-rean government did complete its most recent nuclear reac-tor, President Moon Jae-in stated that his new energy policy would phase out nuclear energy and that operation would not pass four decades.146 The Filipino government has turned to wind power, hydropower, and natural gas reserves to address power accessibility within the country.147 Taiwanese officials remained divided on the issue of having nuclear energy until recently.148 Anti-nuclear groups have gained momentum in the State instead, despite increased nuclear activity.149 Other states in this category include Australia, Cambodia, Greece, New Zealand, and Peru.150

States with Developing Infrastructure or Un-stable Regimes

Countries with developing infrastructure are relevant to the conversation of nuclear technology because they possess the potential to become nuclear states themselves and can work with the IAEA to further spread their nuclear abilities. Many of these states have pledged a greater amount of resources to the IAEA and have allowed the outside investment from

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private and public organizations.151 Saudi Arabia, for exam-ple, is a part of the Gulf Cooperation Council, a body of six Middle Eastern states with economic and political ties. As the main consumer and producer of energy in the gulf region, the country’s plan to develop regional desalination and power plants boasts greater economic stability for the area.152 States following Saudi Arabia’s path include Belarus, Turkey, and Sri Lanka, all of whom have made deals with Russia to build their new plants.153

Countries like Indonesia, Chile, Ghana, and Bangladesh also fall into this bloc because they have expressed interest in nu-151 Victor M. Mourogov, “Nuclear power development: Global challenges and strategies,” IAEA Bulletin (1997), Pgs. 2-8, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull39-2/39205080208.pdf152 “Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia,” World Nuclear Association, April 2019, www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/saudi-arabia.aspx.153 Tom DiChristopher, “The US is losing the nuclear energy export race to China and Russia”154 “Country Nuclear Power Profiles: Chile,” IAEA Publications, 2018, cnpp.iaea.org/countryprofiles/Chile/Chile.htm.

clear technology and hope to develop plans to implement the technology within the next ten years. Unfortunately, there are a number of conflicts that arise when these states want to build nuclear energy plants. For example, Chile’s government has not come to a conclusive decision on the prospect for nu-clear energy because their geography poses a significant chal-lenge to any project.154 Indonesia and Ghana follow similar pathways. Other states have not adopted the regulatory frame-work for nuclear development introduced by the IAEA under claims that such legislation infringes upon their national inter-ests. They have unstable regimes which decrease international confidence in their ability to manage nuclear tech. The most

This is a photo of a nuclear plant being developed in East Asia

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famous examples are North Korea and Iran, both of which are currently under investigation by the IAEA after reports of misuse and weapons development.155 In this bloc, all states are opening some of their first national nuclear plants or are introducing plans to develop them in the coming decade.

The nature of the economies and infrastructures of these states will likely lead to economic alliances with the ‘nuclear powerhouses’ of the international community. As mentioned before, these agreements are already well underway between the private and public sectors of States from both blocs. Chi-na, Russia, and the United States are the largest contributors of nuclear technology to developing countries.156 Because these agreements are typically formed independently from the IAEA, the agency has less influence in them.157 States in these blocs may also want to use the IAEA as a platform to ally themselves with more developed countries without fear of exploitation.

Committee Mission

The IAEA is responsible for maintaining nuclear security and peace around the world. With the support of its member states, the agency can provide counseling resources to devel-oping countries, inspect nuclear sites for their safety standards, and develop legal frameworks for the creation of nuclear tech-nology. In its mandate, the IAEA further hopes to fulfill some of the United Nation’s longer term sustainable development goals, which cover a wide array of international issues includ-ing the expansion of safety protocols, the general regulation of nuclear facilities, providing smaller countries with clean, modern energy, promoting the building of infrastructure, and improving the quality of life for millions of people. Without an updated legal framework, nuclear energy development may likely fall short in fulfilling these goals. While the scientific community continuously promotes safe nuclear energy, pub-lic skeptics simultaneously suppress their efforts, highlighting how the world is still unprepared for it. Presently, there are

155 Leore Ben-Chorin and Steven Pifer, “Everything you need to know about the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit,” The Brookings Institute, 24 March 2016, www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2016/03/24/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-nuclear-securi-ty-summit.156 Aris, The Moscow Times.157 Mark Hibbs, “Why Does the IAEA Do What It Does?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 6 November 2017, carnegieendowment.org/2017/11/06/why-does-iaea-do-what-it-does-pub-74689.

high levels of inequality in energy and knowledge between the nuclear States and the developing world. This committee should thus strengthen its regulatory framework to introduce binding and nonbinding measures for the benefit of its mem-ber states. With policy ideas across the spectrum, delegates should remember that a comprehensive solution to creating safe, nuclear energy requires compromise.

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Research and Preparation Questions

Your dais has prepared the following research and preparation questions as a means of providing guidance for your research process. Delegates are NOT obligated to formally answer these questions either in committee or in position papers. Rather, these questions should be carefully considered, as they embody some of the main critical thought and learning objectives surrounding your topic.

Topic A

1. To what extent has your country adhered to IAEA guidelines and safeguards? Has it deviated from the objectives promoted by the IAEA in the past? How IAEA member states enforced safety and peaceful nuclear guidelines at the national and international levels?

2. Does your country utilize nuclear technology? If it does support the use of this technology, how has your country bal-anced its advancement with the safety of the general population?

3. What main purpose has nuclear energy development in your country served? Has your country pursued it peacefully or has it pursued it in the context of international conflict and defense? How has its advancement of nuclear energy technology differed from that of other countries?

4. What are your country’s safety standards and procedures to prevent and response to a nuclear accident? How has your country prioritized the safety of communities surrounding locations of power plants and nuclear energy development? How has it participated in an international response to the risks and dangers of nuclear energy?

5. How much of a role has your country played in international collaboration on nuclear energy development? What kinds of countries has your country collaborated with? Has your country worked with developed countries to develop nuclear technology and policy?

Topic B

1. What research has your country been conducting on vector-borne diseases? What kind of education about the behav-ioral changes needed to combat vector-borne diseases? How can this education be improved?

2. How can states support reporting systems to capture the actual burden of the diseases?

3. What kind of systems does your country have to provide training in the vector-borne nuclear energy field or research?

4. How do vector-borne diseases affect your country? For example, is your country affected by these diseases because of migration, tourism, or procreation? What is being done to stop this spread from other countries on your country? How is your country trying to combat the way that this disease spread within their borders?

5. What protocols or precautions can IAEA Member State implemented within IAEA safety guidelines to stop the spread of vector-borne diseases? Should different guidelines be adopted for different geographic regions or different kinds of contagion? If so, what guidelines would you suggest?

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Important Documents

Topic A

Alphey, Luke, Mark Benedict, Romeo Bellini, Gary G Clark, David A Dame, Mike W Service, Stephen L Dobson. “Sterile-Insect Methods for Control of Mosquito-Borne Diseases: An analysis.” Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10, No. 3 (2010): 295-311. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2946175/pdf/vbz.2009.0014.pdf.

