Extension demonstration farmsas a teaching method in the Sudan
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Authors Maatoug, Mirghani Abd Alla
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EXTENSION DEMONSTRATION FARMS AS
A TEACHING METHOD IN THE SUDAN
byMirghani Abd Alla Maatoug
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements ;For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 8 1
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
✓FLOYD G. MCCORMICK DateProfessor of Agricultural Education
DEDICATION
To My Father Abdalla M. Maatoug
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author owes an. immeasurable debt of gratitude to Dr<> Floyd
Go McCormick whose knowledge., advice9. and guidance were a treasure*
The author is very grateful to his tact for he always managed to make
him feel welcomed* An immense debt goes to Dr* Phillip P* Zurbrick
and all the Agricultural Education Department staff for their assis
tance and encouragement So Dr* P. E* Briggs of the Plant Sciences
Department and Mr* James Williams of the Extension Department deserve
a special thank you for their time and assistance*
An especial debt of gratitude is owed to.the AID Program of
the USDA,s the International Institute of Education and the University
of Arizona who financially supported the authorv s B.Sc* studies which
qualified him to an advanced degree*
As for the Extension Directorate (Sudan) which nominated the
author for an advanced degree and the Sudan Government which supported
the program financially,the author hopes to be able to translate his
deep gratitude into dedicated and useful services to the Sudan, to its
people, and to Extension0
Mr* El Mahi Tawfig El Mahi. of the Extension Directorate (Sudan)
deserves a special gratitude for his assistance*
Finally the Sudanese Extension Agents who responded to the
questionnaire of this study, deserve a special thank you for their
response and for their personal letters they attached to it to encour
age the author and wish him success0
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES - o .......... . . . . . . . vii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS , . . . . . . .x
ABSTRACT .......... . ............. .. . . . . . . xi
lo INTRODUCTION . ................. 1 .
Statement of the Problem . „ . .......... . » e o , o « 3Specific Objectives „ . . „ ...................... „ . 4Assumptions o’. • 4Delimitations o. . * * . . * . . ........... 5Limitations .......... . . » o 5Need for the Study .......... « o 6Definition of Terms » « « » ...................... • » 10
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 12
Communication Process . . . . • « • 12The Communicator ( S e n d e r ) ............... . « . . 0 . 17The Message . . . . 17Methods (Channels) 17Receiver « 0 . « . » « « « « » « , . . '.......... . 21
The Diffusion and the Adoption Processes 21Rate of Adoption . . . .-. o ... .. o. . . . . . . . . 25Sources of Information . . . ' . . . ........... .. . 27Adoption . Categories. . . . . . . . . . . 29Characteristics of Adoption Categories . » « • » . » 32
Extension Contacts . . , . . , . ................. .. • 36The Role of Result Demonstrations in the Diffusion and
the Adoption Processes » « . . . ............... .. , 37Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .. • . . « « . • 38
III. PROCEDURE . . o o o . o o o o o o o o o o 39
Study Population . . .• .. . • . . " . ■ 3 9Collection of:Data and Instrumentation 6 • » . * • * . 39Analysis of Data v .................. .. • 0 . 42
IVo PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF D A T A .................... 43
v
viTABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
Page
Perception, of Sudanese Extension Agents Concerning the Purposes Presently Served by the Extension Demonstration Farms • - • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ’•• 43
The Adoption Categories to be Reached Through the Useof the Extension Demonstration Farms e... • 44
The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of the AdoptionProcess ............ . . . „ . 61
. Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-.Up to Increase Effectiveness of Demonstration Farmsto Achieve the Various Stages of the AdoptionProcess » 6 • » « « « » o .. . « , » e „ « « • . 73
V« SUMMARY s CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . ........ 75
Purpose and Objectives « » ........... 75Summary of Findings . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • 76
The Purposes Presently Served by the ExtensionDemonstration Farms « « ............ 76
The.Adoption Categories to be Reached Through theUse of the Extension Demonstration Farms . • » e • 76
The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of theAdoption Process . „ . ............ 77
Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-up to Increase Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages of the Adoption Process «. , . • ». 78
Conclusions » 0 • : • • • • • • • / • • • «o • 78Recommendations • 0 . • ' • ............... 79
APPENDIX A:. ASSESSMENT OF THE EXTENSION DEMONSTRATIONFARMS. AS AN EXTENSION TEACHING M E T H O D ........ 82
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
lo Rank order: of information sources- by • stage in the adoptionprocess . «, , 28
2 e Summary of characteristics and communication behavior ofadopter c a t e g o r i e s ..........................................1 33
3o Frequency and percentage response of Sudanese extension agents? perception of the main purposes of demonstration farms « .. . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 0 Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agents’ perception of the adoption categories which can be reached easily by using the demonstration farms . . 44
5e Frequency and percentage of response for the adoptioncategories taken by the extension agents in the Sudan to visit the demonstration farms .. o. . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 o Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agents’ perception of.teaching methods considered to be most effective to use with or within the demonstration farms .................................. 47
7. Frequency and percentage of response of extension agents’ perception of the most effective methods for use with the innovators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’ perception of > the most effective methods for use with the community adoption leaders . . . ........... . . . . . * . 48
9. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with thelocal adoption leaders . . . . . . . ............... 49
10. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with themajority . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... . 49
11. Frequency.and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with thelaggards ............ . 50
vii
viii
LIST OF TABLES.— Continued i
Table Page
12• Frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with innovators o . . , . * . * ................. 54
13. The frequency and percentage of responses for the two most effective methods as perceived by the extensionagents for use with community adoption leaders . . . .' • 55
14. The frequency and percentage of responses for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agentsfor use with local adoption leaders . . . . . . . . . . . 56
15. The frequency and percentage of the responses for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agentsfor use with the majority .......... 57
16. Frequency and percentage of responses: for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agents foruse with the laggards ............ 58
17 b The frequency and the percentages of responses of theextension agents' perception of the demonstration farmsas an effective teaching method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
18 o Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents' perception for the stages at which the demon-
, stration farms -were most effective . . . . . . . . . . . 62
19. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension. agents' perception of the two most effective methods for the awareness stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
20. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception of the two most effective methodsfor the interest stage . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . 65
21. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception for the two most effective methodsfor the evaluation stage ................. 66
22» Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents' perception of the two most effective methods for the trial stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 67
• ix
LIST OF TABLES— Continued
Table „ Page
23o Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents’ perception of the two most effective methods for the adoption s t a g e .............. ............. .. 68
24, Frequency and percentage of responses, of the extensionagents’ perception of their effective utilization of the demonstration farms , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , « , , 72
25, Frequency and percentage of responses of extensionagents’ perception of. the two most effective methods tobe used as a follow-up , 73
X
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
lo The learning-teaching process . ............... „ . . . 15
2» Coiranunications process • o-.-. o.* ■ 16
3 o Methods classified according to use . . * „ . . „ . . . . 20
4» Methods classified according to form . . . . . . . . . . 20
5 o How fourteen Midwest farmers obtained information on a newfarm practice . . * ............... . * . . . „ . . . . . 30
x
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine how Extension
Agents> in the Sudan9 utilized extension demonstration farms as an
extension teaching method designed to encourage farmers to adopt new
ideas and practices.
Data collected and analysed were obtained by use of mailed
questionnaire sent to all 135 Extension Agents who have education level
above Senior High. School and who work in the Northern part of the Sudan
Ninety returned questionnaires, representing 66.7 percent of the ex
pected number. -
Major, findings include: (1) The farms are used as model farms
and not as demonstration farms, (2). The Extension Agents use these
farms to reach the community and the local adoption leaders, (3) Method
demonstrations, result demonstrations, and tours are teaching methods
used within the farms, (4) The demonstration farms were viewed by the
Extension Agents in Sudan as most effective in the evaluation stage,
(5) Method and result demonstrations were viewed by Sudanese Extension
Agents as the two most effective methods to use as follow-up methods,
and, (6) The demonstration farms are viewed by the Sudanese Extension
Agents as a very effective teaching method.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Sudan is a developing country and as is the case for most de
veloping countries depends on agriculture for its development. Educ
ation, research and extension in agriculture are expected to gear and
accelerate efficiency in agricultural production for the well-being
of the population* Agriculture is expected to provide subsistence for
the population plus a surplus for export.to draw revenue needed for
further development.
The demand for agricultural products to feed an increasingly
growing world population is great. Poleman (1975, p. 510) mentioned
that:
Mai thus,. in the first of six editions of his essay on the principle of population, published in 1798, wrote, "I think I may fairly make two postulate: First, that food is necessary forthe existence of man* Second, that the passion between the sexes is necessary, and will remain.nearly in its present state . * . Assuming then my postulate as granted, I say, that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the powerin the earth to produce subsistence for man.
"Population, when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power as compared with the second0 n
Since the time Malthus wrote his ideas about food and popula
tion, the world has been haunted with the expected shortage in food
supply for an increasing population. Although the 19th century
1
2
witnessed great agricultural changes; vast new acreages were brought
under the plow all over the worldo Immediately after this period of
expansion, in the geographical sense, came a series of technological
- breakthroughs, the precursors of today? s green revolution.
Brown (1975.9 p 0 1053) said:
As recently as early 1972, it seemed likely that surplus stocks and cropland idled under farm programs would be part of the landscape for the foreseeable future. Then, suddenly, the global demand for food, fueled by the relentless growth of population and by rising affluence, began to outstrip the productive capacity of the world’s farmers and.fishermen.
The Sudan Is one of the very few countries which is expected
to help in the world’s food shortage* At the sixth special session
of the United Nations General Assembly held in April, 1974, specific
ally to discuss raw materials in the world. Dro Mansur Khalid, Min
ister of Foreign Affairs of the Sudan, said, "Last September, I said
here that the food problem was an artificial one, and suggested what
my country can modestly contribute towards combating this menace, , ,”
In the United Nations World Food Conference on "The World
Food Problem", held, in Rome from the 5th to the 16th November 1974, the
Sudan delegation to that conference (1974, p » 9) stated:
The world’s population is increasing, and this growing population must be fed. The Sudan like all other developing countries, . has a high rate of population growth. Unlike most of them, however, over-population is not a problem. The Sudan has what many countries don’t have, LAND* Two-thirds of the land of the Sudan is desert, semi-desert, or swamps. Nevertheless, there are vast areas not yet intensively utilized which are capable of considerable future development* Of the approximately. 200 million acres of arable land, only some 17 millions are at present under cultivation* Of these, some 13 millions are. supporting rain-fed agriculture and only 4 millions are irrigated from the immense potentials of the waters of The Nile and its tributaries.
3
On this land the largest in Africa 9 . there lives an estimated population of.a mere 17 million people* Of this small population; some 80% are dependent on agriculture either farming or animal husbandry<> It is not surprising that agriculture accounts for 98% of the SudanY s hard currency earnings and provides the raw materials for 90% of the local industry.
Such is the situation of the Sudan* Extension is one of the
agencies called upon by both the government and the people to promote
production of food, cash crops and to help in improving the standard
of living of the rural people. This is exemplified by a statement
made by the Director of the Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan (1964, p,
13), when a national extension seminar was held in 1964:
In all the regions of the country, problems of. lack of knowhow, of pests and diseases, of poor seed, of non-use of fertilizers, exhaustion of soil fertility and of poor quality of livestock are commono Limited as the findings of our research stations are, sufficient knowledge in all the fields of crop and livestock production is available however at hand, and much of it, properly applied, will go a long way to bridge the gap between improved techniques and what is being followed in the way of primitive and wrong practices* The need for Extension, therefore, is pressing.
Extension then is needed to bridge the gap between, the trad
itional and.primitive methods of the farmer and those improved tech
niques developed by the research people* In other words, Extension is
expected to develop ways and techniques to convince the farmer to give
up his traditional methods and adopt new practices and ideas.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to determine how extension agents,
in the Sudan, perceive and utilize the extension demonstration farm as
an extension teaching method designed to encourage farmers to adopt new
ideas and practices0
Specific Obj ectives
In order to achieve the foregoing problems the following ques
tions were identified to provide direction®
v l o What purposes are served presently by the extension demonstration
farms?
