Internal Environment: Behavior
Individual Behavior P = f (A, M)
Motivation defined!
Homeostasis --- applied to psychological needs
MotivationTheories --- Applicability across cultures??
Content Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG
Two Factor Theory of Motivation - Herzberg
McClelland Achievement Motivation
Internal Environment: Behavior
Process Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability Equity Theory of Motivation
Goal - Setting
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
valence
Effort Performance Outcome
expectancy instrumentality
Motivation and HofstedeHigh UNC - job securityLow UNC - fast-track, more risky opportunities
Low POW - motivation through teamwork and peersHigh POW - motivation depends on boss
High IND - motivation through opportunities for individual advancementLow IND - motivation through appeals to group goals and support
High MASC - comfortable with traditional division of work rolesFeminine - looser definition of roles, more flexible
The Meaning of Work
Tied to economic necessity
What else?Thai: work = ngan(same word as the word for play)
Work centrality - relative importance of workFunctions of work?
Work Centrality
Work centrality “the degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at any given point in time.”
Mean work centrality score increases, the more motivated and committed the workers would be.
The Meaning of Work (MOW) Research
Functions satisfied by workWork provides a needed incomeIs interesting and satisfyingProvides contacts with othersFacilitates a way to serve societyKeeps one occupiedGives status and prestigeThe MOW team looked at the score for each function for various countries - Study results: Britain (lowest), Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, USA, Israel, Japan
The Relative Meaning of Work in Eight Countries(Exhibit 11-1)
8.0
7.75
7.5
7.25
7.0
6.75
6.5
6.25
6.0
Japan (7)
(former) Yugoslavia (5)
Israel (4)USA (3)
Belgium (1)
Netherlands (1)Germany (1)
Britain (0)
7.78
7.30
7.106.94
6.816.69
6.67
6.36
N = 3144
N = 521
N = 893N = 996N = 446
N = 976N = 1276
N = 409
Numbers in parentheses indicate the numberof countries significantly lower (p<0.05) inwork centrality than the country designated
Work ismoreimportantand morecentral inlife
Mean workcentrality score
Motivation Theories in the International Context
How applicable are motivation theories proposed by Maslow and Herzberg in the international context?
Haire, Ghiselli and Porter’s survey concluded that Maslow’s needs, in particular the upper-level ones, are important at the managerial level
Ronen concluded that need clusters are constant across nationalities and that Maslow’s need hierarchy is confirmed by these clusters. Also, Herzberg’s categories are confirmed by the cross-national need clusters..
The Need Hierarchy in the International Context
Ronen’s need clusters
Job goals, such as working area, work time, physical working conditions, fringe benefits, and job security;
relationships with co-workers and supervisors; and
work challenges and opportunities for using skills.
Group Behavior Group effectiveness = individual behavior +
Mature group = effective group
Stages of development
Two main characteristics for the analysis of Groups
Leadership and composition
Leadership
Which Hofstede dimensions?
Types of leadership styles:
autocratic, participative, group
authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire
Theory X, Theory Y
Research:
traits, behaviors, contingency approach
Vroom - Yetton
Across cultures: Haire, Ghiselli, Porter South-European and Nordic-European --- more autocratic, more Theory
X
South-European give a little more autonomy to employees in working out details
Both support participative leadership practices
Smaller companies participative
Japanese Theory Y --- employees learn from mistakes
Germans Theory X --- autocratic, stop poor performance asap
Group Behavior: Group Composition --- Multicultural Teams
Impact of cultural diversity on group performance?
group productivity = f(task, resources, process)
actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty process
actual productivity or =
potential productivity or - losses or
benefits associated with cultural diversity:
# of alternatives generated;
quality of alternatives;
creativity/divergence;
no groupthink
Process Losses:
potential for miscommunication increases;
cohesiveness decreases;
negative attitudes (dislike, mistrust);
perceptual problems (stereotyping);
stress
managing team effectiveness: Multicultural teams have the potential to be the most or the least
effective teams
Group development stages: entry, work, action
Task: innovative or routine
Manage culturally diverse teams through:
task-related selection
recognition of differences
superordinate goals
equal power
mutual respect
feedback
Variables in the Leader’s Role
The content of leadership comprises the attributes of the leader and the decisions to be made
The context of leadership comprises all those variables related to the particular situation.
Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(Exhibit 11-7)
CONTENT Attributes of the Person
Job position knowledge, experience, expectations
Longevity in company, country, functional area
Intelligence and cultural learning or change ability
Personality as demonstrated in values, beliefs, attitudes toward foreign situations
Multiple memberships in work and professional groups
Characteristics of Decision Situation
Degree of complexity, uncertainty, and risk
In-country information needs and availability
Articulation of assumptions and expectations
Scope and potential impact on performance
Nature of business partners
Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)
Decision and personal work style
Authority and autonomy required
Required level of participation and acceptance by employees, partners, and government
Linkage to other decisions
Past management legacy
Openness to public scrutiny and responsibility
Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)
CONTEXT
Attributes of the Job or Position
Longevity and past success of former role occupants in the positionTechnical requirements of the jobRelative authority or powerPhysical location (e.g., home office, field office)Need for coordination, cooperation, and integration with other units
Characteristics of the Firm and Business Environment
Firm structure: size, location, technology, tasks, reporting, and communication patterns
Firm process: decision making, staffing, control system, reward system, information system, means of coordination, integration, and conflict resolution
Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)
Resource availability
Foreign peer group relations
Firm outputs: products, services, public image, corporate culture, local history, and community relations
Business environment: social-cultural, political-economic, and technological aspects of a country or market
Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles(Selected data)(Exhibit 11-8)
Country N Charisma Team Self- Part. Humane Auton. Protective
Austria 169 6.03 5.74 3.07 6.00 4.93 4.47Brazil 264 6.01 6.17 3.50 6.06 4.84 2.27China 160 5.57 5.57 3.80 5.05 5.18 4.07Denmark 327 6.01 5.70 2.82 5.80 4.23 3.79England 168 6.01 5.71 3.04 5.57 4.90 3.92India 231 5.85 5.72 3.78 4.99 5.26 3.85Israel 543 6.23 5.91 3.64 4.96 4.68 4.26Japan 197 5.49 5.56 3.61 5.08 4.68 3.67Mexico 327 5.66 5.75 3.86 4.64 4.71 3.86Russia 301 5.66 5.63 3.69 4.67 4.08 4.63USA 399 6.12 5.80 3.16 5.93 5.21 3.75
Scale 1 to 7 in order of how important those behaviors are considered for effective leadership (7 = highest)
Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles
Sample comments made by managers from various countries:Americans appreciate two kinds of leaders. They seek empowerment from leaders who grant autonomy and delegate authority to subordinates. They also respect the bold, forceful, confident, and risk-taking leader, as personified by John Wayne.
The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical about the value of leadership. Terms like leader and manager carry a stigma. If a father is employed as a manager, Dutch children will not admit it to their schoolmates.
Arabs worship their leaders – as long as they are in power!
Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles(contd.)
Iranians seek power and strength in their leaders.
Malaysians expect their leaders to behave in a manner that is humble, modest, and dignified.
The French expect their leaders to be “cultivated” – highly educated in the arts and in mathematics.
R. House, et al.
The Culture Contingency in the Leadership Process: An Integrative Model(Exhibit 11-12)
Context Content Leader-FollowerSituation
External OriginPoliticalEconomicTechnologicalCultural
Level of Divergence/Convergence ofCulture/Management
LeaderCultural sensitivityValues, motivesAbility, experiencesSource of powerPersonality, style
SubordinatesValues, normsAbility, experiencesNeeds, motivesLocus of control
Leader Behavior VariablesAutocratic or participativeTask or people orientedReward systemTransformational
Interaction
Influence
The Culture Contingency in the Leadership Process: An Integrative Model(contd.)
Internal OriginOrganization factorsTask factorsResource availabilitySystemsProcesses
Work GroupsValues, normsWork goalsAuthority systemGroup processes
EmployeeBehaviorVariablesExpectancy achievementValue of rewardsResponsiveness to Leader behaviorsGroup response
Effort ProductivityPerformance QualityAbility to Achievement ofAchieve goals individual and group goalsSatisfaction Positive climateTurnover SatisfactionAbsenteeismQuality
Feedback
Rewards
Motivation
MotivationEffects
Outcomes