This article analyzes the effectiveness and applicability of the SIT for large-scale use on mosquitoes. Points of concern as for efficacy and sustainability include costs and biological limitations of using mosquitoes that dictate which situations the SIT is appropriate for.

Dyck, VA, J Hendrichs, and AS Robinson. “Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and practice in Area-Wide Integrated Pest Man-agement.” International Atomic Energy Agency. 2005. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/1-4020-4051-2.pdf.

This book covers the principles and technicalities that guide application of the SIT strategy to global health. It explains how the SIT works, the pro-cesses involved in its implementation, and considerations for further developing the technique. Case studies of past SIT programs and economic implica-tions are referenced as support for the feasibility of continued use of integrative vector management in the future.

Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats. “Global Health Impacts of Vector-Borne Diseases.” Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US), 2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK355538/.

This workshop summary documents statements about the detriments of vector-borne disease outbreaks on human health, wildlife and livestock, agricultural productivity. Sections to take note of in this page regard trends and drivers of disease, and public health response efforts to deter vector transmission.

“Keeping the vector out: Housing improvements for vector control and sustainable development.” World Health Organization. 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259404/9789241513166-eng.pdf;jsessionid=647731372C5FE28CFB0ACCC877B02271?sequence=1.

This report indicates changes to be made to urban infrastructure to more sustainably combat vector-borne disease. The proposed intervention takes a scrutinous eye to the housing sector to improve building design and practices that aid vector proliferation.

Sutherst, Robert W. “Global Change and Human Vulnerability to Vector-Borne Diseases.” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17, No. 1 (2004): 136-173. https://cmr.asm.org/content/cmr/17/1/136.full.pdf.

This article reviews the impacts of environmental and societal change on vector-borne diseases. The direct and indirect effects of increased global intercon-nectedness, through urbanization, trade, travel, and other forms of cross-contact which contribute to climate change and resource depletion, have created conditions that subject the international community to greater risk for disease transmission.

WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1. “A global brief on vector-borne diseases.” 2014. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/han-dle/10665/111008/WHO_DCO_WHD_2014.1_eng.pdf?sequence=1.

This report details the burden of disease and mode of transmission for the major vector-borne diseases affecting the global community. Prevention and control methods, as well as challenges to vector control approaches are also covered.

Wu, Katherine J. “Do Not Fear the Drones Air-Dropping 50,000 Mosquitoes From Above.” Smithsonian.com. 20 August 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-not-fear-drones-air-dropping-50000-mosquitoes-above-180970068/.

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This article offers insight into the merits of using drones to distribute mosquitoes for the SIT. WeRobotics and the IAEA have already found success in preliminary testing in Brazil, and plan to hold more trials with added technological upgrades.

Topic B

Acheson, Ray et al. “Rebuilding the Antinuclear Movement.” The Nation, Published 1 June 2018. https://www.thenation.com/article/rebuilding-antinuclear-movement/.

This article shows the rationale behind the emerging antinuclear movement across the world. It argues against the promotion of nuclear weapons and material by citing the recent rise in tensions within recent years. The source is different from many of the pro-nuclear energy sources that are tradition-ally cited

“Basic infrastructure for a nuclear power project.” International Atomic Energy Agency Publications. Published June 2006. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/TE_1513_web.pdf

This document provides a detailed account of all of the important considerations and requirements which are involved in the production of nuclear energy projects. The source can be thought of as a guide for developing countries as they consider developing nuclear energy.

Davenport, Kelsey. “Nuclear Security Summit at a Glance.” Arms Control Association, last updated April 2017. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/NuclearSecuritySummit

The Nuclear Security Summit is at the center of nuclear security and safety talks although it is run independent of the IAEA’s own programming. However, the states involved yield a lot of nuclear power capabilities and are essential to be included in your research. The page also shows which coun-tries signed onto the agreement and gives an appropriate picture of the blocs formed regarding this topic.

ElBaradei, Mohamad, et al. “International law and nuclear energy: Overview of the legal framework.” IAEA Bulletin. Published 1995. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/37302081625.pdf.

As a former director-general for the IAEA, Mr. ElBaradei has published a lot of information about nuclear power and international law, the focus of this topic. In this older piece, he summarizes the various aspects of nuclear law which the IAEA has considered. Many of these principles are relevant today when examining nuclear energy policy.

“The International Legal Framework for Nuclear Security.” IAEA. Published 2011. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publica-tions/PDF/Pub1486_web.pdf

This report provides a detailed account about the legal authority under which the IAEA operates. It includes provisions from the IAEA’s statute, the IMO, the Security Council, and the UN Charter. Additionally, it highlights both the legally binding and non-legally binding measures for the IAEA which is important for determining the extent of the IAEA’s powers.

Reitsma, Sebastion M.S. “Nuclear Insurance Pools: Worldwide Practice and Development.” Swiss Nuclear Insurance Pool, ac-cessed 6 July 2019. Pg. 572. https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/29/064/29064443.pdf

This source is particular to the topic of nuclear insurance pools which dictate a number of decisions in the development of nuclear technology. This shorter piece highlights some key aspects of nuclear insurance pools (how they are used, what their purpose is, etc.).

Smith, Katherine and Giere, Reto. “Why Some Nations Choose Nuclear Power.” U. Penn: Kleinman Center for Energy Policy, Published June 23, 2017. https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/policy-digests/why-some-nations-choose-nuclear-power

Different countries have different reasons for adopting nuclear energy or refraining from it. This piece from U. Penn provides a variety of reasons and

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incentives for countries to adopt nuclear energy. It is a good place to start if you are not sure, about why your country takes a certain stance.

“World Nuclear Performance Report 2018.” World Nuclear Association. Published August 2018. Accessed 15 July 2019. https://www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/b392d1cd-f7d2-4d54-9355-9a65f71a3419/performance-report.pdf.aspx

This report is an annual publication which highlights the status of nuclear power on the world stage today. There is a lot of numerical data and dozens of graphs which divide the world based on their nuclear capacity. This source is more technical and provides a good understanding of where the world lies in fulfilling the IAEA’s goals.

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Works Cited

Committee History and Simulation

“Atoms for Peace speech.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Last modified 1 December 2018. www.britannica.com/event/Atoms-for-Peace-speech.

The text of US President Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace speech, which started to lay out the vision for the IAEA

Fischer, David. History of the International Atomic Energy Agency: The first forty years. Vienna: IAEA, 1997.An overview of the IAEA’s history.

Goldschmidt, Bertrand. “The Origins of the International Energy Agency.” IAEA Bulletin 19, No. 4 (1977): 12-19.A fantastic book about the politics and public fears surrounding the creation of the IAEA.

“History.” International Atomic Energy Agency. www.iaea.org/about/overview/history.A brief history about the IAEA and how its activities have changed over the years.