2. What categories of adoption are the extension demonstration farms
attempting to reach?
3o How effective are the extension demonstration farms in achieving
the various stages in the adoption process as perceived by the
extension agents?
4 * What extension teaching methods that can be used as follow-up to
increase effectiveness of demonstration farms to achieve the various
stages of the adoption process?
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in reference to this study:
lo The extension, agents9 in Sudan9. who participated in this study had
at least received an education above the senior high school level
in which extension training was part of the syllabus»
2 e The participants know the communication process9 the adoption proc
ess and the adoption categorieso
3<> The participants answered the questionnaire in reference to the ex-
tension methods used under the existing situation of the Sudan,
4* The participants reacted to the questions honestly, thereby afford
ing an unbiased reflection of their attitudes and knowledge,
Delimitations
This study makes no attempt to be inclusive. The results ob
tained are therefore delimited to the following:
l.o. Extension agents participating in this study were limited to those
extension workers working or who had worked with the rural people in
the Sudan in 1981,
2o The extension agents working in the Southern Region of the Sudan
were not included in this study, because they are not using demon
stration farms,
3, Due to the time limitation, this study does not measure the farmersf
reaction to the effectiveness of the demonstration farms as a
teaching method,
4, The participants may be. pleased by having been selected to partici
pate in the study, may react more to their pleasure , , , thus
creating a Hawthorne effect0
Limitat ions
While this study is essentially a descriptive survey study, the
following threats to the internal validity of the study are listed:
1, A questionnaire was used to collect data for the study and as such
is subject to weaknesses inherent in this method of data collec
tion 0
20 The number of years the demonstration farm has been, in operation
may influence the response of the participants in the area0
3o Type of extension training received by the participants may have
an influence on the way they react to the questionnaire.
Need for the Study
The achievements of The Cooperative Extension Service in the
United States encouraged people from developing or even developed
countries, to establish Extension Services or Agricultural Advisory
Services to achieve similar success. The United States through the
AID programs had initiated Agricultural Extension Services in many de
veloping countries* The Sudan is one of those countries in which the
AID programs helped to initiate an Extension Service. Many of the
present extension workers in the countries which received the American
AID had the chance through programs to come to the United. States for
training in extension. The author is one of a very few who came from
the Sudan for training on Extension work.
Vine and Anderson (1976, p. 1) said that:
Each year, representatives from many countries visited the United States to study the Cooperative Extension Service and its relationship to the Land-grant system and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The system, including teaching, research and extension education, has made a major contribution to the well-being of the people of the United States.
The people who have come and will be coming in the future are
mostly from developing countries. When they come, they observe a
highly developed system of agricultural extension and an educated and
advanced farmero The extension system is using advanced techniques to
diffuse information9. e<,go 9 movies9. telephones, news articles, televi
sion, answering sets, etc* The farmer is using the latest equipment,
procedures and techniques; e^go, hybrid seeds, fertilizers, herbi
cides, tractors, harvesters§ etc*
The Extension Services in the developing countries are rela
tively new and staffed with untrained or inexperienced personnel»
The farmers are illiterate and are using traditional tools, methods
and materials» The Extension Services in developing countries suffer
organizational problemso
Thus the problem for extension workers studying in the United
States is one of attempting to determine those techniques and proce
dures that can be applied in their countries» This is a fundamental
problem and a crucial issue facing extension workers in developing
countriese . This issue was raised as a question by the Director of the
Ministry of Agriculture of the Sudan, in the National Extension Seminar
held in the Sudan between April 25th and May 1st, 1964 (1964, p, 13),
when he asked: » , but what extension techniques should we adopt?
By the very nature of our problems and circumstances we have to ask
whether extension techniques as applied to the most developed parts of
the world will automatically apply under our conditions*"
In developing, countries, extension workers have to be content
with the selection of a few teaching methods which are suitable and
adaptable to their local situationse For example, in the Sudan 98% of
the farmers do not have telephones and until recently television was a
city media* A high rate of illiteracy limits the use of newspapers.
pamphlets9 circular letters9. etc* Even result demonstrations^ a tech
nique highly advocated for use in developing countries9 have to be
adapted to fit the local conditions in the Sudan,
Sanders (1966s p ti 19)9 while discussing farm demonstration
work history, mentioned that, at Terrell, Texas, Knapp proposed that a
farmer conduct a demonstration on his own farm at his own expense for
his and his neighbors* information* But he suggested that the business
and professional people of Terrell raise an indemnity fund of $1,000
to protect the farmer should the demonstration fail.
It is recognized that the Terrell demonstration was an effec
tive method to influence farmers to adopt new practices and ideas.
But, in countries like the Sudan, the problem is identifying farmers
who will try a new practice without a guarantee against failure. If
guarantees are needed,, the problem is determining who will provide
such guarantees.
The author was the first to suggest the use of what is now
known in the Sudan as extension demonstration farms, which is an adap
tation of the well-known result demonstration initiated by Seaman Knapp,
The main difference between the two is that, in Knappvs method, the
farmer himself tries the new practice on his farm for his and his neigh
bors' information. Practices to be followed by the demonstrator will be
given and supervised by the extension agents« In the adapted method
in Sudan, the Extension Office has its own farm, which consists of about
10 acres of government land, on which result demonstrations are con
ducted by the extension staff * s labor*. ...Money. and supervision are
provided by the extension service so as to provide information to the
farmers in the community» Through this method it is hoped that the
innovators and the adoption leaders in the community could be convinced
to try the new ideas after they are proven to be successful. If the
leaders are convinced to try thems this will encourage other people in
the community to adopt similar practices.
Extension workers in the Sudan, however, are not utilizing
these extension demonstration farms effectively. This might be due to
lack of knowledge or understanding of the adoption process or a lack
of understanding of the reasons behind using such methods. Currently,
these farms are used as model farms, pilot farms or trial plots but
not as demonstration farms; yet they still keep the name.
Although, it is known that it took the farmers in Iowa about
seven years to. adopt the new hybrid corn seed, it took them far less
than that to adopt new practices after their first successful experi
ence with hybrid corn* Extension workers in the Sudan are frustrated
by the slow or lack of reaction of farmers toward adopting new ideas
and practices used in the extension demonstration farms. Good percep
tion. of the communications process and its interrelationship with the
adoption process, will, help in choosing.and developing effective teach
ing techniques which; should quicken the process of adoption.
For all these reasons this study was an endeavor to determine
how extension workers in the Sudan perceive the extension demonstra
tion farms as a teaching technique, and to recommend methods for
utilizing them more effectively in the struggle to convince farmers to
adopt new practices and ideas0
10
Definition of Terms
In order to provide greater clarity for the reading of this
study, the following.terms were defined %
- 1 Adoption categories: A classification scheme for describ
ing people* s behavior or propensity for adopting new ideas and prac
tices o
2-0 Adoption process:. The mental process through which an
individual passes from first hearing about an innovation, idea or
practice to final adopt ion <,
3 o Communication process: Reduced to its simplest form, com
munication is a three step process for the dynamic transfer of infor
mation from one person to another,
4. Diffusion process: The spreading of a new idea from its
source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters.
5 o Extension demonstration farm: Usually less than a 10
acre farm of government land, established, financed, operated and
supervised by extension personnel. Designed especially to demonstrate
to farmers the value and the benefits of a new idea or practice
compared with an old traditional one.
6 Extension teaching methods: Ways, techniques or channels
used by extension agents to disseminate information or messages to
the farmers.
7o Farm visits: Refers to a visit made by an extension
worker to a farmer on his farm where informal face-to-face conversa
tion is involved and where information exchanged and discussed..
118* Group teaching methodsg Methods designed to teach several
or many people*
9* Individual teaching methods: Teaching methods designed to
teach one persono
10* Mass media: Teaching methods designed to teach an infin
ite number of people*
11* Method demonstration: A teaching method which involves
showing and telling simultaneously— verbal and visual explanation of a
process, fact or idea * The demonstration shows how things are done*
12* Model farm: A farm in which only ideal recommended prac
tices are followed without any comparison with traditional ones*
13* New ideas and practices: Ideas and practices approved
and recommended by a recognized research an/or authorities in the
field*
14. Pilot farm: The first farm to be in an area or region for
trying new ideas or practices under the local conditions *
15* Result demonstration: A demonstration designed to prove
the advantages of a recommended practice or a combination or practices*
It involves careful planning, a substantial period of time, adequate
records and comparison of. results*
16* Tour: A teaching method by which a group of people move
to another area for the purpose of observing an improved practice or
results of improved practices in an actual situation*
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
To determine the role of demonstration farms as a teaching
method* it is deemed necessary to review the related literature In the
frame-work of the communication process which includes teaching meth
ods* Full understanding of the adoption process is a prerequisite for
accurate selection of teaching methods«
The above understanding necessitates reviewing the literature
under the following topics: (1) the communication process, which in
cludes; (a) sender* (b) message* (c) channels* i»e* * methods* and
(d) receiver; (2) the diffusion and the adoption processes which in
clude; (a) rate of adoption* (b). sources of information to farmers *
(c) adoption categories *.and (d) characteristics of the adoption cate
gories; (3) extension contacts; and (4) the role of result demonstra
tions in the diffusion and the adoption process«
Communication Process
Every Extension Agent should be able to communicate efficiently
and effectively to enable his audience to react and act in the desired
direction*
Singh and Sahay (1972* p* 40) in describing communication be
havior stress that: - '
12
Communication is a process by which messages are transferred from a source to one or more receivers (Rogers with Svenning, 1969)o Simon (1957) pointed out that action of an individual was a function of his exposure to the sources of information*He further defined exposure as the willingness of a farmer to react with a particular information media* Thus communication sources are important stimuli to the individuals in the adoption processb It provides a link between the diffusion of an innovation and its final adoption* This is supported by a .number of research studies (Beal9 1958; Copp, 1958; Lionberger9 1956; Rao and Moulik, 1966;. Singh and Jha, 1964; and Sinha and Parasad* 1966)* Singh (1970) in his paper on "Studies in Agricultural Communication in India” has also mentioned that greater the number of information sought9 the greater the adoption; and higher the contact of a farmer with communication sources greater is his adoption* Reddy (1962) reported that adoption of agricultural improved practices is the function of sources of information and socio-economic condition of the receiver*
In a study on the "Influence of Source Credibility of Com
munication Effectiveness"9 Hoviand and Weis, (1967) found the effec
tiveness of communication as a function of attitude of the audience
toward the communicator0
Christopherson (1962, p* 276) provided four questions which
suggest that the problem of communication is the crux of the matter
in the transfer of technology:
(1) How does one ensure that results of research, the general
advance of science, is in fact fully exploited?
(2) Whose responsibility is it to consider what practical ap
plication a particular addition to knowledge may possibly
have?■/
(3) What sort of network of communication can ensure that the
new information does, in fact, reach the people who will
14
make the most use of it, without at the same time over
whelming them with a host of irrelevances?.
(4) How much of our.total scientific and technological re
sources ought to be devoted to the task, not of advan
cing science, but of disseminating it, of. spreading
knowledge and understanding of significant research in
the quarters, where they are most needed?
In Maunder*s Agricultural Extension (1972, p. 105) Neordhoff
discussed effective communication in extension and said that:
Extension education is essentially a process of communication- communication of ideas and skills between and among the people. It includes the transfer of technical information from its source to the farmer or villager, but; it is more than that. Technical knowledge is of no use unless it is accepted as authentic, is adapted to the needs of the villager and is put into use. „ „. * . oThe ability to.communicate determines to a very large degree the success or failure of an extension worker. He has information from research and other sources. It is his responsibility to establish effective communication with the people he serves so they use this information to continually improve their agriculture and rural life.
