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Hyperparathyroidism

Anatomy/Embryology

• endoderm of pharyngeal pouches III and IV• inferior parathyroid glands arise from pouch III

– migrate down with the thymus– usually located at inferior pole of the thyroid– associated with most variability in location

• superior parathyroid glands arise from pouch IV – located just above the intersection of recurrent

laryngeal nerve and the inferior thyroid artery

• usually 4 glands, supernumerary glands in 15%

Anatomy/Embryology

• parathyroid glands typically located posterolateral to the thyroid

• arterial supply: inferior thyroid artery (superior thyroid, throidea ima)

• venous drainage: inferior, middle, superior thyroid veins

• adult parathyroid gland 50% parenchyma 50% fat• cell types:

chief cells (water clear cells)oxyphil cells

Parathyroid Hormone

• secreted by chief cells

• Release of PTH

Increased by: low serum calcium

Decreased by: high serum calcium,

low magnesium,

1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D

vitamin D3 25-OH vitamin D 1,25 OH2 vitamin D

skin liver kidney

Parathyroid Hormone• Type I PTH receptors present in bone, kidney and intestine

Bone • + osteoclasts - osteoblasts• increased bone resorption • calcium and phosphorus release

Kidney• increased calcium resorption• increased phosphorus excretion• increased conversion of 25 hydroxy vitamin D to

1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D

Intestines (indirect effect through vitamin D)• increased calcium absorption

Hypercalcemia

Calcium intakeHyperparathyroidismHyperthyroidismImmobilizationMilk Alkali SyndromePaget’s DiseaseAdrenal InsufficiencyNeoplasm

Bone mets, bone tumorsPTH related peptide secreting tumors (small cell lung cancer) Blast crisisPrimary malignancies

Zollinger Ellison (MEN I Syndrome)Elevated Vitamin DElevated Vitamin ASarcoid and other granulomatous

disordersFamilial hypocalciuric hypercalcemiaLithiumThiazide Diuretics

Hyperparathyroidism

• 100,000 new cases per year in the US

• 2:1 female:male ratio

• average age at diagnosis 55

• 2/1000 people over the age 60

Primary Hyperparathyroidism

• High serum calcium (ionized calcium)

• High or high normal PTH levels

• Solitary Parathyroid Adenoma ~85%

• Multiple Adenomas, hyperplasia ~15%

• Parathyroid Carcinoma ~1%

Manifestations of Primary Hyperparathyroidism

• Hypercalcemia

• Hypercalciuria

• Increased rate of bone turnover

Manifestations of Primary Hyperparathyroidism

• neurobehavioral symptoms: fatigue and weakness• nephrolithiasis 20%• cardiac calcification and LV hypertrophy• osteopenia • most patients asymptomatic although fatigue and

weakness are undercounted as symptoms• 25% of asymptomatic patients have progressive

disease

Hereditary Primary Hyperparathyroidism

• MEN I: parathyroid, pancreatic (Zollinger Ellison), pituitary (prolactinoma)

tumor suppressor MENI gene, autosomal dominant inheritance

• MEN 2A: parathyroid, pheochromocytoma, medullary thyroid cancer

RET proto-oncogene, autosomal dominant inheritance

• Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia: autosomal dominant, surgery not indicated, PTH normal

• Neonatal Severe Hyperparathyroidism • Hyperparathyroidism- Jaw Tumor Syndrome

Surgical Intervention in Primary Hyperparathyroidism

NIH Criteria for Parathyroidectomy (1991, 2002)Any of the following:• serum calcium > 1mg/dL above normal• history of life threatening hypercalcemia• abnormal serum Cr• elevated urine calcium, > 400mg/day• kidney stones• < 50 years old• bone density less than two standard deviations below

the norm• neuromuscular symptoms

Surgical Intervention in Primary Hyperparathyroidism

• NIH criteria leave out patients who would benefit from parathyroidectomy

• ParathyroidectomyBenefits– neurobehavioral symptoms improve – bone mass increases – safe in patients over 70 years old– bilateral neck exploration cures 95-99% of