IAEA/SG/INF/4. “IAEA Safeguards: Aims, Limitations, Achievements.” Safeguards Information Series 4 (1983). https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/IAEA_SG_INF_4_web.pdf.

An explanation of the various safety procedures that the IAEA has developed and the role that they play in the management of fissile material.

“IAEA Factsheet.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication. August 2018. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/18/08/the-iaea-policy-making-organs-providing-guidance-for-the-agency-work.pdf.

A brief factsheet about the IAEA showing the structure of the organization

“The IAEA Mission Statement.” IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/about/mission.An explanation of the IAEA’s mission statement

“IAEA Offices and Contact Information.” IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/contact.Locations of the IAEA offices.

“IAEA profile.” BBC News. 15 February 2012. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/2642835.stm.A brief overview of the IAEA as a whole.

“International Atomic Energy Agency.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Last modified 30 September 2013. https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Atomic-Energy-Agency.

A brief encyclopedic overview of the IAEA as an organization

Ivanova, Natalia. “IAEA Highlights and Achievements in 2018 a Year in Review.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Commu-nication. 31 December 2018. https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/iaea-highlights-and-achievements-in-2018-a-year-in-review.

A review of the IAEA’s achievements during 2018.

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James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies. “International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).” Nuclear Threat Initiative. https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/international-atomic-energy-agency/.

An overview of the treaties that the IAEA works with member states to manage.

“The Statute of the IAEA.” IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/about/statute#a1-2.Text of the statute establishing the IAEA.

“Treaties.” IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/resources/legal/treaties.An overview of the treaties that the IAEA helps enforce

Topic A

UN Sources

Bourtzis, Konstantino. “New CRP: Generic Approach for the Development of Genetic Sexing Strains for SIT Applications (D44003).” IAEA Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications. 15 January 2019. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/new-crp-generic-approach-for-the-development-of-genetic-sexing-strains-for-sit-applications-d44003.

This article announces the start of a new research project by the FAO/IAEA for developing genetic sexing strains to increase the versatility of the SIT.

Bourtzis, Konstantino. “Successful Completion of the CRP D44001 - Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behav-ioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes.” IAEA Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications. 25 April 2019. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/successful-completion-of-the-crp-d44001-exploring-genetic-molecular-mechanical-and-behavioural-methods-of-sex-separation-in-mosquitoes.

This article presents the development of mosquito sexing systems to be tested for large-scale use.

Dixit, Aabha. “Nuclear Technique Can Help Control Disease-Transmitting Mosquitoes.” IAEA Office of Public Informa-tion and Communication. 3 February 2016. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/nuclear-technique-can-help-control-%E2%80%98zika%E2%80%99-mosquitoes.

This article gives a basic outline of how the SIT works and is being used in its pilot stages.

Dyck, VA, J Hendrichs, and AS Robinson. “Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and practice in Area-Wide Integrated Pest Man-agement.” International Atomic Energy Agency. 2005. link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/1-4020-4051-2.pdf.

This book covers the principles and technicalities that guide application of the SIT strategy to global health.

FAO/IAEA Agricultural and Biotechnology Laboratories. “Insect Pest Control Laboratory.” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nucle-ar Techniques in Food and Agriculture. www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/ipc-laboratory.html.

This page outlines the duties and points of investigation of the IPCL.

Gaspar, Miklos. “New Method Advances Research on Controlling Mosquitoes Using Nuclear Techniques.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication. 6 January 2017. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/new-method-advances-research-on-controlling-mosquitoes-using-nuclear-techniques.

This feature on the SIT reviews weaknesses and areas for growth

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Gilles, Jeremie Roger Lionel, Mac Vreysen. “Development of Standardized Mass Rearing Systems for Male Anopheles Arabien-sis Mosquitoes.” Insect Pest Control, Joint FAO/IAEA Division. www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/crp-g34001-evalua-tion-report.pdf.

This CRP report summarizes progress made in mass production for SIT mosquitoes.

Helinski, Michelle EH, Badria El-Sayed, and Bart GJ Knols. “The Sterile Insect Technique: can established technology beat malaria?” IAEA. 2006. edepot.wur.nl/51377.

This publication evaluates feasibility studies for using SIT to control malaria.

IAEAL 18-01142. “IAEA Technical Cooperation Programme: Sixty years and beyond -- contributing to development.” April 2018. Proceedings Series (IAEA). www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/STIPUB1802_web.pdf.

This summary of IAEA conference proceedings presents the Technical Cooperation programs as a support system for states in applying nuclear tech-nologies to control human disease.

IAEA-MBP. “Model Business Plan for a Sterile Insect Facility.” Joint FAO/IAEA Programme. January 2008. www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/IAEA-MBP_web.pdf.

This report makes recommendations for SIT insect mass-rearing facilities to optimize production.

IAEA-314-D42015-CR-.2, “Enhancing Vector Refractoriness to Trypanosome Infection,” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. 5 December 2014, www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/Enhancing-Vector-2nd-RCM-Report.pdf.

This document highlights the concept of vector refractoriness as a tool for increasing resistance to disease infection.

Jawerth, Nicole and Miklos Gaspar. “How the IAEA Will Contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication. 25 September 2015. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/how-iaea-will-contribute-sustainable-development-goals.

This article outlines the overlaps between the SDGs and the objectives and functions assumed by the IAEA through provision of nuclear technology assistance to member states.

Jiang, FeiFei. “Scientists Take Aim at Sixteen Seconds of Mating.” IAEA Division of Public Information. 11 August 2008. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/no-love-deadly-mosquitoes.

This article explains how manipulating male mosquitoes can influence breeding with the disease-passing females to subsequently curb population growth.

“Coordinated Research Projects.” Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/crp/coordinated-research-ipc.html.

This page describes what the CRPs are and how they work.

“Dengue and severe dengue.” 15 April 2019. WHO. www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-den-gue.

This fact sheet summarizes the regions where dengue is found, how it spreads and suggestions for its containment, followed by the WHO’s response.

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“Exploring Genetic, Molecular, Mechanical and Behavioural Methods of Sex Separation in Mosquitoes.” IAEA. www.iaea.org/projects/crp/d44001.

This CRP worked to develop mechanisms to isolate mosquitoes by sex to improve productivity of the SIT.

“Global Vector Control Response 2017-2030.” WHO. 2017. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259205/9789241512978-eng.pdf?sequence=1.

A summary of the strategies to limit the spread of disease vectors, which is essential to combat diseases like malaria.

“IAEA Conducts Successful Test of Drones in Fight Against Disease Transmitting Mosquitos.” IAEA. 19 April 2018. www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-conducts-successful-test-of-drones-in-fight-against-disease-transmitting-mos-quitos.

This article covers the use of drones as a prospective mechanism for efficient mass-deployment of sterile mosquitoes.

“IAEA Trains Experts to Use Diagnostic Tools for Quick Zika Detection.” IAEA. 5 April 2016. www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-trains-experts-to-use-diagnostic-tools-for-quick-zika-detection.