Based upon these studies and some others, it can be deduced
that the degree of effectiveness of communication will affect the
degree of adoption of innovations and modern technologies.
Sanders (1966, p.» 53) presented an expressive chart for the
process of communication-.(Figure 1).
CHART 1
THE LEARNING-TEACHING PROCESS
Reception Sensations 5 Senses
Decision
MESSAGE Greaterunderstanding
PurposeContentTreatment
CHANNELS PERCEPTION ACTIONCOMMUNICATOR Methods
Awareness TrialInterest AdoptionEvaluation
The Communication Process
16
Noordhoff* in Maunder1s Agricultural Extension (1972, p e 106)
presented a more or less similar chart ..(Figure 2).
Sender <
PurposeContent
Treatment
Channels
- Methods- Visual- Spoken "Noise"- Written- Combination
(Also 5 senses: sight, sound, smell, touch, taste)
— ^Receiver
(AwarePerception
(interested.GreaterUnder stand ing (Evaluated)
Decision(Tries out
Action (Adopts
When Receiver Responds to Message.
"Noise" This is Feedback
Receiver(formersender)
Channels Message Sender(formerreceiver)
Figure. 2.0 Communications process»
17
There are four main ingredients for the communication recipe >
which are: sender, message, channel, and receiver« Often abbreviated
as 5 S—M—C—Re
The Communicator (Sender)
The communicator may be a teacher, author, speaker, or demon
strator o The extension people must take the initiative to establish
communication with rural people and keep it functioningo- Noordhoff
said that the communicator requires credibility» He needs to be be
lieved and have the confidence of his audience* An extension worker
can improve his credibility by learning to communicate effectively*
The Message
The message is divided into three parts: purpose, content,
and treatment*
Sanders states the purpose is the objective, the change in be
havior the message is intended to bring about» These changes may be •
new knowledge, change in attitudes, change in skills, change in think
ing, or change in practiceso ! The content is the subject matter with
which the message is concernedo The treatment makes the soil favorable
.for acceptance and growth of the message0 Both Sanders and Noordhoff
stressed that it should be logically organized and understandable to
the receiver and conform to the accepted social standards*
Methods (Channels)
Sanders (1966) points out that extension teaching methods are
means for providing learning experiences * Objectives are guides to the
18
;choice of methods* They provide the target.. The learning experiences
are designed to hit the target and to reach the objectives. He also
states that to know when, where, and how to provide each learning ex
perience to the best advantage is the mark of a professional extension
worker.
Noordhoff contends extension, teaching methods are channels of
communication with the people serve. He classified.them into visuals,
spoken, and written. (Some are combined methods, e.g., movies.) Each
has its advantages and disadvantages. He continued to state that vis
ual and oral methods are about the only methods for extension workers
to serve illiterate people . * . He added that inspite of its problems,
spoken communication when supplimented with visual aids is a basic
method of extension work with illiterate societies. .
Sanders divided the methods into: (1) Individual contact meth
ods which include visits, office calls, telephone calls, mail requests,
and answering sets: (2) group contacts methods which include result
and method demonstrations, general meetings, tours, field days, achieve
ment days, contests, and camps; and (3) mass media contact methods and
they include news items, columns, pages, feature stories, direct mail,
exhibits,, fairs, festivals, bulletins, radio, and television. Learning
experiences may be provided through aids to extension education which
include visual and auditory aids.
Wilson, and Gallup (1955, p <,. 3) state thatmethods are divided
according to "use" or "form". In reference to use, these are individual
contact methods and group contact methods and both of them involving
19
‘face-to-fact contactso Mass contact methods are designed to influence 1
large numbers of people0
According to form are the written9 spokenand visuals. The
written include such methods as leaflets and bulletins; the spoken in
clude meetings and visits; and the visuals include result demonstra
tion, and exhibits* They are presented in the following two charts to
visualize these divisions^ (Figures 3 and 4).
In discussing the effectiveness of the methods, Wilson and
Gallup (1955) mentioned two factors to be considered in evaluating
their effectiveness: 7
(1) The success of the method in influencing people to make the
desired changes„
(2) The amount of teaching effort expended on it.
In determining the influence and cost used, Wilson and Gallup
declared it is difficult to achieve with a satisfactory degree of ac
curacy , this is because; (1) the total influence of a particular means
of teaching may be large because of the emphasis placed upon it in the
extension teaching plan of work and conversely, the total influence of
a method may be relatively small owing to the little use made of it in
extension teaching, and (2) farmers sometimes cannot remember the
source which influenced them to change a practice»
In general, mass media.methods are the cheapest to use, followed
by the group methods. Individual methods, are highest in cost.
20
Chart 3
Methods classified according to USE = =-■ - ■■ ■ - Indirect influence
IN D IV ID U A L C O N T A C T S
Farm and home visits.
O ffice calls.
Telephone calls.
Personal letters.
Result demonstrations.
W R IT T E N
Bulletins.
Leaflets.
News articles.
Personal letters.
Circular letters.
G R O U P C O N T A C T S MASS C O N T A C T S
Method dem onstration meetings. Bulletins.
Leader training meetings.
Lecture meetings.
Conferences and discussion meetings. Circular letters.
Meetings at result demonstrations. Radio.
Tours.
Schools.
Miscellaneous meetings.
Leaflets.
News stories.
Television.
Exhibits.
Posters.
Methods classified according to FO R M : i Chart 4 ;
f
SPO KEN
General and special meetings of all kinds.
Farm and home visits.
O ffice calls.
Telephone calls.
Radio.
Indirect influence
O B JE C T IV E or V IS U A L
Result demonstrations.
Exhibits.
Posters.
M otion pictures, charts, slides, and
other visual aids.
Method dem onstration meetings. Meetings at result demonstrations.
Meetings involving m otion pictures, charts, and other visual aids.
Television.
21
.Receiver
According to Sanders (1966, p. 53):
There are five ways to get into a human mind — through the senses of sight9 hearing, taste, smell, and touche These are the five receptors of stimuli through which a person makes observations about the world outside* As stimuli are received, sensations are produced and interpreted.
The brain is active and "grasps” at sensations and tries to give them meaning. Perception begins and is conditioned by one*s background of experience. As one receives further sensations, perception increases and greater understanding resultso If action is called for, a decision is made and the resulting action is takeno
These facts are depicted by Sanders in Figure 1. The chart
also portrays the five stages of the diffusion process. Of which the
first three stages, i»e., awareness, interest, and evaluation occur as
perception begins. As perception enlarges, greater understanding occurs
and may result in trial and adoption. These are the last two stages
of the diffusion and adoption processese
* . The Diffusion and the Adoption Processes
Rogers (1963, p. 17) states, "since its inception, the main
purpose of the Cooperative Extension Service has been to change human
behavior by teaching people how to apply the results of scientific
research . Q .” He also said, "all extension workers are change agents.
Professional persons who attempt to.influence adoption decisions in a
direction they feel is desirable."
The purpose of the Cooperative Extension Service, as stated in
the Smith-Lever Act, makes it plain, that extension workers are change
agents and that diffusion of new ideas is a central concern. The
22
original Act states ",»„in order to aid in diffusing among people of
the United States useful and practical information on subjects related
to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of
the same<>oo!! This Act did not call for spreading and diffusing prac
tical information only, but to encourage its application also; that is
to assure it is actually adoptedo
Bohlen et alo (1969) pointed out that two interrelated proc
esses help bring new ideas from their source of initial development to
acceptance by farmers0 These processes are called diffusion and adop-
tione
The diffusion process refers to the spread of new ideas from
originating, source to ultimate userso In case of agriculture, it is
the process by which new farm practices or ideas are communicated from
sources of. origin., usually scientists, to farmers*
The adoption process is a mental process through which an indi
vidual passes from first hearing about a new idea to its final adoption*
Rogers (1963) mentioned the same differences between the two
processes; however, he points out that diffusion occurs among persons
while adoption is an individual matter*
In. reviewing the background of the diffusion process Rogers
(1963, p* 17) statess
The background on the diffusion of innovations dates from 1920*s* At that time the Federal Extension Service instigated evaluations of the effectiveness of extension programs* As a handy measure of the effectiveness of various extension methods, Mo Co Wilson and his colleagues utilize the adoption of farm and home-making practices* Wilson's research methods have had considerable influence on later studies*
23
' One of the first major studies by a rural sociologist was an
investigation of the rejection of new disease-control sprays by Dutch
celery growers in Michigatw The research was sponsored by the Agri
cultural Experiment Station with the view toward improving the effec
tiveness of the Michigan Extension Service*
Rogers (1966, p* 79) in reviewing the development of the con
cept of the adoption process mention:
Rayan and Gross (1943) were probably the first to recognize that the adoption of a new idea consisted of stages«, They distinguished between "awareness" of hybrid seed corn, "conviction" of its usefulness, trial "acceptance", and "complete adoption" of the innovationo
Pederson (1951) also suggested that a sequence of events leads
to adoption* However, it was Wilkining (1952) who first pointed out
that an individual’s decision to adopt an innovation was a process com
posed of stages or steps* Wilkining (1953, p 0 9) described the adop
tion of innovation as "„ * * a process composed of learning, deciding,
and acting over a period of time* The adoption, of a specific practice
is not the result of a single decision to act but a series of actions
and thought decisions*" He listed four adoption stages: awareness,
obtaining information, conviction and trial, and adoption.
These stages, with slightly different terminology, were largely
publicized by a committee on rural sociology in their widely distri
buted bulletin, "How Farm People Accept New Ideas" (NCRS Sub-committee,
1962, p* 3). Their five-stage adoption process is basically the same,
even if not in exact terminology, as will be described later.
24
' Two research studies had been designed primarily to see if the
concept of a five-stage adoption process was empirically valid. Both
Beal et al, (1951) and Copp et al« (1958) concluded that the concept
of stages was valid.
Host? if not all, of the literature on the adoption process
mentioned the five stages: NCRS Subcommittee (1962), Rogers (1966,
Anderson et "al, (1957), Bohlen. (1969) , Kelsey and Hearne (1963),
Sanders (1966), and.others. The five stages are: (1) Awareness,
(2) Interest,.(3) Evaluation, (4) Trial, and (5) Adoption,
NCRS Subcommittee (1962, p 3), in discussing the stages and
describing the people7s reaction to them point out:
The acceptance of a new idea is a complex process involving a sequence of thoughts and actions. Usually decision are made after multiple contacts with various communication channels.These contacts are made over a period of time. For instance, the average time span from awareness to adoption of hybrid seed corn in Iowa was 7 years* Adoption of most other hybrid seeds has come more rapidly. Changes which involve new skills or techniques usually require longer periods of time; however once an idea has been introduced and the process initiated in any given community, some people can be found at all stages in the process of acceptance.
As previously mentioned, the five stages of the adoption process
are:
Awareness: At this stage the individual learns of the existence of the
idea or the practice but has little knowledge about it.
Interest: At this stage the individual develops interest in the idea,
He seeks more information about it and considers its general merits.
Evaluation: At this stage the individual makes mental application of
the idea and weighs its. merits for his own situation. He obtains more
25information about the idea and decides whether or not to try it.
Trial: At this stage the individual actually applies the idea or
practice; usually on a small scale. He is interested in how to apply
the practice; in amountss time, and conditions for application.
Adoption: This is the stage of acceptance.leading to continued use.
Rate of Adoption
Some innovations diffuse from their first introduction to wide
spread use in a few years» Others require 50 years. What are the
characteristics of innovations that affect the rate at which they dif
fuse and adopted?
Bohlen (1969, p 0 4) listed five factors which affect the speed
with which a new idea is adopted:
(1) Cost and economic return: New practices that are high in cost,
generally, tend to be adopted more slowly than do the less
costly ones. However, practices which produce high returns per
dollar invested or those which bring quick returns are rapidly
adoptedo
(2) Complexity: New ideas which are relatively simple to understand
and use will generally be accepted more quickly than more complex
ones.
