Internal Environment: Behavior

Individual Behavior P = f (A, M)

Motivation defined!

Homeostasis --- applied to psychological needs

MotivationTheories --- Applicability across cultures??

Content Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG

Two Factor Theory of Motivation - Herzberg

McClelland Achievement Motivation

Internal Environment: Behavior

Process Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability Equity Theory of Motivation

Goal - Setting

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

valence

Effort Performance Outcome

expectancy instrumentality

Motivation and HofstedeHigh UNC - job securityLow UNC - fast-track, more risky opportunities

Low POW - motivation through teamwork and peersHigh POW - motivation depends on boss

High IND - motivation through opportunities for individual advancementLow IND - motivation through appeals to group goals and support

High MASC - comfortable with traditional division of work rolesFeminine - looser definition of roles, more flexible

The Meaning of Work

Tied to economic necessity

What else?Thai: work = ngan(same word as the word for play)

Work centrality - relative importance of workFunctions of work?

Work Centrality

Work centrality “the degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at any given point in time.”

Mean work centrality score increases, the more motivated and committed the workers would be.

The Meaning of Work (MOW) Research

Functions satisfied by workWork provides a needed incomeIs interesting and satisfyingProvides contacts with othersFacilitates a way to serve societyKeeps one occupiedGives status and prestigeThe MOW team looked at the score for each function for various countries - Study results: Britain (lowest), Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, USA, Israel, Japan

The Relative Meaning of Work in Eight Countries(Exhibit 11-1)

8.0

7.75

7.5

7.25

7.0

6.75

6.5

6.25

6.0

Japan (7)

(former) Yugoslavia (5)

Israel (4)USA (3)

Belgium (1)

Netherlands (1)Germany (1)

Britain (0)

7.78

7.30

7.106.94

6.816.69

6.67

6.36

N = 3144

N = 521

N = 893N = 996N = 446

N = 976N = 1276

N = 409

Numbers in parentheses indicate the numberof countries significantly lower (p<0.05) inwork centrality than the country designated

Work ismoreimportantand morecentral inlife

Mean workcentrality score

Motivation Theories in the International Context

How applicable are motivation theories proposed by Maslow and Herzberg in the international context?

Haire, Ghiselli and Porter’s survey concluded that Maslow’s needs, in particular the upper-level ones, are important at the managerial level

Ronen concluded that need clusters are constant across nationalities and that Maslow’s need hierarchy is confirmed by these clusters. Also, Herzberg’s categories are confirmed by the cross-national need clusters..

The Need Hierarchy in the International Context

Ronen’s need clusters

Job goals, such as working area, work time, physical working conditions, fringe benefits, and job security;

relationships with co-workers and supervisors; and

work challenges and opportunities for using skills.

Group Behavior Group effectiveness = individual behavior +

Mature group = effective group

Stages of development

Two main characteristics for the analysis of Groups

Leadership and composition

Leadership

Which Hofstede dimensions?

Types of leadership styles:

autocratic, participative, group

authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire

Theory X, Theory Y

Research:

traits, behaviors, contingency approach

Vroom - Yetton

Across cultures: Haire, Ghiselli, Porter South-European and Nordic-European --- more autocratic, more Theory

X

South-European give a little more autonomy to employees in working out details

Both support participative leadership practices

Smaller companies participative

Japanese Theory Y --- employees learn from mistakes

Germans Theory X --- autocratic, stop poor performance asap

Group Behavior: Group Composition --- Multicultural Teams

Impact of cultural diversity on group performance?

group productivity = f(task, resources, process)

actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty process

actual productivity or =

potential productivity or - losses or

benefits associated with cultural diversity:

# of alternatives generated;

quality of alternatives;

creativity/divergence;

no groupthink

Process Losses:

potential for miscommunication increases;

cohesiveness decreases;

negative attitudes (dislike, mistrust);

perceptual problems (stereotyping);

stress

managing team effectiveness: Multicultural teams have the potential to be the most or the least

effective teams

Group development stages: entry, work, action

Task: innovative or routine

Manage culturally diverse teams through:

task-related selection

recognition of differences

superordinate goals

equal power

mutual respect

feedback

Variables in the Leader’s Role

The content of leadership comprises the attributes of the leader and the decisions to be made

The context of leadership comprises all those variables related to the particular situation.