patients with a 1-3% complication rate

Preoperative Evaluation

• neck ultrasound

• MRI

• thallium-technetium dual isotope scintigraphy

• technetium-99m sestamibi scan

• SPECT sestamibi scan: allows for 3-D localization but is expensive

Preoperative Study Comparison

Sens Spec

thall/techn scintigraphy 73% 94%

computed tomography 68% 92%

ultrasonography 55% 95%

MRI 50% 87%

Technetium-99m Sestamibi 91% 99%

Technetium-99m Sestamibi Scan

Technetium-99m Sestamibi Scan

• technetium 99m taken up by the thyroid

• sestamibi taken up by both the parathyroid and thyroid tissue

• sestamibi washes out of the thyroid faster

Preoperative Evaluation

• no consensus on whether preoperative localization necessary

• preoperative localization can allow for unilateral focused parathyroidectomy

• The combination often used is:– sesatmibi for localization – ultrasound for information on size and relationship of

the abnormal glands to surrounding tissue

• sestamibi scanning limited in identifying multiple adenomas and 4 gland hyperplasia

• preoperative localization essential in reoperation cases

Parathyroidectomy

Options:

• bilateral neck exploration

• unilateral focused parathyroidectomy

• endoscopic parathyroidectomy

• video assisted parathyroidectomy

Intraoperative Considerations

• Radioguided surgery: timing dependent • Intraoperative ultrasound• Intraopertive internal jugular PTH samples• PTH assay:

most widely used intraoperative test

provides an efficient means of determining adequacy of resection

allows for determination of the need for four gland exploration

PTH Assay

• collection from a peripheral venous sample, IJ sampling may be inaccurate

• baseline measures are pre-incision and post-manipulation

• propofol will interfere with the assay• samples sent at fixed time intervals after resection• Different standards for what constitutes a

successful resection – Drop of at least 50% from highest baseline value– Return of PTH level to normal (used at DHMC)

Persistent Hyperparathyroidism

• 5-10% of patients have persistent disease

• Location of the abnormal glands at second operation

neck 30-54%

mediastinum 16-34%

retroesophageal 14-39%

upper cervical area 8%

aortic arch area 5%

Persistent Hyperparathyroidism

• localization studies necessary prior to reoperation• sestamibi, MRI and ultrasound together identify

abnormal glands in 87% of patients• Invasive studies used if non-invasive methods

cannot localize the abnormal glandselective arteriographyselective venous samplingFNA and PTH assay

• Complication rate at reoperation for recurrent laryngeal nerve injury or hypoparathyroidism

1-2%

Secondary Hyperparathyroidism

• Hypocalcemia in chronic renal failure stimulates PTH secretion and parathyroid gland growth

• Hypocalcemia in CRF caused by hyperphosphatemia and decreased renal production of 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D

• First line therapy: • phosphate binders • supplemental vitamin D

• Severe or refractory cases of secondary hyperparathyroidism should undergo surgery

• subtotal parathyroidectomy• total parathroidectomy with autotransplantation

Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism

• after renal transplant or as a progression of secondary hyperparathyroidism

• hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcemia• 1/3 of transplant patients• hyperclacemia can threaten the graft• usually subsides within months to years• 1-3% of patients require parathyroidectomy

• subtotal parathyroidectomy• total parathyroidectomy with autotransplantation

Parathyroid Carcinoma

• Occurs in ~1% of patients with hyperparathyroidism

• Associated with genes: cyclin D1, MEN1, HRPT2

• Risk Factors• neck irradiation• ESRD• familial hyperparathyroidism (not MEN

syndromes)• hyperparathyroidism- jaw tumor syndrome


• more severe hypercalcemia 3-4 mg/dl above normal

• nephrolithiasis 56%• renal insufficiency 84%• pathologic fractures or radiographic evidence of

bone disease 40%• palpable neck mass 50%• hypercalcemic crisis 10%


Appearance• Adenoma: round, soft and reddish-brown• Parathyroid carcinoma: lobulated firm and

adherent to surrounding tissue• Carcinoma often localized to inferior

parathyroid glands• difficult to distinguish benign and malignant

tumors histologically


Management• en bloc resection: ipsilateral thyroid lobe, overlying

strap muscles and involved soft tissue

• examination of all four parathyroid glands

• modified radical neck dissection if lymph nodes involved (5% of the time)