(3) Visibility: The more visible the practice and its results, the
more rapid its adoption is.
(4) Divisibility: A practice that can be tried in a limited basis
will generally be adopted more rapidly than one that cannot.
26
- (5) Comp at ibility: A new idea or practice which is consistent with
existing ideas and beliefs will be accepted more rapidly than
one that is note
Rogers (1963) mentioned similar factors but he used the term
"relative advantage" instead of "cost and economic advantage" to re
fer to the degree to which an innovation is superior to ideas it
supersedes* Re also used "communicatability" in place of "visibility"
as it refers to the degree to which the results of an innovation may
be diffused to otherso
Anderson (1957) divided "complexity" to four divisions from
the simplest to the more complexr change in material and equipment,
an improved practice5 innovation, and a change in enterprise. He
pointed out the more simpler the practice is, the quicker it is ad
opted.
There are variations in the adoption process, not all people
will be in the same stage at the same time0 Some may be in the aware
ness stage while others are scattered in the other stages. The com
municator has to know the stage where the people he is communicating
to are and then select the suitable channels for conveying the message.
Communication of information is an integral part of the adop
tion process. Studies show that people rely on different sources of
information while they are in the different stages of the adoption
processo
. 27
Sources of Information
Singh and Sahay (1972, p e 44) used the three classifications of
Wilkining (1962) as sources of information, to farmers which are:
(1) Personal Localiteg Communication with friends, relatives,
neighbors, village leaders, etc,
(2) Personal Cosmopolite:. Communication with Extension Agents, farm
supply-store personnel, farmers from other neighborhood, etc.
(3) Mass Media: Communication through newspapers, printed material,
radio9 exhibition, television, etCo
A common classification for sources of information is the one
used by Bohlen (1969),, this is: Mass Media, Friends and neighbors,
Agricultural Agencies,, (including Extension Service) ,. Dealers and
Salesmen 0
How farm people utilize these sources at the different stages
of the adoption process is summarized by Bohlen in Table 1.
It is obvious that mass media plays an important role at the
awareness and interest stages while friends and neighbors play a
major role in the evaluation, trial, and adoption stages» Lawson and
Dail (1966) reported the results of several studies in which dealers
and salesmen and mass media are most important in diffusing informa-
tion<> In these studies when farmers were asked about the most relia
ble source of information, Extension Agents headed the list.
While mass media and dealers and salesmen are major sources
of information in developed countries. The case might be different
in developing countries, where the major sources of information are
Table !• Rank order of information sources by stage in the adoption process.
Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption
Learns about a new idea or prac- t ice
gets more in^ formation about it
tries it out mentally
uses or tries . a little
accepts it for full-scale and continued use
1. Mass media - ratio, T.Vo, newspapers, magazines
lo Mass media 1. Friends and neighbors
1. Friends and neighbors
lo Friends and neighbors
2» Friends and neighbors - mostly other farmers
2. Friends and neighbors
2 * Agricultural agencies
2o Agricultural agencies
2* Agricultural agencies
3. Agricultural agencies, Extension, Vo-Ag, etc o
3 o Agricultural agencies
30 Dealers andsalesmen
3. Dealers and salesmen
3. Dealers and salesmen
4,q Dealers and salesmen
40 Dealers and salesmen
4. Mass media 4.b Mass media 4. Dealers, and salesmen
Personal experience is the most important factor in continued use of an idea.
N>.00
29
the Extension Agents and neighbors and friends at the village levele
This might be attributed to two factors; (1) salesmen and dealers are
found in cities and big towns, and (2) the prevailance of illiteracy
in rural areas* Extension Agents and neighbors and friends are not
only the primary sources of information but also the most credible ones
to farmers.• These two facts are supported by a study made by Singh and
Sahay (1972)*
Adoption Categories
There is always a time lag between the origin of a new idea and
its complete adoption. A major concern of rural sociological research
has been to reduce the time lag between scientific discovery and actual
use of new developments in farming. One body of facts growing out of
these studies indicates that farmers who adopt practices at various
points in time have distinctive characteristics* Educational programs
for change agents which are developed with an understanding of these
characteristics are more likely to be effective. This suggests that
change agents design educational programs which meets the needs and
communication skills.of the various farm audiences whom they serve.
Bohlen et al. (1969) further stressed that farmers adopt prac
tices at different times. Research indicates that the diffusion of a
new practice usually requires several years. In the first year, a few
farmers adopt it; then in.a short span of time, a large number tries
it, and finally the remainder accepts it. To prove this notion Bohlen
presented a diagram (Figure 5) in which an innovator secured his infor
mation about a new practice from an agricultural scientist. Against
30
Js_~ ' l s lNo. 14
No. 13
1952 ♦ I No. 5 Q'V - • • • * * *
1955
No. 12 No. 1
1954
No.11
D IR E C T TO
A G R IC U L T U R A L .
S C IE N T IS T
No. 10
No. 4
No. 8
1953
N o.9
How fourteen Midwest farmers obtained in form ation on a new farm practice. Farm locations are
shown against a m ile grid.
31
a background of a mile grid for 14 farmers in the Midwest he showed
that a second farmer9 (an early adopter) obtained his information about
the new practice from.the innovators Then eight farmers secured their
information about the practice from this early adopter. It took eight
years in: order to adopt the new practice by the 14 farmers.
Farmers can be divided into different categories according to
their adoption behavior, Anderson (1957), Rogers (1963), and Bohlen
(1969) divided them into: innovators, early adopters, early majority,
late majority, and laggards. While others divided them into: innova
tors, community adoption leaders, local adoption leaders, the majority,
and laggards o
Rogers (1963) mentioned it is obvious to any acute observer of
any social system that not all of its members adopt new ideas at the
same time<, A general finding of past investigations, is that adopters
distributions follow a bell-shaped curve over time and approach normal
ity,
Bohlen (1969, p, 4) presented a normal distribution curve to
show farmers adoption of a new practice (Figure 6),
He further stated the first to adopt a new practice are the
innovators-o Research in the Midwest indicated that these farmers have
personal and social characteristics which are significantly different
from those adopting later* This category includes about one farmer in
Those in the second category of farmers to adopt a practice are
the early adopters*. They too have distinctive characteristics. About
one in eight farmers fall in this category.
32
'S4-1cu0
n00
1
guu(UPL,
Early LateMajority ^ Majority
Early J
AdoptersLateAdopters
Innovators
— — 13.5% 34% 34% 16%Time of Adoption
Figure 6. Distribution of farmers among the five categories according to time of adoption.
The majority of adopters - about seven in ten farmers - fall
in the next category. For some purposes, this category may be divided
into the early and late majority.
The last farmers to try new practices may be referred to as
late adopters or laggards. They compromise possibly one out of six
farmers in the Midwest. They possess personal characteristics different
from those who adopted earlier.
< Characteristics of Adoption Categories
Various studies have described and discussed the characteris
tics of the different categories of adoption. These descriptions and
discussions in the different studies can best be summarized and repre
sented by Table 2 given by Bohlen (1969, p. 9).
The NCRS Subcommittee (1962, p. 9) in describing the different
adoption categories mention, "the innovators are known as ’experimenters’
Table 2. Summary of characteristics and communication behavior of adopter categories.
Characteristic Early Majority Laggards oror Behavior Innovators Adopters Early Late Late Adopters
lo Time of adoption
First 205 per cent to adopt new ideas
Next 13o5 per cent to adopt
Next 34 per cent to adopt
N&xt 34 per cent to adopt
Last 16 per cent to adopt
2o Attitudes and values
Scientific and venturesome
Progressive More conservative and traditional
Skeptical of new ideas
Agricultural magic and folk beliefs; fear of debt
3. Abilities
4. Group membership
High level of education; ability to deal with abstraction
Leader in county wide or state organizations; travel widely
Above average education
Leaders in organizations within the community
Slightly above average education
Many inf or t- mal contacts within community
Slightly below average education
Little travel out of community; little activity in formal organizations
Low level of education; have difficulty with abstractions and relationships
Few membership in formal organizations other than church; semi-isolates
Table 2, Continuedo
Char act er is tic or Behavior Innovators
EarlyAdopters
Majority Early Late
Laggards or Late Adopters
5e Social Highest High social About About Lowest socialStatus social status. status; looked average average status
but their farming practices may not be accepted
to by neighbors as "good farmer"
socialstatus
socialstatus
60 Farm Largest, Large, farms. Slightly Slightly Small farms;business most spec slightly less larger smaller low incomes;
ialized, and specialized than than seldom farmmost efficient
and efficient averagesizedfarms
averagesizedfarms
owners
7„ Sources of Scientists; Highest con Farm maga Friends Mainly friendsinformation other inno tact with zines; friends and and neighbors;
vators; re local change and neigh neighbors radio farmsearchbulletins
agents; farm magazines; Extension bulletins
bors shows
w
35
and ?people who are always trying out new thingsfo They are seldom 1
named as persons to go to for advice on farming."
The community adoption leaders are not the very first to try
new ideas, but are among the first to use approved practices in their
community areas* They are not the persons who test untried ideas but
they are quickest to use tried ideas in their own situation.
The local adoption leaders are people to whom the majority look
for information and ideas in their farming operations * They adopt
ideas sooner than the majority0 These local adoption leaders or in
formal leaders are an important link in the chain of communication.
Studies showed that these informal.:- leaders are identified by the
majority of farm.people as neighbors and friends rather than leaders.
Their leadership was established by actions which have won the respect
of their associates.. They are not necessarily the open seekers of
offices in formal organizations. They are not necessarily the volun
teer leaders who recommend themselves to the county agent or vocational
agricultural teacher»
The later adopters are the majority .of the people in the com
munity who. adopt new ideas. They depend primarily on the local adop
tion leaders for information and ideas, although some of .-them may have
contacts with.agricultural agencies.
There are some to whom the practice might apply who never adopt
it; these are the non adopters.
36
Extension Contacts
Studies indicated that extension agents make most of their com
municative contacts with innovators and early adopters because they are
easier to communicate with and convince to try and adopt new ideas and
practiceso Research indicates that early adopters have more contacts
with county extension agents? vocational agriculture teachers, and other
agricultural agencies workers than do farmers in other adopters cate
gories including the innovators (Bohlen, 1969)« One reason why this is
true seems to be that the innovator often learns about new practices
before the local change agent* The innovator travels widely, visit with
other innovators, and agricultural scientists. Research findings of
farmers contacts with vocational agriculture teachers show that early
adopters are reached most frequently, followed by innovators, early
majority, late majority, and laggards.
Alleyne and Verner (1971) in their studies about personal con
tacts and the adoption of innovations with strawberry growers in the
Fraser Valley,.state thats (1) Personal contacts were far more effec
tive than impersonal sources of information in effecting adoption of
innovations; (2) Extension Agents tends to concentrate on personal
contacts with a few farmers and use impersonal contacts for the major
ity; and (3) Extensions use of group instruction and local opinion
leaders can extend the range of personal contacts and thus more effec
tively encourage innovation,
Paul (1970) reported a study in one Canadian province which
showed that 80% or more, of the present extension involvement was with
30% of. the farmers who produced 70% or more of the agricultural
37
production* He further pointed out that this is justified bya "this
group represents the innovators and we learn a great deal from them".
He also mentioned that his observations would indicate that the ex
tension approach in England and Wales is similar*
The Role of Result Demonstrations in the Diffusion and the Adoption Processes
The use of result demonstrations as a teaching method to con
vince farmers to adopt new improved practices and ideas dates back to
1903 when Seaman Knapp conducted his famous boll weevil demonstrations
near Terrell9 Texas./Bailey (1964) declared that the basic idea behind the use of
demonstrations to be very similar to Gabriel de TradeTs theory of in
stinct; and imitations a which says that all new cultural traits orig
inate from one creative individual and are imitated by the crowd. It
is simply the personal influence of one human being upon another.