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(Exhibit 11-7)

CONTENT Attributes of the Person

Job position knowledge, experience, expectations

Longevity in company, country, functional area

Intelligence and cultural learning or change ability

Personality as demonstrated in values, beliefs, attitudes toward foreign situations

Multiple memberships in work and professional groups

Characteristics of Decision Situation

Degree of complexity, uncertainty, and risk

In-country information needs and availability

Articulation of assumptions and expectations

Scope and potential impact on performance

Nature of business partners

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)

Decision and personal work style

Authority and autonomy required

Required level of participation and acceptance by employees, partners, and government

Linkage to other decisions

Past management legacy

Openness to public scrutiny and responsibility

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)

CONTEXT

Attributes of the Job or Position

Longevity and past success of former role occupants in the positionTechnical requirements of the jobRelative authority or powerPhysical location (e.g., home office, field office)Need for coordination, cooperation, and integration with other units

Characteristics of the Firm and Business Environment

Firm structure: size, location, technology, tasks, reporting, and communication patterns

Firm process: decision making, staffing, control system, reward system, information system, means of coordination, integration, and conflict resolution

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad(contd.)

Resource availability

Foreign peer group relations

Firm outputs: products, services, public image, corporate culture, local history, and community relations

Business environment: social-cultural, political-economic, and technological aspects of a country or market

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles(Selected data)(Exhibit 11-8)

Country N Charisma Team Self- Part. Humane Auton. Protective

Austria 169 6.03 5.74 3.07 6.00 4.93 4.47Brazil 264 6.01 6.17 3.50 6.06 4.84 2.27China 160 5.57 5.57 3.80 5.05 5.18 4.07Denmark 327 6.01 5.70 2.82 5.80 4.23 3.79England 168 6.01 5.71 3.04 5.57 4.90 3.92India 231 5.85 5.72 3.78 4.99 5.26 3.85Israel 543 6.23 5.91 3.64 4.96 4.68 4.26Japan 197 5.49 5.56 3.61 5.08 4.68 3.67Mexico 327 5.66 5.75 3.86 4.64 4.71 3.86Russia 301 5.66 5.63 3.69 4.67 4.08 4.63USA 399 6.12 5.80 3.16 5.93 5.21 3.75

Scale 1 to 7 in order of how important those behaviors are considered for effective leadership (7 = highest)

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles

Sample comments made by managers from various countries:Americans appreciate two kinds of leaders. They seek empowerment from leaders who grant autonomy and delegate authority to subordinates. They also respect the bold, forceful, confident, and risk-taking leader, as personified by John Wayne.

The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical about the value of leadership. Terms like leader and manager carry a stigma. If a father is employed as a manager, Dutch children will not admit it to their schoolmates.

Arabs worship their leaders – as long as they are in power!

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding Effective Leadership Styles(contd.)

Iranians seek power and strength in their leaders.

Malaysians expect their leaders to behave in a manner that is humble, modest, and dignified.

The French expect their leaders to be “cultivated” – highly educated in the arts and in mathematics.

R. House, et al.

The Culture Contingency in the Leadership Process: An Integrative Model(Exhibit 11-12)

Context Content Leader-FollowerSituation

External OriginPoliticalEconomicTechnologicalCultural

Level of Divergence/Convergence ofCulture/Management

LeaderCultural sensitivityValues, motivesAbility, experiencesSource of powerPersonality, style

SubordinatesValues, normsAbility, experiencesNeeds, motivesLocus of control

Leader Behavior VariablesAutocratic or participativeTask or people orientedReward systemTransformational

Interaction

Influence

The Culture Contingency in the Leadership Process: An Integrative Model(contd.)

Internal OriginOrganization factorsTask factorsResource availabilitySystemsProcesses

Work GroupsValues, normsWork goalsAuthority systemGroup processes

EmployeeBehaviorVariablesExpectancy achievementValue of rewardsResponsiveness to Leader behaviorsGroup response

Effort ProductivityPerformance QualityAbility to Achievement ofAchieve goals individual and group goalsSatisfaction Positive climateTurnover SatisfactionAbsenteeismQuality

Feedback

Rewards

Motivation

MotivationEffects

Outcomes