• intraoperative PTH monitoring

• 90% long term survival

• if microscopic features of parathyroid carcinoma show up in post-op path reoperation is not indicated


Postoperatively• hungry bone syndrome: symptomatic hypocalcemia

from calcium and phosphorus deposition into the bones

• if hypocalcemia severe it’s treated with iv calcium and vitamin D

• metastatic disease: cervical nodes, lung > liver> bone

• metastatic disease should be resected decreased tumor burden

• no role for chemotherapy or XRT as primary therapy

• XRT may be useful in the postoperative setting


Hypercalcemia• biggest problem in disseminated parathyroid

carcinoma

• acute management of hypercalcemia consists of :

normal saline

diuretic

osteoclast inhibitor (calcitonin, bisphosphonates)

calcimimetic agent (cinacalcet)

A 45 yo man with preoperative diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism has a neck exploration. A large right lower parathyroid gland is removed and sent for frozen section examination. The specimen is identified as a parathyroid carcinoma.The next step should be.

• modified radical neck dissection• removal of the remaining 3 parathyroid glands and

autotransplantation• exploration of the contralateral neck• ipsilateral thyroid lobectomy and lymph node

dissection• biopsy of all 3 remaining parathyroid glands

A 45 yo man with preoperative diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism has a neck exploration. A large right lower parathyroid gland is removed and sent for frozen section examination. The specimen is identified as a parathyroid carcinoma.The next step should be.

• modified radical neck dissection• removal of the remaining 3 parathyroid glands and

autotransplantation• exploration of the contralateral neck

• ipsilateral thyroid lobectomy and lymph node dissection

• biopsy of all 3 remaining parathyroid glands

In addition to calcium replacement, which of the following will promote correction of acute hypocalcemia after resection of a large parathyroid adenoma?

• phosphate binding acids• salt restriction• magnesium• zinc• calcitonin

In addition to calcium replacement, which of the following will promote correction of acute hypocalcemia after resection of a large parathyroid adenoma?

• phosphate binding acids• salt restriction

• magnesium• zinc• calcitonin

Management of hypercalcemia associated with recurrence of parathyroid carcinoma could include administration of any of the following EXCEPT

• bisphosphonates• calcitonin• plicamycin• gallium nitrate• fluorouracil

Management of hypercalcemia associated with recurrence of parathyroid carcinoma could include administration of any of the following EXCEPT

• bisphosphonates• calcitonin• plicamycin• gallium nitrate

• fluorouracil

Intraoperative parathormone assay.

• allows confirmation of removal of an adenoma• decreases operating time• decreases complications• is superior to preoperative localization with

sestamibii scan• is inferior to gamma probe localization

Intraoperative parathormone assay.

• allows confirmation of removal of an adenoma

• decreases operating time• decreases complications• is superior to preoperative localization with

sestamibii scan• is inferior to gama probe localization

References

• Greenfield, Surgery 3rd Edition 2001• Schwartz’s Principles of Surgery 8th Edition 2005• Duh QY. What’s New in General Surgery:

Endocrine Surgery. J. Am Coll Surg. November 2005; 201(5): 746-753

• Mittendorf EA, McHenry CR. Parathyroid Carcinoma. J Surg Onc 2005;89:136-142

• Lee JA, Inabnet WB. The Surgeon’s Armamentarium to the Surgical Treatment of Primary Hyperparathyroidism J Surg Onc 2005;89:130-135