Apparentlya neighbors and friends are more important during
the evaluation and trial stages than an initial source of information.
Further,,low income farmers and slow adopters often use other farmers
as the first source of knowledge.
Bailey also mentioned that a nation-wide survey of farmer
attitudes towards the use of fertilizers found that most farmers
thought that the demonstrations were effective in either making others
think about fertilizers or in causing them to use it; that is, to
evaluate, try, or adopt0
Sanders, (1966, p* 128) stated that:
38
Evidence shows that result demonstrations were vital in establishing confidence of farmers and home-makers in the practices suggested by the early workers* Successful experiences with result demonstrations also increased the ability of and the confidence in personnel, thus making them more effective teachers, and they were readily accepted by both rural and urban people as reliable sources of information .for better agricultural and home-making practices *It also helped to build prestige for the extension serviceas an educational agency,
Result demonstrations do not carry out research* They show
to what extent the research findings apply to local conditions*
Summary
In reviewing the literature9 the communication process was
found to be important in determining the objective, selecting the mes
sage, and deciding which audiences to be reached*
The categories of the audience and their stage in the adoption
process were found to be an important basis for selecting, the teaching
method or a combination of teaching methods*
It was found that few people or categories of people rely on
agencies like the extension service for new information. The majority
rely on their leaders (neighbors and friends) as a source of informa
tion as well as guides to try to adopt new practices*
It was found that understanding the different categories of
people and their characteristics are important in directing the message
for better chance of acceptance*
Demonstrations could be directed to those who rely on extension
as a source of information because the others depend on these people as
their source of. information.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE
The procedures followed to accomplish, the objectives of this
study are described as follows: (a) study population; (b) collection
of data and instrumentation; (c) data analysis.
Study Population
The target population in this study included all extension
agents in the Sudan* The sample population included those extension
agents who had education above senior high school; who were/are working
with the rural people, and who were/are using demonstration farms in
the northern part of the Sudan*
The first step involved in determining the size of the sample
population was to secure a list of all extension agents in the Sudan*
The names and addresses of the extension agents participating in this
study were obtained from the Directorate of Extension-Sudan* From this
list all the agents (except those working in the production center)
were selected to serve as the study sample* Individual agents served
as the. sampling units *
Collection of Data and Instrumentation
The initial step involved in the collection, of data was the
formulation of a questionnaire* The author.reviewed all questionnaires
- 39
40
ifor similar studies to glean ideas on format and the types of questions
to ask for this type of study.
The preliminary draft of the quesionnaire was given to three
agricultural education and extension teachers for critique of content
and completeness. After considering their suggestions and comments, a
second draft was prepared and translated to the Arabic language to
avoid misinterpretation. This was given to three Sudanese students
studying, at the University of Arizona for critique for clarity and read
ability, After considering all suggestions, a third draft was prepared
and given to the director of this study for further comments and
approval (Appendix A).
The final questionnaire (Appendix B) was printed and 139 copies
with a covering letter and a self-addressed return envelope were mailed
to each participant. However,. when the cost of sending the package to
each participant in the Sudan was calculated and the cost of a follow-up
letter for non-respondants,. it was found that the cost would exceed
$300. When the Cultural Counselor to the Embassy.of the Sudan in
Washington was contacted to finance the mailing cost, it was learned
that this would require an approval from Sudan which may take months
to arrive if approved. For this reason it was decided to send all the
questionnaire packages (ready to mail as they were) in one package to
the Director, Directorate;of Extension in the Sudan. A letter explain
ing the situation and requesting him to take the necessary action for
mailing the individual packages to the participants, was.sent to the
Director with the package, on January 12, 1981.
41
When no response was received from the participant9 a telegram,
was sent on February 99 1981 to be advised about the fate of the ques
tionnaire. A reply arrived on March 159 1981 from the Director in
forming the author that the package had not arrived but necessary
action will be taken as soon as it arrived.
. Another package similar to the first one was sent on April 20,
1981 with one of the University of. Arizona Sudanese students to give it
by hand to the Director.
Responses started to arrive early in May 1981. At the begin
ning of June, it was decided to send a follow-up letter to non-
respondants to step up their response. Due to the cost factor a
letter was sent to each group of Extension Agents working in the same
office.
From the personal letters sent by some respondents to the
author, it was discovered that the low and slow response was due to
the fact that most of the participants thought it was too late to
respond since the covering, letter attached to the questionnaire was
dated January 12, 1981. Another factor was that there was a railways
strike which extended for several days in May.
By August 15, 1981, 90 responses were received. . This consti
tuted about 66.7% of the 135 questionnaires originally sent to the
participants. In conference with the researcher's advisor, it was
felt a 66.7% response was sufficient to analyze data.
42
Analysis of Data
The data collected for this study from the questionnaire were
hand tabulated« These data were then reported in terms of frequencies
and percentages in rank ordere
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA.
The data presented and analyzed in this chapter follows the ob
jectives identified in Chapter: 1 of this studye The data were obtained
through a questionnaire, mailed to 135 extension agents in the Sudan«
Of the 135 potential respondents, 90 extension agents returned completed
questionnaires. This represents a 66.7% returned responses.
Perception of Sudanese Extension Agents Concerning the Purposes Presently Served
by the Extension Demonstration Farms
Objective 1 of this study was to determine the purposes served
presently by the extension demonstration farms. Table 3 shows the fre
quency and percentage response of Sudanese Extension Agents’ perception
of the main purposes served by. the extension demonstration farms.
Table 3. Frequency and percentage response of Sudanese extension agents’ perception of the main purposes of demonstration farms.
Purpose of Farm Frequency Percentage
Model.Farm 56 62.2
Demonstration Farm 32 35.6
Multi-purpose 2 2.2
Total 90 100.0
43
44
Fiftyr-six or 62*2% of the respondents perceived the extension ■,
demonstration farms as model farms; while 32 or 35.6% perceived them
as demonstration farms• Only two or 2.2% of the respondents perceived
them as farms which can serve more than one purpose9 i.e., demonstra
tion, model, experimental, and pilot farms.
The Adoption Categories to be Reached Through the Use of the Extension Demonstration Farms
Objective 2 was to determine which categories of adoption, ex
tension demonstration farms were attempting to reach as perceived by
Sudanese Extension Agents. Data presented in Tables 4 through 11 deal
with this objective.
Data presented in Table 4 reveal the frequency and percentage
of responses relative to the adoption categories which can be reached
easily by using the demonstration farms. There were 215 responses
supplied by the 90 extension agents. It should be noted respondents
were asked to supply more than one check to many questions on the
questionnaire.. In calculating percentages the frequency was divided by
the total, number of responses.
Table 4. Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agentsv perception of the adoption categories which can be reached easily by using the demonstration farms. N = 90.
Category Frequency Percentage
Local Adoption Leaders 74 34.4Community Adoption Leaders 50 23.3The Majority 39 18.1Laggards 28 13.0Innovators 24 11.2Total 215 100.0
45
It is evident from this table that 74 or 34 „x4% of the respon
dents identified the local adoption leaders to be reached easily with
the demonstration farms« The second most frequently identified cate
gory to be reached easily was the community adoption leaders who re
ceived 50 or 23 o 3% of the responses«, The innovators received only 24
or lie2% of the responsesj and thus placed them at the bottom.
In an attempt to further identify the effectiveness of demon
stration farms in achieving the various stages of the adoption process9
the Sudanese extension agents were asked to indicate which group of in
dividuals classified by category of adoption they took to visit the
demonstration farm,. Table 5 shows the frequency and the percentage
of responses to this question.
Table 5, Frequency and percentage of response for the adoption categories taken by the extension agents in the Sudan to visit the demonstration farms, N = 90,
Category Frequency Percentage
Local Adoption Leaders 70 32.7
Community Adoption Leaders 50 23.4
The Majority 40 18.7
Laggards 34 15.9
Innovators 20 9.3
Total 214 100.0
46
The total number of responses were 214; of which the local ad
option leaders received 70 or 32.7%. The community adoption leaders
were second by receiving 50 or 23.4% of the responses* The innovators
were again at the bottom since they received only 20 or 9.3% of the
responses.
It is interesting to note that the same rank order for the
categoriess i*e., local adoption leaders9 community adoption leaders«,
the majority9. the laggards9 and the innovators, are shown in both
Tables 4 and 5.
It should be noted the majority and the laggards received
34.6% of the responses* As previously mentioned the individuals in
these two categories are not easily convinced because they only try to
adopt new ideas after the community and local adoption leaders adopt
them first. It is these two categories that the majority and the
laggards go for advice and information.
Effectiveness of the demonstration farms in the Sudan can be
measured, in part, by the teaching methods employed. Data presented
in Table 6 indicate how extension agents in the Sudan perceive the
most effective use of demonstration farms.
Result demonstration received 80 of the 262 total responses or
30.5%. This method was followed by method demonstration with 74 res
ponses or 28.2%; tours, 58 (22.1%); exhibits, 24 (9.2%) ; meetings, 18
(6.9%) and other methods eight (3.1%).
In an attempt to further assess the effectiveness of demonstra
tion farms, the respondents were asked to select the most appropriate
47
Table 6e Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agents? perception of teaching methods considered to be most effective to use with or within the demonstration farmse N “ 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 80 30.5
Method Demonstration 74 28.2
Tours 58 22.1
Exhibits 24 9.2
Meetings 18 6.9
Others 8 3.1
Total 262 100.0
methods to be used with each of the adoption categories« The responses
are shown in the following tables, Tables 7 through 11,
Table 7 shows which teaching method extension agents in the
Sudan perceived as most, effective to use with innovators•
A total of 80 responses were reviewed on the questionnaire*
Method demonstration received 30 or 36*6% of the total responses*
Result demonstration followed second with 22 or 26*8%, while tours re
ceived 10 or 12*2%* As has been mentioned earlier in Chapter II,
innovators need only to be made aware of a new idea or practice, then
they will try.it even if it is not yet proven successful* In working
with innovators, mass media is the most appropriate* Another effective
method may be tours to demonstration and experimental farms* It is
48
Table 7. Frequency and percentage of response of extension agentsf perception of the most effective methods for use with the innovatorso N = 90e
Method Frequency Percentage
Method Demonstration 30 36.6
Result Demonstration 22 26.8
Tours 10 12.2
Meetings 8 9.8
Exhibits 6 7.3
Others 6 7.3
Total 82 100.0
Table 8. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents* perception of the most effective methods for use with the community adoption leaders» N - 90*
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration. 46 28.1Method Demonstration 42 25.6Tours 24 14.6Meetings 24 . 14.6Exhibits 20 12.2Others 8 4.9Total 164 100.0
49
Table 9« Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agentsv . perception of the most effective methods for use with the local adoption leaders* N - 90*
Method Frequency Percentage
Method Demonstration 60 28.8Result Demonstration 56 26.9Fours 32 15.4Meetings 30 14.4Exhibits 22 10.6Others 8 3.9Total 208 100.0
Table 10. Frequency and perception of majority. N =
percentage of responses of the most effective methods 90.
extension agents' for use with the
Method Frequency Percentage
Result. Demonstration 40 25.3Tours 38 24.0Method Demonstration 32 20.3Exhibits 26 16.5Meetings 12 • 7.6Others 10 6.3Total 158 100.0
50
Table 11, Frequeney and percentage of responses of perception of the most effective methods laggards, N - 90.
extension agents’ for use with the
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 32 25.4
Tours 28 22.2
Exhibits 26 20.6
Method Demonstration 18 14.3
Others 12 9.6
Meetings 10 7.9
Total 126 100.0
apparent mass media and method demonstrations are effective to teach
innovators new skills and.techniques required to succeed with the new
idea*
The methods considered most effective for use with the community
adoption leaders., as perceived by the Sudanese extension agents, are de
picted in Table 8.