This article reports on the use of RT-PCR to detect and differentiate viruses.

“Keeping the vector out: Housing improvements for vector control and sustainable development.” World Health Organization. 2017. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259404/9789241513166-eng.pdf;jsessionid=647731372C5FE28CFB0ACCC877B02271?sequence=1.

This report indicates changes to be made to housing and urban infrastructure to more sustainably combat vector-borne disease.

“Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable,” UN Statistics Division, unstats.un.org/sdgs/re-port/2019/goal-11/.

This page goes into more depth the component roadblocks preventing SDG 11 from being achieved, especially infrastructural incompetence caused by rapid urbanization.

“One year into the Zika outbreak: How an obscure disease became a global health emergency.” WHO. 5 May 2016. www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus/articles/one-year-outbreak/en/.

This WHO brief gives a thorough overview of the Zika outbreak in Brazil, from introduction and detection to impact and consequences.

“Policy Basis.” IAEA. www.iaea.org/services/technical-cooperation-programme/policy. This outlines the key IAEA documents that inform the organization’s activities.

“Preventing Procreation: The IAEA’s research for mosquito control.” IAEA. 24 April 2015. www.iaea.org/newscenter/multi-media/photoessays/preventing-procreation-iaeas-research-mosquito-control.

These slides review the IPCL’s research into insect development and mating, as well as effects of sterilization, with the aim of applying this informa-tion to the SIT.

“Sterile insect technique.” IAEA. www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique.This page describes the history of the SIT.

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“Sustainable Development Goal 3,” UN, sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg3.This page lists the progress made in 2019 in fulfilling SDG 3, particularly in promoting good health with respect to incidence and care for infectious diseases.

“Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations, sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs.The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a comprehensive plan of action for all states to collectively build up quality of life and well-being on a global scale.

“The Statute of the IAEA.” IAEA. www.iaea.org/about/statute. The Statute outlines the mandate and practices that govern the IAEA.

“The Zika Virus Mosquitoes: How can the sterile insect technique help?” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communications, November 2016, www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16/11/zika-virus-mosquitos-how-can-sterile-insect-technique-help.pdf.

This publication discusses activities arranged by the IAEA to, including research projects and dissemination of findings, hosting forums, training and technical assistance to states.

“Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness).” 12 April 2019. WHO. www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/trypanosomiasis-human-african-(sleeping-sickness).

This fact sheet summarizes details regarding the types of trypanosomiasis and its distribution, and direction for individual and global disease manage-ment.

“Vector-Borne disease.” Health and Environmental Linkages Initiative. 2019. www.who.int/heli/risks/vectors/vector/en/. This policy brief by WHO/UNEP introduces integrated vector management strategies.

“Vector-Borne diseases.” WHO. 31 October 2017. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases.This fact sheet summarizes key information and data about vector borne diseases as well as the WHO’s recommendations for future action.

Viegas, Luciana. “IAEA Helps Brazil Step up the Fight Against ‘Zika’ Mosquitoes.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communi-cation. 23 February 2016. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/iaea-helps-brazil-step-up-the-fight-against-zika-mosquitoes.

This article makes an example of Brazil’s Zika outbreak to show the ways that the IAEA can support states that are not properly equipped to handle problems of vector control.

WHO/DCO/WHD/2014.1. “A global brief on vector-borne diseases.” 2014. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/han-dle/10665/111008/WHO_DCO_WHD_2014.1_eng.pdf?sequence=1.

This report details major diseases and disease vectors.

“World Malaria Report 2018.” WHO. 2018. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275867/9789241565653-eng.pdf.This source reports on the WHO’s projects to diagnose, treat, and monitor malaria and provides statistics about prevalence and risk of infection from 2017.

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Non-UN Sources

Adam, Yahaya. “Evaluation of Risk Factors of Animal Trypanosomosis in Ghana, and the Monitoring of the Impact of Dis-ease and Vector Eradication Intervention in the Upper West Region of Ghana.” Microbiology and Parasitology. 21 February 2019. tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02045146/document.

This thesis explains that while SIT would complement the efficacy of integrated control strategies, it was more feasible for the strategy adopted in Ghana to consist mainly of insecticide treatment.

Alphey, Luke, Mark Benedict, Romeo Bellini, Gary G Clark, David A Dame, Mike W Service, Stephen L Dobson. “Sterile-Insect Methods for Control of Mosquito-Borne Diseases: An analysis.” Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10, No. 3 (2010): 295-311. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2946175/pdf/vbz.2009.0014.pdf.

This article analyzes the effectiveness and applicability of the SIT for large-scale use on mosquitoes.

Bardosh, Kevin Louis, Sadie Ryan, Kris Ebi, Susan Welburn, Burton Singer. “Addressing vulnerability, building resilience: com-munity-based adaptation to vector-borne diseases in the context of global change.” Infectious diseases of poverty 6, No. 1 (2017). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5725972/pdf/40249_2017_Article_375.pdf.

An analysis of community-based adaptation to vector-borne diseases.

Beard, Charles B, Rebecca J Eisen. “Vector-Borne Diseases.” The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. 2016. s3.amazonaws.com/climatehealth2016/high/ClimateHealth2016_05_Vector.pdf.

This chapter states community-level adaptive capacity as a protective mechanism from disease exposure. They cite the example of three Mexican states, which had lower infected mosquito counts than Texas but 1000 times the number of dengue fever cases reported, because they were less adaptable to implementing strategies to reduce human contact with mosquitoes.

Biedler, James K, Brantley A Hall, Xiaofang Jiang, Zhijian J Tu. “Exploring the Sex-Determination Pathway for Control of Mosquito-Borne Infectious Diseases.” Genetic Control of Malaria and Dengue. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Inc, 2016. reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0001706X13002209?token=7175E6CBE256AB29C574663DAD575A3262AB5C2AB209A2EC2106B1D70A6B1223DA4CF82FEE696611A359F2AA95A69D6E.

This piece tackles the challenge of sex determination for more efficient administration of the SIT.

Bliss, Katherine E. “Health in Latin America and the Caribbean: Challenges and opportunities for US engagement.” Center for Strategic and International Studies. April 2009. csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/media/csis/pubs/090422_bliss_healthlatinamer_web.pdf.

An analysis of U.S. involvement in Latin American healthcare.

Bourtzis, K. “The sterile insect technique as a tool for control of insect vectors and vector-borne diseases.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 53 (2016): 24. www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(16)31283-8/fulltext.

This article looks at the SIT as a safe and sustainable vector control strategy compared to popular insecticide alternatives.

“Brazil General Health Risks: Zika virus,” International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers, 10 July 2019, www.iamat.org/country/brazil/risk/zika-virus.

An analysis of Zika in Brazil.

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Daep, Carlo Amorin, Jorge L Munoz-Jordan, and Eliseo Alberto Eugenin. “Flaviviruses, an expanding threat in public health: Focus on Dengue, West Nile, and Japanese encephalitis virus.” Journal of neurovirology 20, No. 6 (2014). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331079/pdf/nihms-633656.pdf.

An explanation of flaviviruses.

de Andrade, Paulo Paes, Francisco José Lima Aragão, Walter Colli, Odir Antônio Dellagostin, Flávio Finardi-Filho, Mario Hi-royuki Hirata, Amaro de Castro Lira-Neto, Marcia Almeida de Melo, Alexandre Lima Nepomuceno, Francisco Gorgônio da Nóbrega, Gutemberg Delfino de Sousa, Fernando Hercos Valicente, Maria Helena Bodanese Zanettini. “Use of transgenic Aedes aegypti in Brazil: risk perception and assessment.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 94 (2016): 766-771. www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/94/10/16-173377.pdf.

This bulletin goes over concerns regarding combative efforts against the Zika virus in Brazil, and the risks and successes surrounding the targeting of vectors with sterile mosquitoes.

Fontaine, Albin, Ibrahima Diouf, Nawal Bakkali, Dorothée Missé, Frédéric Pagès, Thierry Fusai, Christophe Rogier, Lionel Alm-eras. “Implication of haematophagous arthropod salivary proteins in host-vector interactions.” Parasites & vectors 4, No. 187 (2011). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3197560/pdf/1756-3305-4-187.pdf.

An explanation of parasites and vectors as they relate to public health.

Gabrieli, Paolo, Andrea Smidler, and Flaminia Catteruccia. “Engineering the control of mosquito-borne infectious diseases.” Ge-nome biology 15, No. 11 (2014). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4282146/pdf/13059_2014_Article_535.pdf.

An analysis of the abilities to engineer mosquito-borne diseases.

Gubler, Duane J. “Resurgent Vector-Borne Diseases as a Global Health Problem.” Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Issues 4, No. 3 (1998). wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/4/3/98-0326_article.

This article delves into factors that have accommodated disease emergence, such as increases in resistant vectors, public policy, and demographic changes.

Haakenstad, Annie, Anton Connor Harle, Golsum Tsakalos, Angela E Micah, Tianchan Tao, Mina Anjomshoa, Jessica Cohen, Nancy Fullman, Simon I Hay, Tomislav Mestrovic, Shafiu Mohammed, Seyyed Meysam Mousavi, Molly R Nixon, David Pigott, Khanh Tran, Christopher J L Murray, Joseph L Dieleman. “Tracking spending on malaria y source in 106 coun-tries, 2000-16: an economic modelling study.” Lancet Infectious Diseases 19 (2019): 703-716. www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/laninf/PIIS1473-3099(19)30165-3.pdf.

This study highlights the need for global funding to help low-income countries fight vector-borne diseases like malaria.

“How to Reduce Zika Using Flying Robots.” WeRobotics. 12 June 2017. blog.werobotics.org/2017/06/12/aerial-robotics-to-reduce-zika/.

An analysis of the use of drones to combat Zika.

“IAEA Joins Effort to Stem Ebola Outbreak.” World Nuclear News. 15 October 2014. world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/IAEA-joins-effort-to-stem-Ebola-outbreak.

An analysis of the role of the IAEA in combating Ebola.

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Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats. “Global Health Impacts of Vector-Borne Diseases.” Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US), 2016. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK355538/.

This workshop summary documents statements about the detriments of vector-borne disease outbreaks on human health, wildlife and livestock, agri-cultural productivity.

Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats. “Vector-Borne Diseases: Understanding the environmental, human health, and ecological connections.” Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US), 2008. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK52939/.

This report explores the impacts of disease and suggests potential solutions.

Interdisciplinary Teaching about Earth for a Sustainable Future. “Defining Resilience, Adaptive Capacity, and Vulnerability.” serc.carleton.edu/integrate/teaching_materials/food_supply/student_materials/1059.

An analysis of resilience, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability in the context of disease.

Kilpatrick, A Marm, Sonia Altizer. “Disease Ecology.” Nature Education Knowledge 3, No. 10 (2010). www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/disease-ecology-15947677/.

A comprehensive guide to disease ecology.

Knudsen, AB, R Slooff. “Vector-Borne disease problems in rapid urbanization: new approaches to vector control.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 70, No. 1 (1992): 1-6. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2393336/pdf/bull-who00040-0014.pdf.

This article examines the relationship between urban poverty and the spread of vectors and disease.

Lancet. “Experts warn of a surge in vector-borne diseases as humanitarian crisis in Venezuela worsens.” Medical Xpress. 22 Febru-ary 2019. medicalxpress.com/news/2019-02-experts-surge-vector-borne-diseases-humanitarian.html.

This article attributes Venezuela’s increasing risk of disease transmission to inadequate public health policy.

Lowe, Rachel, Christovam Barcellos, Patricia Brasil, Oswaldo G Cruz, Nildimar Alves Honorio, Hannah Kuper, & Marilia Sa Carvalho. “The Zika Virus Epidemic in Brazil: From discovery to future implications.” International Journal of Environmen-tal Research and Public Health 15, No. 1 (2018). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5800195/pdf/ijerph-15-00096.pdf.

An analysis of the Zika virus in Brazil.

Magori, Krisztian, & John M Drake. “The Population Dynamics of Vector-Borne Diseases.” Nature Education Knowledge 4, No. 4 (2013). www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-population-dynamics-of-vector-borne-diseases-102042523.

This article focuses on disease in relation to the numbers and nature of pathogens and their hosts.

Miller, Thomas A. “Let High-tech Genetically Modified Insects Counter Dengue.” BioScience 61, No. 8 (2011): 586-587. academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/61/8/586/336957.

This piece exemplifies the Western stance on developing new and current control methods.

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“Mosquitoes.” National Geographic. www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/mosquitoes/.A brief descriptive article about mosquitos, their lifecycle, and their role in spreading disease.

“Mosquitoes, malaria and agriculture.” BASF Global. agriculture.basf.com/en/Pest-Control/Commitment-to-Public-Health/Mosquitoes-malaria-and-agriculture.html.

A description of the role of mosquitoes in malaria and agriculture.

“Mosquitoes: World’s deadliest animal.” Barcelona Institute for Global Health. 18 August 2017, www.isglobal.org/en_GB/-/mosqui-to-el-animal-mas-letal-del-mundo.

This article explains the properties that make mosquitoes so dangerous as vectors of disease.

Phippen, J. Weston. “Brazil Declares an End to Its Zika Health Emergency.” 12 May 2017. The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/news/archive/2017/05/brazil-ends-zika-emergency/526509/.

A news article detailing the end of Zika in Brazil.

Phuc, Hoang Kim, Morten H Andreasen, Rosemary S Burton, Céline Vass, Matthew J Epton, Gavin Pape, Guoliang Fu, Kirsty C Condon, Sarah Scaife, Christl A Donnelly, Paul G Coleman, Helen White-Cooper, & Luke Alphey. “Late-acting domi-nant lethal genetic systems and mosquito control.” BMC Biology 5, No. 11 (2007). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1865532/.