For use with the community adoption leaders, 46 or 28,1% of 164
total responses received untreated the result demonstration, as the
most effective method* This method was followed by method demonstra
tion with. 42 (25,6%); and tours and meetings receiving 24 or (14,6%)
each.
51
As stated earlier in Chapter II, the community adoption leaders'
are not the persons who try untried ideas, however they are quickest to
use tried ideas in their own situation. For this category of people, a
tour to the demonstration farm or innovatorsT farms where new ideas are
demonstrated or tried with success would be useful <, Method demonstra
tions to teach them the techniques of applying the new idea are approp
riate.
The methods perceived by Sudanese Extension Agents as most ef
fective to use for the local adoption leaders are shown in Table 9.
Of the 208 total responses received, 60 or 28.8% of the respon
ses show that the extension agents perceived the method demonstration
as the most, effective one to use with local adoption leaders. The re
sult demonstration was the next most effective. This method received
56 or 26.9% of the responses; and tours, third was 32 or 15.4% of the
responseso
The reaction of.the individuals in this category for adopting new
•ideas and practices is the same as for individuals in the community adop
tion leaders category. As stated earlier in Chapter II, this group of
people are the people to whom the majority look for information.
Conducting a tour to the demonstration farm, or to innovatorsf
or the community adoption leaders farms where the new practice is demon
strated or tried successfully would, be an effective teaching method.
Method demonstration for such groups would also be an effective part of
the teaching process.
Methods perceived by the Extension Agents in the Sudan as most
effective to be used for the majority are revealed in Table 10.
' 52
Responses show that"40 or 25.3% of the total responses (158) ,
consider result demonstration was the most effective teaching method
for use with the majority. Tours were second, receiving 38 or 24.1%
of the responses. Method demonstration, third with 32 or 20.3% of the
responses.
It is interesting, to note that people in the majority category
depend primarily on the community and local adoption leaders for in
formation or advice. In the Sudan, people live in villages; they get
together frequently during the evenings where they discuss the day's
activities. Considering this social habit, the Sudanese extension
agents could.utilize this time to work with innovators, community and
local adoption leaders to convince them to try new ideas and practices9
thus assisting the majority who tend to follow the practices of these
people especially if they are successful.
Sudanese extension agents' perception of which method will be
most effective with the laggards is shown in Table 11.
Responses show that result demonstrations are the most effec
tive method -for. use with laggards as evident by 32 or 25.4% of the 126
total responses. Result demonstration was followed by tours which re
ceived 28 or 22^2% of: the responses. Exhibits received 26 or 20.6% of
the responses.
As previously mentioned, the behavior of the majority
group also applies to this category. If laggards adopt a new prac
tice or idea, they do so only after the idea was first being adopted by
the community and the local adoption leaders as well as the majority.
53
Laggards, adopt after the new idea or practice has become a common prac-r
tice for almost all the people»
. Based, upon data presented in Tables 7 through 11 * result
demonstrations, method demonstrations, and tours are the three methods
considered to be most effective for almost all the categories* The
exception being for the laggards where exhibits are perceived as more
effective than, method demonstrations *
As has been mentioned earlier, in Chapter IT, not all people
depend upon extension agents as a source of information or advice *
Innovators, community adoption leaders, and local adoption leaders
are easy to work with and convince the majority and the laggards rely
on their neighbors and friends (the community and the local adoption
leaders) for information and guidance* It would be better for the.
extension agents in the Sudan to try not to reach all people* Instead
they should concentrate their effort, time, and facilities to encourage
the innovators, the community and the local adoption leaders to try the
new ideas and practices* Extension agents should help those who do try
to succeed in: their trials and thus set the example for the others who
. rely on them: for information and guidance*
In summary the extension agents were asked to identify the
teaching methods they perceive as most effective to use with or within
the demonstration farms* In addition, they were asked to identify the
methods they perceive as most effective for use with each category of
the adoption process* The responses are shown in Tables 7 through 11*
The Extension Agents were asked to next consider the extension
teaching, methods in general (irrespective of the demonstration farms)
54
1 and tO; identify the two most effective methods to be used with each of
the adoption categories« Their responses to this question are shown in
Tables 12 through 16,
Table 12 indicates the two methods perceived by extension agents
in the Sudan as most effective for use with innovatorso
Table 12. Frequency and. percentage of responses for the two most effective methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with innovators. N - 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 28 20.7
Meetings 28 20.7
Visits 18 13.3
Circular Letters 16 11.9
Method Demonstration 12 8.9
Discussions 10 7.4
Tours 6 ' 4.4
Exhibits 6 4.4
Movies 4 3.0
Lectures 2 1.5.
Office Calls 2 1.5
Training 2 1.5
Mass Media 1 0.8
Total 135 100.0
55
Table 130 The frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods as perceived by the extension agents foruse with community adoption leaders6 . N = 90 6
Method Frequency Percentage
Meetings . 4 0 27.4
Result Demonstration 28 19.2
Visits 26 17.8
Method Demonstration 14 9.6
Discussions 10 6.8
Tours 6 4.1
Lectures 6 4.1
Exhibits 4 CM
Circular Letters 4 2.7
Radio 2 1.4
T. Vo 2 1.4
Movies 2 1.4
Audio-Visuals 2 1.4
Total 146 100.0
56
Table 14„ The frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods perceived by the extension agents, for usewith local adoption leaders. N - 90o
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 40 26.0
Visits 26 16.9
Meetings 24 15.6
Method Demonstration 21 13.6
Training 10 6.5
Discussions 9 5.8
Tours 8 5.2
Circular Letters 4 2.6
Movies 4 2.6
Audio-Visuals 4 2.6
Radio 2 1.3
Lectures 2 1.3
Total 154 100.0
57
'Table 15. The frequency and percentage of the responses for the twomost effective methods perceived by the.extension agents foruse with the majority. N =? 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 30 19.2
Meetings 20 .12.8
Discussions 20 12.8
Exhibits 18 11.4
Method Demonstration 14 9.0
Tours 14 9.0
Visits 12 7.7
Movies 12 7.7
Radio 4 2.6
Circular Letters 4 2.6
Audio-Visuals 4 2.6
T.V. 2 1.3
Training 2 1.3
Total 156 100.0
58
1 Table 16. Frequency and percentage of responses for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agents for usewith the laggards. N - 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Result. Demonstration 46 29.9
Method Demonstration 34 22.1
Visits 20 13.0
Tours 18 11.7
Exhibits 14 9.0
Meetings 10 6.5
Radio 2 1.3
Posters 2 1.3
T.V. 2 1.3
Movies' 2 1.3
Audio-Visuals 2 1.3
Training 2 1.3
Total 154 100.0
59
Result demonstration and meetings were perceived by the exten- ,
sion agents as the two most effective methods to be used for the in
novators <> These methods both received 28 or 20.7% responses.
The two most effective methods perceived by the respondents for
use with the community adoption leaders are revealed in Table 13.
Meetings and result demonstrations were the two most effective
methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with the commun
ity adoption leaders. They received 40 or 27.4% and 28 or 19.2% respon
ses, respectively.
Table 14 shows the two most effective methods for the local
adoption leaders as perceived by the respondents.
Of the 154 total responses "/ received, result demonstrations and
visits ranked first and second received 40 or 26.0% and 26 or 16.9% of
the responses, respectively.
The Extension Agents in Sudan were asked to identify the two
most effective methods to be used with the majority. Table 15 reveals
their responses.
The extension agents perceived result demonstration and meetings
as the two most effective methods for use with the majority. These two
methods received 30 or 19.2% and 20 or 12.8% of the responses, respec
tively.
The last category to,be considered by the Sudanese extension
agents for the selection of the two most effective methods was the
laggards. Table 16 shows their responses.
Result demonstrations and method demonstrations were the two
most effective methods for use with the laggards as perceived by the
60
-extension a g e n t s T h e s e methods received 46 or 29.9% and 34 or 22.1%
of the responses9 respectively.
Based upon the evidence presented in Tables 12 through 169
result demonstrations were the number one choice for the innovators9
the local adoption leaders, the majority, and the laggards. For the
community adoption leaders, meetings, were the number one choice. It
is interesting to note, however,, that the result demonstration was the
second choice.for use with community adoption leaders.
Meetings, being selected as number one choice for the community
adoption leaders, were also.selected as the second most effective
methods for the innovators, and the majority. The second most effec
tive method selected for the local adoption leaders and the laggards
were visits and. method demonstration, respectively.
It is evident that result demonstrations are a very important
teaching method especially in a developing country like the Sudan where
the extension service is comparatively recent, and where both the ex
tension service and the extension agents need to gain the confidence of
the people they are serving.
In the rural areas of the Sudan.where illiteracy prevails, trad
itional farming methods are practiced, and the.innovator is considered
as a rare commodity, it is difficult to find a farmer who will cooperate
to try a new idea or practice before it has been proven first. For
these reasons, demonstration farms where the success of new ideas and
practices can:be demonstrated are highly recommended.
The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different
Stages of the Adoption Process
Objective 3 of this study was to determine how effective demon
stration farms in. the Sudan were in achieving the various stages in the
adoption process as perceived by.the Sudanese Extension Agents«
This objective is interrelated with objective 2® It had been
shown earlier in. Chapter II and in the discussion of the findings for
objective 2 that not all people could be reached through using the ex
tension demonstration farms® However, it is important to direct the
activities of these farms toward the people who may and can benefit
from them® It is equally important, that these farms should be directed
toward reaching, the people at a specific stage of the diffusion process®
Not all the people will be found in the same stage at the same time.
For this reason certain teaching methods are most effective in a spec
ific stage than in the others.
The extension agents were asked first if they perceive these
extension demonstration farms are effective teaching methods, Table
17 shows the responses of the extension agents in this regard.
Table 17. . The frequency and the percentages of responses of the extension- agents * perception of the demonstration farms as an effective.teaching method.
Effective Frequency Percentage
Yes 80 88.9No 10 11.1Total 90 100.0
Of the 90 respondents9 80 or 88.9% perceived, the extension dem
onstration farms, as an effective teaching method. Ten or 11.1% per
ceived them as not effective.
Once the.agent’s perception of whether demonstrations found
were effective or not 9 was determined, the Sudanese extension agents
were asked to indicate the stage or the stages of the adoption process
where they might be most effective. Data in Table 18 were used to
determine the stages at which the demonstration farms were most effec
tive as perceived by the Sudanese Extension Agents.
Table 18. Frequency, and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception for the stages at which the demonstration farms were most effective. N = 90.
Stage Frequency Percentage
Evaluation 48 25.0
Trial 46 24.0
Interest 44 22.9
Awareness 36 18.7
Adoption 18 9.4
Total 192 100.0
As perceived by the Sudanese Extension Agents the evaluation
stage received the highest number of responses as evidenced by 48
responses or 25.0%.; followed by the trial stage, 46 responses or 24.0%.
63
The interest stage received 44.or 22„9%; the awareness stage 36 or
18e8%; and the adoption stage9 18 or 9.4%.
The evaluation stage is the, stage at which the demonstration
farms play.the most important role in convincing people to try the new
idea or practice. In Chapter IX, it was mentioned that at this stage
the individuals make mental application of the idea and weigh its
merits for their own situation. They obtain more information about the
idea and decide whether or.not to try it.
The extension agents were asked to select two methods they
perceive as most effective for each stage of the adoption process.
Some mentioned more.than two and some less. Tables 19 through 23 deal
with the perception of the Extension Agents in the Sudan relative to
the two most effective methods to achieve each of the different stages
of the adoption process. Table 19 shows the respondent perception of
those methods effective for the awareness stage.
The two most effective methods for the awareness stage as
perceived by the extension agents were meetings and method demonstrai-
tions. These methods, received 44 or 28.6% and 16 or 10.4% of the totalX
responses9. respectively.
For the awareness stage as mentioned in Chapter II,.mass media
is more effective and less expensive to use. Visual aids such as
posters and exhibits are also effective.
The second stage of the adoption process is the interest stage.
Table 20 presents data which reveals the two most effective methods as
perceived by the extension agents for this stage.
64
Table 19« Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents1 perception of the two most effective methods for the awareness stage« N = 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Meetings 44 28.6
Method Demonstration 16 10.4
Tours 14 9.1
Visits 14 9.1
Circular Letters 10 6.5
Radio and T.V. 10 6.5
Discussions 10 6.5
Result Demonstration 8 5.2
Movies 6 , 3.9
Audio-Visuals 6 3.9
Posters 6 3.9
Exhibits 4 2.6
Lectures 2 1.3
Training 2 1.3
Campaigns 2 1.3
Total 154 100.0
65
rTable 20 e Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagentsT perception of the two most effective methods for the interest stage, N = 90,
Method Frequency Percentage
Result Demonstration 34 22.5
Method Demonstration 32 21.2
Visits 16 10.6
Tours 14 9.3
Meet ings 14 9.3
Exhibits 13 8.6
Movies 10 6.6
Discussions 10 6.6
Circular Letters . 4 2.7
Radio and T.V. 2 1.3
Lectures 2 1.3
Total 151 100.0
66
Table 21o Frequency and percentage of. responses of the extensionagents’ perception for the two most effective methods for the evaluation stagee N - 90e
Method Frequency Percentage
Method Demonstration 46 29.1
Result Demonstration 40 25.3
Exhibits 22 13.9
Meetings 16 10.1
Tours 12 7.6
Discussions 8 5.1
Visits 6 3.8
Circular Letters 2 1.3
Radio and T.V* - " Y ' : 1.3
Movies 2 1.3
Lectures 2 1.3 .
Total 158 100.0
67
.Table 22. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents? perception of the two most effective methods for the trial stage. N = 90.
Method Frequency Percentage
Method Demonstration . 46 31.5
Result Demonstration 40 27.3
Visits . 2 2 15.1
Tours 8 5.5
Meetings 8 5.5
Exhibits 8 5.4
Movies 8 5.5
Discussions 2 1.4
Audio-Visuals 2 - 1.4
Training 2 1.4
Total 146 100.0
\
68
Table 23. Frequency and percentage of responses of. the extensionagentsT perception of the two most effective methods for
. the adoption stage* N 5=3 90*
Method Frequency Percentage .
Method Demonstration 34 27.6
Result Demonstration 22 17. 9
Meetings 13 10.6
Visits 12 . 9.7
Exhibits 10 8.1
Tours 8 6.5
Movies 6 4.9
Circular Letters 4 3.3
Discussions 4 3.3
Lectures 4 3.3
Office Calls 2 1.6
Audio-Visuals 2 1.6
Campaigns . 2 1.6
Total 123 100.0
69
Result demonstration received 34 or 22,5% of the total res- «
ponses method demonstration was second with 32 or 2102%9 thus they
were perceived as. the two most effective methods for the interest stage
of the adoption process.
The third stage of the adoption process is the evaluation stage.
Table 21 reveals the two most effective methods as perceived by the
Sudanese extension agents for. this stage.
Method and result demonstrations were perceived by the extension
agents as the two most effective methods for the evaluation stage.
They received 46 or 21.1% and 40 or 25.3% of the total responses,
respectively.
The fourth stage of the adoption process is the trial stage.
The perception of the extension agents relative to the two most effec
tive methods, for this stage is shown in Table 22.
The extension agents perceived method and result demonstrations
as the two most effective methods to use for the trial stage. They
received 46 or 31.5% and 40 or 27.4%, respectively of the total res
ponses.
The final stage of the adoption process is the adoption stage.
The perception of the extension agents for the two most effective
methods for this.stage is shown .in Table 23.
The extension agents’ perception of the two most effective
methods: for the adoption stage was method and result demonstrations
which received 34 or 27.6% and 22 or 17.9% responses, respectively.
The data presented in Tables 19 through 23, reflect that method
demonstrations were perceived by the extension agents as one of the two
70most effective methods for all the stages of the adoption process® Re
sult demonstrations were also considered by the Extension Agents as one
of the most effective methods for all stages except the awareness stage.
In Chapter II it was mentioned that at the awareness stage the
individual learns of the existence of the idea or practice but has
little knowledge, about it. It was also pointed out that at this stage
mass media are most, effective and less expensive to use. Audio-visuals
at this stage can be very helpful.
At the interest stage the individuals develop interest in the
idea. They seek, more information about the idea and consider its gen
eral merits. At this stage mass media is also effective. Meetings9
farm visits, and audio-visual aids are also helpful methods.
At the evaluation stage, the individuals make mental application
of the idea and- weigh its merits for their own situation. They obtain
more information about the idea and decide whether to try it or not.
This is the stage where result demonstrations play an important role with
both the community and the local adoption leaders. They are not the
first to try new ideashowever they are among, the first to use approved
practices in their community areas. They are not the individuals to
test untried ideas but they.are quickest to use tried ideas in their
own situation. Tours to demonstration farms where new ideas are success
fully demonstrated and to innovators farms where new ideas are tried are
also helpful at this stage»
The innovators, do not.need a result demonstration to try new
ideas. They only need to be aware of the new ideas they usually try
71
them without waiting to be proven successful elsewheree For this reas-1
on, they are known as "experimenters?? and "people who are always trying
out new things"• For such people circular letters, meetings, and farm
visits are effective methods.
At the trial stage individuals actually apply the idea or prac
tice; usually on a small scale. They are interested in HOW to apply
the practice; in amounts, time, and conditions fof application.
At this stage, method demonstrations conducted on the extension
demonstration farms to teach innovators, local/adoption leaders, and
community adoption leaders the techniques and skills required for a
successful trial of the new idea or practice are important. Farm
visits are very important to those who are trying the new idea or prac
tice; to ensure that the techniques required for a successful trial are
carried by the farmer, and also to provide individual advice whenever
deemed necessary.
The adoption stage is the stage of acceptance leading to con
tinued use. The most important factor at this stage is a successful
trial which encourages and leads to adoption. Meetings and discussions
where those who have succeeded in trying the new idea can-talk about
their, experience with the new idea are re-enforcing stimulants for
adoption. Providing.those who tried and succeeded with.wide coverage
and publicity.through mass media is also re-enforcing.
After determining the categories the extension agents are trying
to reach and the stages of the adoption process they are trying to
achieve; the Sudanese extension agents were asked to determine, if they
72
' perceive themselves as utilizing these demonstration farms effectivelyo‘
They were asked to give reasons for their negative reply if their
perception was negative. Data in Table 24 show the perception of
the Sudanese extension agents as to the effectiveness of their utiliza
tion of the demonstration farms.
Table 24. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension.agentsv perception of their effective utilization of the demonstration farms. N = 90.
Effective Frequency Percentage
Yes 46 51.1
No 44 48.9
Total 90 100.0
Of the 90 respondents, 46 or 51.1% perceived themselves as
utilizing the demonstration farms effectively, while 44 or 48,9%
perceived themselves as not utilizing the demonstration farms effec
tively.
When asked earlier if they perceived the extension demonstra
tion farm as an effective teaching method, 88.9% of the respondents
revealed an affirmative response (Table 17). The main reasons provided
by those who gave a negative reply to their effective utilization of
these farms were:
73
1* The relationship between research people and the extension agents
is not defined and this resulted in lack of flow of technical
information between research and extension«
2» Limited financial and material resources»
Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used asFollow-Up to Increase Effectiveness, of Demon-stration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages
of the Adoption Process
Objective 4 of. this study was to determine what follow-up
teaching methods could be used to increase the effectiveness of demon
stration farms in the Sudan,, Data in Table 25 deal with the two most
effective methods, extension agents perceives to use as a follow-up to
. increase the effectiveness of the extension demonstration farms®
Table 25„ Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agentsT perception of the two most effective methods to be used as a follow-up o
Method Frequency Percentage
Method Demonstration 47 23.7Result Demonstration 42 21.2Tours 18 9.1Visits 18 9.1Exhibits 12 6.1Movies 12 6.1Meetings 10 5.1Radio and T.V. 10 5.1Office Calls 8 4.0Discussions 8 4.0Circular Letters 7 3.5Audio-Visuals 4 2.0Posters 2 1.0Total 198 100.0
74
The question for consideration was what methods can be effee- 1
tively used as a follow-up to encourage and convince farmers who
visited the demonstration farm to try the new ideas and practices
demonstrated in the extension demonstration farmso
Method and result demonstrations ranked at the top of the list
since they received 47 or 23.7% and 42 or 21.2%, respectively, of the
total responses„
Tours to innovators1 farms who were trying or adopting the new
ideas and practices demonstrated at the demonstration farm were also
important .as follow-up teaching- methods.
Farm visits to discuss individuals' problems regarding the
use of the new idea or practice were essential. Visits were also
necessary to ensure that the recommended techniques required for the
success of the new idea were followed.
Holding, .meetings and discussion groups where those who tried
the new ideas can talk about their experience is helpful. These
methods can encourage some farmers to try the new idea and at the
same time encourage those who tried it to adopt it. Wide publicity
through mass media and other channels for those who succeeded in trying
the new idea encourages others to adopt the new practice. Wide publi
city will assist some people to become interested in the new idea; help
those who are in the evaluation stage have favorable attitudes toward
the new idea; and encourage other people to adopt the new idea.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY? CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In keeping with the. purpose of this studys this chapter deals
with the summary of findings9 conclusions and recommendations based
upon the objectives of this study*
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study was to determine how Sudanese exten
sion agents perceive and utilize extension demonstration farms as ex
tension teaching methods designed to encourage farmers to adopt new
ideas and practices*
To achieve this purpose the following objectives were found
necessary:
(1) What purposes are served presently by the extension dem
onstration farms?
(2) What categories of adoption are the extension demonstra
tion farms attempting to reach?
(3) How effective are the extension demonstration farms in
achieving the various stages of the adoption process?
(4) What extension teaching methods can be used as follow-up
to increase effectiveness of extension demonstration farms to achieve
the various stages of the adoption process?
75
76
1 Summary of Findings
The summary of findings from this study are reported in terms
of. the objectives of. the study and organized under the same major
headings as in the presentation and interpretation of data0
The Purposes Presently Served by the Extension Demonstration Farms
1. Although originally designed to serve as-demonstration
farmss only 35«6% of the Sudanese extension agents indicated they are
used presently for this purpose; while 6662% of the extension agents
perceived and used them as model farms.
The Adoption; Categories to be Reached Through the Use of the Extension Demonstration Farms
1. By using these farms the majority of the extension agents
(57o7%) were trying to reach the local and.the community adoption
leaders; while 31,.2% of the extension agents were trying to reach the
majority and the laggards; and only 11.2% were trying to reach the in
novators.
2. The local and the community adoption leaders were the two
categories which ranked first and second (receiving 32.7% and 23.4% of
the responses, respectively) of the categories to visit the extension
demonstration farms; the majority was third; the laggards ranked fourth;
and the innovators were at the bottom.
3. Result demonstrations, method demonstrations, and tours were
the three methods used, within the extension demonstration farms.
77
' 4 e Result demonstrations9 method demonstrations, and tours
were the three most effective methods for use. with innovators5 commun
ity adoption leaders; local adoption leaders; and the majority,
5, Result demonstrations5 tours and exhibits were the most
effective to use for the laggards,
6, Result demonstrations and meetings were the two most ef
fective methods to use with the innovators, community adoption leaders
and the majority,
7, Irrespective of using a demonstration farm, result demon
stration and visits were identified as the two most effective methods
to use for the local adoption leaders,
8, Irrespective of using a demonstration farm, result and
method demonstrations were identified as the two most effective meth
ods for the laggards.