This article suggests genetic modification to delay mortality can improve SIT.

“Preparing the Nation to Address Vector-Borne Diseases Threats.” CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/about/prepare-nation.html.

An analysis of mosquitoes and their role in vector-borne disease threats.

Reis-Castro, Luisa. “Genetically modified insects as a public health tool: discussing the different bio-objectification within ge-netic strategies.” Croatian medical journal 53, No. 6 (2012): 635-638. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3541591/pdf/CroatMedJ_53_0635.pdf.

An analysis of GMOS and disease control.

Scott, John. “The risks of rapid urbanization in developing countries.” Zurich. 14 January 2015. www.zurich.com/en/knowl-edge/articles/2015/01/the-risks-of-rapid-urbanization-in-developing-countries.

An analysis of the risk of rapid urbanization.

Sutherst, Robert W. “Global Change and Human Vulnerability to Vector-Borne Diseases.” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17, No. 1 (2004): 136-173. cmr.asm.org/content/cmr/17/1/136.full.pdf.

This article reviews the impacts of environmental and societal change on vector-borne diseases.

“The Latest on Drones for Disease Vector Control.” WeRobotics. 8 January 2018. blog.werobotics.org/2018/01/08/drones-for-disease-vector-control/.

An analysis of the use of drones for controlling diseases.

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UN News Centre. “World Health Day: Combatting vector-borne diseases a priority.” United Nations University. 8 April 2014. our-world.unu.edu/en/world-heath-day-combatting-vector-borne-diseases-a-priority.

An article detailing the importance of vector-borne diseases.

Wilson, Anthony James, Eric Rene Morgan, Mark Booth, Rachel Norman, Sarah Elizabeth Perkins, Heidi Christine Hauffe, Ni-cole Mideo, Janis Antonovics, Hamish McCallum, Andy Fenton. “What is a vector?” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 372, No. 1719 (2017). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5352812/.

This article defines and discusses vectors as pathogen hosts.

Wu, Katherine J. “Do Not Fear the Drones Air-Dropping 50,000 Mosquitoes From Above.” Smithsonian.com. 20 August 2018. www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-not-fear-drones-air-dropping-50000-mosquitoes-above-180970068/.

An analysis of the use of drones to combat mosquito-borne disease.

Topic B

UN-Sources

“Active IAEA Collaborating Centres sorted by topic.” IAEA Publications. Accessed July 19, 2019. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/19/04/collaborating-centres.pdf.

Provides a comprehensive overview of IAEA collaborating centers.

Amano, Yukiya. “Challenges and Opportunities in the Work of the IAEA.” IAEA Publications, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Published August 2, 2010. www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/challenges-and-opportunities-work-iaea

Describes both the benefits and the challenges of the IAEA as an organization.

Amano, Yukiya. “Challenges in Nuclear Verification.” IAEA Publications, Published April 5, 2019. Center for Strategic and Inter-national Studies. Washington DC, USA. www.iaea.org/newscenter/statements/challenges-in-nuclear-verification.

Describes the concept of nuclear verification and the issues it creates for states.

“Basic infrastructure for a nuclear power project.” IAEA Publications. Published June 2006. www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publica-tions/PDF/TE_1513_web.pdf

A guide on how nuclear power projects are built and maintained.

“Country Nuclear Power Profiles: Chile.” IAEA Publications. Updated 2018. cnpp.iaea.org/countryprofiles/Chile/Chile.htmA comprehensive overview of Chile’s nuclear history and current nuclear power.

Director-General of the IAEA. “Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident.” IAEA. Adopted 26 September 1986. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc335.pdf

A landmark document in the safety and regulation of nuclear power.

ElBaradei, Mohamad, et al. “International law and nuclear energy: Overview of the legal framework.” IAEA Bulletin. Published

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1995. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/37302081625.pdfDetails the legal framework behind nuclear powers as set by the IAEA.

“Experiences and Lessons Learned Worldwide in the Cleanup and Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities in the Aftermath of Accidents.” IAEA Publications. Published 2014. www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1644_web.pdf

A detailed guide of nuclear cleanup and the regulation of nuclear facilities.

“Funding and Finance.” IAEA Publications. Accessed 8 September 2019. www.iaea.org/topics/funding-and-finance.A description of IAEA’s funding sources.

“History.” IAEA Publications, last accessed July 2, 2019. www.iaea.org/about/overview/historyA brief overview of IAEA’s history.

“IAEA Mission Says Spain Demonstrates Strong Commitment to Safety, Notes Challenges in Radioactive Waste Management.” IAEA Publications, Published October 26, 2018. Accessed 19 July 2019. www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-mission-says-spain-demonstrates-strong-commitment-to-safety-notes-challenges-in-radioactive-waste-management.

An article detailing Spain’s role in nuclear control, including its struggles with radioactive waste management.

“International operational arrangements.” IAEA Publications, Accessed 7 July 2019. www.iaea.org/ topics/emergency-prepared-ness-response/international-operational-arrangements/.

A guide to IAEA’s emergency response procedures as they have developed over time.

Liou, Joanne. “Now Available: IAEA Handbook for Regulatory Inspectors of Nuclear Power Plants.” IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication, Published 8 May 2019. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/now-available-iaea-handbook-for-regulatory-inspectors-of-nuclear-power-plants.

The official IAEA handbook for inspectors in nuclear power plants.

Phuong, Ha-Vinh. “Reassessing the nuclear liability regime.” IAEA Bulletin: Topical Reports, 1985. Pgs. 55-57. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull27-1/27105095557.pdf

An analysis of the nuclear liability regime and its effectiveness in terms of nuclear regulation.

“Technical Tune-Up: IAEA Supports Pakistan in Conducting In-Service Inspections.” IAEA Publications, Published 6 May 2016. www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/technical-tune-up-iaea-supports-pakistan-in-conducting-in-service-inspections

An article describing IAEA’s relationship with Pakistan in terms of nuclear inspections.

“The International Legal Framework for Nuclear Security.” IAEA, Published 2011. www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1486_web.pdf.

Describes the legal frameworks behind the IAEA and its views on nuclear weapons.

“The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale.” IAEA and OECD/NEA. Published 2008. web.archive.org/web/20110515164252/www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/INES-2009_web.pdf.

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A description of the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale.

“The Statute of the IAEA.” International Atomic Energy Agency Publications, last accessed July 6, 2019. www.iaea.org/about/statute#a1-4.

The official guiding document of the IAEA.

“Sustainable Development Goals.” IAEA Publications, Published Vienna, Austria. Accessed 15 July 2019. www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustainable-development-goals

A guide to the Sustainable Development Goals as they pertain to the IAEA.

“Sustainable Development Goal 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure.” IAEA Publications, Published Vienna, Austria. Ac-cessed 15 July 2019. www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure

A summary of Sustainable Development Goal 9.

“Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate action.” IAEA Publications, Published Vienna, Austria. Accessed 15 July 2019. www.iaea.org/about/overview/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.

A summary of Sustainable Development Goal 13.

World Economic Outlook Database. International Monetary Fund, Updated April 2019. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/index.aspx.

A database showing the economic outlook of individual states.

Non-UN Sources

Acheson, Ray et al., “Rebuilding the Antinuclear Movement.” The Nation. Last updated 1 June 2018. www.thenation.com/article/rebuilding-antinuclear-movement/

A history of the antinuclear movement’s recent growth and revival.

Apunn, Kerstine. “The history behind Germany’s nuclear phase-out.” Clean Energy Wire. Last updated 2 January 2, 2018. www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/history-behind-germanys-nuclear-phase-out

A comprehensive history of Germany’s nuclear landmarks, most importantly the phase-out of German nuclear power.

Aris, Ben. “Russia’s Nuclear Power exports are booming.” The Moscow Times, Published 9 May 2019. www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/09/russias-nuclear-power-exports-are-booming-a65533.

Provides an update on Russia’s nuclear exports and the progress of the Russian nuclear economy.

Banks, John P. and Massy, Kevin. “Nuclear Power in Developing Countries? Let’s Talk about It.” Brookings Institute, Published 16 December 2012. www.brookings.edu/opinions/nuclear-power-in-developing-countries-lets-talk-about-it/.

A study of nuclear power in developing countries, its benefits, and its drawbacks.

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Ben-Chorin, Leore and Pifer, Steven. “Everything you need to know about the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit.” The Brookings Institute, Published 24 March 2016. www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2016/03/24/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-nuclear-security-summit/

A comprehensive guide to the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit.

Bisconti, Ann S. “Public opinion on nuclear energy: what influences it.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Published 27 April 2016. thebulletin.org/2016/04/public-opinion-on-nuclear-energy-what-influences-it/.

An overview of nuclear energy and the role it plays in public life.

Bunn, George. “Nuclear Safeguards. How Far Can Inspectors Go?” IAEA Bulletin, Published March 2007. Pgs. 49-55. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull48-2/48203494955.pdf

A description of nuclear safeguards and the role of inspectors in nuclear facilities.

Bunn, Matthew, Roth, Nickolas, Tobey, William H. “Revitalizing Nuclear Security in an Era of Uncertainty.” Harvard Kennedy School: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Published January 2019. www.belfercenter.org/NuclearSecurity2019#toc-1

Analyzes the modern role of nuclear security and how nuclear capabilities have shifted over time.

Butterfield, Fox. “Professional Groups Flocking to Antinuclear Drive.” The New York Times, Published 27 May 1982. www.ny-times.com/1982/03/27/us/professional-groups-flocking-to-antinuclear-drive.html

A news article discussing an Antinuclear Drive and its effect on nuclear power.

“Comparing Nuclear Accident Risks with Those From Other Sources.” Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: Nuclear Energy Agency. Published 2010. www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/reports/2010/nea6861-comparing-risks.pdf

An analysis of nuclear accidents and their risks in comparison to risks from other sources of energy.

Dal, Bart, Herbach, Johnathan, and Luongo, Kenneth M. “The Strengthening Nuclear Security Implementation Initiative.” Nu-clear Security Governance Experts Group, Published October 2015. pgstest.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/nsgeg-snsi-report.pdf

A description of the Nuclear Security Implementation Initiative, its failures ,and its successes.

Davenport, Kelsey. “Nuclear Security Summit at a Glance.” Arms Control Association, last updated April 2017. www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/NuclearSecuritySummit.

A detailed summary of the 2017 Nuclear Security Summit.

DiChristopher, Tom. “The US is losing the nuclear energy export race to China and Russia. Here’s the Trump team’s plan to turn the tide.” CNBC, Published 21 March 2019. www.cnbc.com/2019/03/21/trump-aims-to-beat-china-and-russia-in-nuclear-energy-export-race.html

A news article about the energy race between China, Russia, and the United States, and its implications on global energy and nuclear power.

DPA. “IAEA members approve controversial nuclear security plan.” The Hindu, Vienna. Updated 16 August 2016. www.the-hindu.com/news/international/iaea-members-approve-controversial-nuclear-safety-plan/article2450044.ece.

64|IAEAworks CITED

Details a 2016 nuclear security plan and the controversies surrounding it.

“Economics of Nuclear Power.” World Nuclear Association. Updated April 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/economic-aspects/economics-of-nuclear-power.aspx

An economic view of nuclear power published by the World Nuclear Association.

“Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries,” World Nuclear Association. Published June 2019. Accessed 23 June 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/emerging-nuclear-energy-countries.aspx

A comprehensive guide to emerging nuclear energy countries and their role in the development of international nuclear power.

“Ending Dangerous Nuclear Power.” Friends of the Earth. Published 24 September 2018. Accessed 20 July 2019. foe.org/impact-stories/impact-story-3/

Details the dangers of nuclear power and the possibilities of ending nuclear power internationally.

Fukuyama, Francis. “The Imperatives of State-Building.” Journal of Democracy 15, no. 2 (2004), pp. 17-31.Describes the many details of state-building, including the role of nuclear power in state-building.

Gardner, Chris. “10 Reasons Not to Invest in Nuclear Energy.” Center for American Progress, Published 8 July 2008. www.american-progress.org/issues/green/news/2008/07/08/4735/10-reasons-not-to-invest-in-nuclear-energy/.

An article pointing to the flaws in nuclear energy and the issues with nuclear energy investments.

Hibbs, Mark. “Why Does the IAEA Do What It Does?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Published 6 November 2017. carnegieendowment.org/2017/11/06/why-does-iaea-do-what-it-does-pub-74689

Details the role of the IAEA in nuclear power control .

Jacobs, Harrison. “The 17 Countries Generating The Most Nuclear Power.” Business Insider, Published 26 March 2014. www.businessinsider.com/countries-generating-the-most-nuclear-energy-2014-3

Details the major nuclear powers in the world.

“Japan Fukushima nuclear plant ‘clean-up costs double’” BBC, Published 28 November 2016. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38131248

A news article detailing the cost of cleaning up the Japanese Fukushima plant explosion.

“Korea’s nuclear phase-out policy takes shape.” World Nuclear News, Published 19 June 2017. www.world-nuclear-news.org/NP-Koreas-nuclear-phase-out-policy-takes-shape-1906174.html

Describes Korea’s nuclear powers in detail.

Lagniton, Francis S. “Why don’t we just nuke it?” The Manila Times, Published 9 August 2004. web.archive.org/web/20060223134158/ www.manilatimes.net/national/2004/aug/09/yehey/opinion/20040809opi5.html

An analysis of the argument to use nuclear weapons in military situations.

|65IAEAworks CITED

Marks, Wayne. “Factors that Affect the Stock Market.” Zacks, Accessed 8 September 2019. finance.zacks.com/factors-affect-stock-market-2405.html

A broad overview of the stock market and the many factors that affect it, including nuclear power.

Matchett, Leah. “The controversial legacy of the Nuclear Security Summit.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Published 4 October 2018. thebulletin.org/2018/10/the-controversial-legacy-of-the-nuclear-security-summit/

A critical analysis of the Nuclear Security Summit and its effects on the nuclear security community a year later.

Mogherini, Federica. “The Iran deal is a success - and the whole world is safer for it.” The Guardian, Published 17 January 2017. www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jan/17/iran-nuclear-deal

An explanation of Iran deal and its benefits to the world.

Mourogov, Victor M. “Nuclear power development: Global challenges and strategies.” IAEA Bulletin. Published 1997. Pgs. 2-8. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull39-2/39205080208.pdf

Details the developments of nuclear power in recent history and the challenges the nuclear community faces with continuing advancements.

Norris, Robert S., & Kristensen, Hans M. “Global nuclear weapons inventories, 1945-2010.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Pub-lished 2 November 2016. journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.2968/066004008

A catalog of nuclear weapons held internationally.

“Nuclear Energy in Denmark.” World Nuclear Association, Updated May 2019. Accessed 16 July 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/denmark.aspx.

Describes nuclear energy in Denmark.

“Nuclear Power in Germany.” World Nuclear Association, Updated March 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/germany.aspx

Describes nuclear energy in Germany.

“Nuclear Power in Italy.” World Nuclear Association, Updated April 2018. Accessed 16 July 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/informa-tion-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/italy.aspx

Describes nuclear energy in Italy.

“Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia.” World Nuclear Association, Updated April 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/saudi-arabia.aspx

Describes nuclear energy in Saudi Arabia.

“Nuclear Power in Taiwan.” World Nuclear Association, Updated July 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/ information-library/country-profiles/others/nuclear-power-in-taiwan.aspx

Describes nuclear energy in Taiwan.

Pearce, Fred. “Industry Meltdown: Is the Era of Nuclear Power Coming to an End?” Yale School of Forestry and Environmental

66|IAEAworks CITED

Studies. Published May 15, 2017. e360.yale.edu/features/industry-meltdown-is-era-of-nuclear-power-coming-to-an-endDetails the progress of the nuclear industry and the recent indicators of an industry meltdown.

Plumer, Brad. “All of the world’s power plants, in one handy map.” The Washington Post. Last Updated 8 December 2012. www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2012/12/08/all-of-the-worlds-power-plants-in-one-handy-map/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.b9dbc6fa8ec8

A visual guide to the locations of power plants around the world.

“Profile: IAEA, the nuclear watchdog.” BBC. Published 24 August 2017. www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17117069.Describes the role the IAEA plays in monitoring nuclear power around the world.

Reitsma, Sebastion M.S. “Nuclear Insurance Pools: Worldwide Practice and Development.” Swiss Nuclear Insurance Pool, accessed 6 July 2019. Pg. 572. inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/29/064/29064443.pdf

Describes the practice of Nuclear Insurance Pools, why they exist, and their use in the nuclear community.

“Responsibilities and Functions of a Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organization.” IAEA, Published 2019. www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/P1845_web.pdf

Details the role of the Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organization in modern nuclear power.

Rhodes, Richard. “Why Nuclear Power Must Be Part of the Energy Solution.” Yale Environment 360, Published 19 July 2018. e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate.

An argument for including nuclear power in climate-change based energy changes.

Rockwood, Laura. “Legal framework for IAEA safeguards.” IAEA Publications, Published Vienna, 2013. www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16/12/legalframeworkforsafeguards.pdf

A guide to the legal frameworks of how the IAEA works.

Ropeik, David. “The Rise of Nuclear Fear-How We Learned to Fear the Radiation.” Scientific American. Published 15 June 2012. blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-rise-of-nuclear-fear-how-we-learned-to-fear-the-bomb/.

A detailed history of nuclear incidents and the many factors that led to a society-wide fear of nuclear weapons.

Rowe, Mark. “The nuclear power struggle.” Geographical. Published 3 August 2017. geographical.co.uk/nature/energy/item/2351-the-nuclear-power-struggle

An article detailing the state conflicts as a result of nuclear powers.

Smith, Katherine and Giere, Reto. “Why Some Nations Choose Nuclear Power.” UPenn: Kleinman Center for Energy Policy, Pub-lished 23 June 2017. kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/policy-digests/why-some-nations-choose-nuclear-power.

An explanation of the strategic initiative behind nuclear power usage.

Sovacool, Benjamin. “The accidental century-Prominent energy accidents in the last 100 years.” Exploration and Production, Pub-lished 2009. www.researchgate.net/publication /292759351_The_accidental_century-Prominent_energy_accidents_

|67IAEAworks CITED

in_the_last_100_years.A history of nuclear incidents in the past 100 years.

Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2010) A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contempo-rary Asia, 40:3, 369-400. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00472331003798350

A critical analysis of nuclear power and its use in conjunction with nuclear power, specifically in Asia.

Tilly, Charles. “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime.” In Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, eds. Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 169-191.

Details the early development of nuclear weapons as they developed through war and state making.

Wang, Kevin. “Nuclear Power Economic Costs.” Stanford University, Published 8 May 2018. large.stanford.edu/courses/2018/ph241/wang-k2/

An economic analysis of international use of nuclear power.

Weichselbraun, Anna. “The IAEA: a nuclear bureaucracy.” U. Chicago: Division of the Social Sciences, Published 22 September 2015. socialsciences.uchicago.edu/blog/student/iaea-nuclear-bureaucracy

A criticism of the IAEA and its ability to perform well.

Weisberger, Mindy. “Chernobyl vs. Fukushima: Which Nuclear Meltdown was the Bigger Disaster?” Live Science, Published 24 May 2019. www.livescience.com/65554-chernobyl-vs-fukushima.html.

A comparison of Chernobyl and Fukushima, two major nuclear incidents.

“What’s happening in Iran?” BBC, Updated 24 June 2019. www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/42555015.A news article detailing the nuclear crisis in Iran.

“World Nuclear Performance Report 2018.” World Nuclear Association, Published August 2018. Accessed 15 July 2019. www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/b392d1cd-f7d2-4d54-9355-9a65f71a3419/performance-report.pdf.aspx

A comprehensive report by the World Nuclear Association about the performance of nuclear powers around the world.

The National High School Model United Nations Con-ference (NHSMUN) is a project of IMUNA, a non-profit organization formally associated with the Unit-ed Nations Department of Global Communications (UNDGC). IMUNA is dedicated to promoting global issues education through simulation.

Written by Talha Iqbal and Lucy Kim

Edited by Michael Beeli, Alex Burr, Annica Denktas, Walker Heintz,

and Althea Turley

© 2019 IMUNA. All Rights Reserved.