The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of the Adoption Process
1, Over 88% of the Sudanese extension agents perceive exten
sion demonstration farms as effective,
2a The extension demonstration farms were viewed as most
effective at the evaluation stage; followed by the trial stage; the
interest stage, the awareness stage, and least effective at the
adoption stage,
3o The two most effective methods for the different stages of)
the adoption process as perceived by the respondents were meetings and
78
method demonstration for the awareness stage; and method and result
demonstrations for. the interest , evaluation, trial, and adoption stages«
4o A majority of the Sudanese extension agents (51.1%)
perceived themselves as utilizing the demonstration farms effectively.
Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-up to Increase Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages of the Adoption Process
1. Method and result demonstrations were selected as the two
methods most useful as follow-up to increase the effectiveness of the
demonstration farms to achieve the various stages of the adoption
process.
Conclusions
Based upon the findings as presented in this chapter, the
following conclusions were drawn:
1». The Sudanese extension agents perception of the main pur
pose of the extension demonstration farms, to be more related to model
farms than to demonstration farms.
2. The extension agents perceive the extension demonstration
farms as an effective teaching method; however almost 50% are not
utilizing these farms, effectively. This is due, in part, to financial
and material resources as well as the lack of a defined relationship
between extension and research to guarantee a flow of information be
tween the two agencies.
3. There was no consensus as to what categories and at what
stage of the diffusion, process these extension demonstration farms are
79
‘most effective. For this reason there is no discrimination regarding
which categories of people are taken to visit the demonstration farms,
4 o Result and. method demonstrations as well as tours are ap
propriate methods to be conducted within the demonstration farms,
,, Rec ommend at ion s
Based upon the findings5 the conclusions, and the author’s
experience and acquaintance with extension work and extension workers
in the. Sudan, the author recommends the following:
1, A seminar be conducted at the Extension Headquarters in Sudan, in
volving key extension agents to discuss:
a. The main purpose of the extension demonstration farms,
b » The adoption categories to be reached through the use of these
extension demonstration farms,
Co The stage, or stages at which these demonstration farms will be
most effective,
d. The follow-up methods to be used to convince the target cate
gories to.try.and adopt the new practices and ideas demonstrated
in the demonstration farms,
2, Induction training is recommended to newly appointed extension
agents to give them orientation about:
a. The strategy of extension work in the Sudan,
b. How to report activities,
c. Teaching, methods to be used, with whom,, and to achieve what,
80
3c Defining and operating a proper relationship between extension
agents, research people and specialized personnel in other depart
ments (e.g*, Horticulture, Plant Protection, etc*)»
4c Since the resources available to extension are limited the exten
sion agents should be directed to set realistic targets or goals
to achieveo
5o Innovators, and both community and local adoption leaders should be
identified in each community»
6, The extension demonstration farms can be very effective if used with
the limited available resources to help those people who are ready
to try a new idea or a practice and in making them successful
demonstrators for otherso
7o. Insure successful trials of. new products, practices, and ideas by
innovators and. early adopters through continuous visiting to advise
and guideo
8c Mass media, visual aids, and meetings can be utilized successfully
to make people aware of and to create interest among them for new
ideas and practices*
9c Result demonstrations should be practiced on demonstration farms
to help community and local adoption leaders at the evaluation stage*
10. Method demonstrations should be conducted in the demonstration farms
to teach innovator and community and local adoption leaders the
techniques required for the success of. the new idea or practice,
11 o. Community and the local ..adoption leaders should be taken on tours to
innovators and demonstration farms where new ideas and practices are
demonstrated or tried*
12o Farm.visits should be conducted regularly as a follow-up to indi
vidual farmers to t
a. Encourage individuals to try new ideas and practices,
bo Understand the individualsf problems which may.hinder people
from trying the new ideas or practices and to discuss and
work out solutions for them.
G. Insure that techniques required for a successful trial are
performed and to give advice whenever needed or found
necessary.
13. Recognition.should be given to those who successfully tried the
new ideas and practices-thus acting as a reinforcer for adoption.
14. Recognitions and incentives should be available to those extension
workers who did a good job.
APPENDIX A
ASSESSMENT OF THE- EXTENSION DEMONSTRATION
FARMS AS AN EXTENSION TEACHING METHOD
Please answer the following questions by reading the question first and all the possible answers and then answer by placing a check (X) in the blank space provided in front of the answer*
I* Did you have any formal extension training? _____ yes noIF YES) did you study:
a) the communication, process? ____ yes j nob) the adoption process? yes _____ noc) the adoption categories? ____' yes _____ no
2 „ Do you or did you work in an extension office where an extension farm is used? yes no
3» Is the extension farm used primarily as a farm where..,* new methods and practices are tried? new crops are grown for the first time?
. _____ crops are grown in the ways t recommended by research workers?_____ crops are grown in both the traditional and the scientific
ways for comparison purposes?any other purpose not mentioned above? (If you checked this one please specify)
If your answer to question no * 1 was nc please do not answer questions 4 to 10 and move to answer question no* 11 and the rest of the questions*
4, Do you think the extension farms are a useful tool in teachingpeople new ideas and practices? yes no _____ donftknow*
5e Which of the following categories of people could be reached most easily by using these extension farms? (you can check more than one category)
82
83_____ Innovators_____ Community adoption leaders Local adoption leaders The majority_____ Late adopters (laggards)
What category or categories do you take to visit the extension farms? Innovators
: Community adoption leaders_____ Local adoption leaders The majority_____ Late adopters_____ All the people available ~
. At which stage/stages of the adoption process do you think the extension farms are most effective?_____ Awareness_____ Interest _____ Evaluation _ _ _ Trial _____ Adoption
What are the most appropriate extension teaching methods that could be used within the extension farms? (you can check more than one).
, - Result demonstration ___ _ Method demonstration Meetings
. Tours _____ Exhibits_____ Others (please specify) ____ • ______________________
What category/categories of people you think will benefit most from the method/methods you chose in question no. 8.
Innovators Commo Adoption Local Adop-Leaders tion Leaders
Result demonstration . _________________; ___________________Method demonstration ____________ , ____Meetings ' ;______ 'Tours . _ _ _ _ _ •Exhibits ' ' ' -____________Others ' - _________
The majority Late AdoptersResult demonstration - ■ 'Method demonstration , ■ .Meetings ________ ____ __ ___________Tours________________________________ ______________Others - _
84iOo What TWO extension teaching methods you think are most effective
to use as a follow-up to convince people to try the practices shown . in the demonstration farms?____________________ ____________
lie From, all the. extension methods you usually use write TWO which you think are most effective in*....a) the awareness stage
b) the interest stage
c) the evaluation stage
d) the trial stage
e) the adoption stage
12* From all the extension methods you usually use write TWO which you think are most effective to reach* *»* *a) the innovators _________________ ________ ______________________ _
b) the community adoption leaders _________________;____ ___
c) the local adoption leaders_________ ____________________________
d) the majority__________ ________________________________ _______
e) the late adopters________________________________________________
13* Do you think the extension workers are using these farms efficientlyto teach people new ideas and practices? yes no don't
know14* If no what do you suggest to improve the effectiveness of these
farms?
APPENDIX B
85
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APPENDIX G
COVER LETTER
Mr o _____
Please find attached a questionnaire to assess the role of
the Extension demonstration farms as a teaching method. This will be
the subject of my research for the degree of Master of Science (Exten
sion) . I think you are well acquainted with the importance of such
research to our country as a whole and to the Extension Service (Sudan)
in particular.
I am sure that you will kindly give this questionnaire your
quickest response so that, it will reach me in good time to enable me
to include your contribution in my research.
Please find enclosed a self addressed envelope to return the
quesionnaire in,
and thank you
Yours sincerely,
M.. A. MAATOUG,
3401 No Columbus Apt. #14F Tucson, AZ 85712 U.S.A.Jan.12, 1981
92
APPENDIX D COVER LETTER
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93
APPENDIX E
FOLLOW-UP LETTER
To:
June I s 1981 . ^
Dear Colleagues9
Further to my letter dated Jan. 12, 1981, I have received
some responses from some of you but they were not enough to carry out
my analysiso So I will be waiting for those of you who were not able
to answer the questionnaire yet to be able to carry out my research*
More copies of the questionnaire are available at the Exten
sion Headquarters at Khartoum North* The Director of the Extension
Directorate will send copy to you on request if you lost the former one*
Please feel free to ask for one*
I will be very grateful for your quick response of answering
the questionnaire and sending it to me at the address below,
and thanks.
Yours sincerely,
M e A* MAATOUG 3401 N* Columbus Apt* #14F Tucson, AZ 85712 U*S * A*
94
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LITERATURE CITED
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Alleyne* E 0 P, and C* Verner, "Personal Contacts and the Adoption of Innovations*" Journal of Extension* IX No0 I (1971)* 42-43,
Anderson* M, A, The Diffusion Process. Special Report No. 18* Ames* Iowa: Iowa State College* Agricultural Extension Service* March*1957* 2-3.
Bailey* W, C* "Result Demonstrations *" Journal of Cooperative Exten- sion. II No. 1 (1964)* 14.
Beal* G, M. et al. "Validity of the Concept of Stages in the AdoptionProcess *" Rural Sociology* 22: (1951)* 166-168.
Bohlen* G. M.* C. M. Coughenour* C, Milton* H. F. Lionberger* E. 0,Moe and E. 0. Rogers. Adopters of New Farm Ideas* North CentralRegional Extension Publication No. 13* 1969* 3* 4* 7* 8* 9.
Brown* L. R. The World Food Prospect. Science* 190 (4218): 1053-1059.
Christopherson* D. G. "The Exploitation of Research*" Advancement of Science* November* 1962* 276.
Copp* J. H. et al. "The Function of Information Sources in the Farm Practice Adoption Process*" Rural Sociology* 23: 91958) 146-147.
Hovland* C. I. and W. Weiss* "The Influence of Source Credability onCommunication Effectiveness *" Published, in Experiments in• Persuasion* New York, and London* Academic Press * 1967* 9-27.
Kelsey * I. D. and C. C. Eeame... Cooperative Extension Work* Ithaca*New York* Comstock Associates* A Division of Cornell University Press * 1963.
Lawson * W. M.. and H. M. Dail* "Sources of Information for Farmers*" Journal of Cooperative Extension* IV* No. 3* 164.
Mlhistry of Agriculture* Food and Natural Resources of the Democratic Republic df^the.Sudan. =Food and the Sudan— Some Facts Prepared for the United Nations World Conference on the World Food Problem*
• Rome* November 5-16* 1974. -96
97
NCRS Subcommittee Report, How Farm People Accept New Ideas, NorthCentral Regional Publication No. I, of the Agricultural Extension Services, Special Report No. 15, (reprint), Cooperative Extension Service, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, November, 1962.
Noordhoff, L. J. "Effective Communication in Extension," in Agricultural Extension, by A. H. Maunder, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1972.
Paul, L. C. "Is the Innovator Dead?" Journal of Extension, VIII, No.I, (1970), 9.
Pederson, H. A. "Cultural Differences in the Acceptance of Recommended Practices," Rural Sociology, 16: (1951), 37-49.
Poleman, T. T. World Food: A Perspective. Science 188(4188): 510-518.
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Rogers, E. M. Diffusion of Innovations, New York, The Free Press, 1966.
Sanders, H. C. The Cooperative Extension Service, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.
Singh, I. B . and B . N. Sahay, Communication Behavior and Social Change, Nagar, New Delhi, -8 , Bookehive Publishers and Booksellers, 26/18, East Patel, 1972.
Vine, C. A. and M. A. Anderson, Heritage Horizons— Extension Commitment to People, Journal of Extension, 605 Extension Building, 432 N.Lake Street, Madison, Wisconsin.
Wilkening, E. A. Acceptance of Improved Farm Practices, Raleigh, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin, 98, (1952), 16.
Wilkening, E. A. Adoption of Improved Farm Practices as Related to Family Factors, Madison, Wisconsin Experiment Station Research Bulletin, 183, (1953), 9.
Wilson, M. C. and G. Gallup, Extension Teaching Methods, Extension Service Circular 495, August, 1955, Federal Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.