Europe inThe 17th Century
The Age of Reason, Enlightenment,
Scientific Revolution,Neo-Classicism, and
Global Trade
The ScientificRevolution
Emphasis on experimentation and inductive reasoning
Scientific Method New methods of
observation: the microscope and the telescope
1645: Charles I chartered the Royal Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge
A replica of Isaac Newton's telescope of 1672.
Heliocentric Theory Nicholas Copernicus,
astronomer: On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543
Giordano Bruno, astronomer: burnt at the stake for teaching heliocentric theory and infinity of universe, 1600
Johannes Kepler, mathematician and physicist: laws of planetary motion; Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
Copernicus, Portrait from Toruń, 1580
Giordano Bruno
Johannes Kepler
Galileo Builds the First Telescope1609
Galileo Galilei1564-1642
Florentine astronomer Law of falling bodies: gravity Adapted Dutch lens in
to telescope: Saw Jupiter’s moons, Saturn’s
rings, phases of Venus and stars in the Milky Way
Proved heliocentric theory
The Starry Messenger, 1610 Dialogue Concerning the Two
Principal Systems of the World, 1632
Persecuted by Inquisition – forced to recant.
Sir Isaac Newton1643-1727
Mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher
Developed calculus contemporaneously but separately from Liebniz
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica: described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion
Opticks: discovered that light was composed of particlesGodfrey Kneller's Sir Isaac Newton at 46
The Age of Reason 17th c. philosophers broke with Medieval and Renaissance
scholasticism System-builders — philosophers who present unified systems of
epistemology, metaphysics, logic, and ethics, and often politics and the physical sciences
RATIONALISTS: Knowledge can be gained through the power of reason – mathematics as basis of knowledge Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz
EMPIRICISTS: Knowledge comes through the senses, through experience – physical sciences as basis of knowledge Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George
Berkeley, David Hume
René Descartes1596-1660
“Cogito ergo sum” “I think, therefore, I am”
“Father of Modern Philosophy,” “Father of Modern Mathematics”
Developed analytic geometry
Discourse on the Method: methodological skepticism – favors deduction over perception
René Descartes. Portrait by Frans Hals, 1648
Francis Bacon1561-1626
Leading advocate for empiricism
Inductive reasoning: fact > axiom > law
Novum Organum (New Method), 1620: advocated scientific study guided by precise methodology: experimentation, tabulation, record keeping
Separation of religion and science
The Enlightenment
18th c. movement in European and American philosophy and intellectual thought which advocated REASON as the primary basis for authority.
Period is marked by: Nation building Government consolidation Systemization of knowledge: academies, encyclopedias,
dictionaries Decline in power of authoritarian institutions such as the
church and nobility Greater rights for common people
Prominent Enlightenment Philosophers
Thomas Paine
Mary Wollstonecraft
Voltaire
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
David Hume
A CLASS SOCIETY
The Aristocracy Professionals
Scientists Physicians Attorneys Clergy Literati Military Officers
Merchants and Bankers Tradespeople Working Class
Domestic Servants Hired labor Apprentices The Unemployed: debtors,
beggars,thieves Peasants
Gin Lane (1751). Etching and Engraving by William Hogarth.
The New York Public Library.
Poverty and Unemployment
Displaced agrarian labor
No social safety net Education only for the
elite Child labor Cheap gin
Societal Ideals
Clear hierarchical structures Public life more important than private life Decorum: well-defined codes of behavior Society: importance of the social group and shared
opinion Marriage and family as a social microcosm Urbane: the city is the center of human discourse –
the country is pastoral, an idealized refuge for renewal and relaxation, or the venue of the ignorant “country bumpkins”
Wit: the importance of language used well
Vauxhall Gardens (1784). A drawing by Thomas Rowlandson. Victoria and Albert Royal Museum.
Samuel Johnson
James Boswell Hester Thrale
Oliver Goldsmith
Duchess of Devonshire Mary “Perdita” Robinson
Prince of Wales
Social Gatherings
A London coffeehouse. The British Museum
Coffee and News
Periodicals and Newpapers
Addison and SteeleThe Spectator
Periodical EssaysLiterary CriticismCharacter SketchesPolitical DiscussionPhilosophical Ideas
Literary Salons
Intellectual and literary circles formed around women
Brought together members of society and philosophers and artists
Emphasis on conversation and wit
A reading of Molière, Jean François de Troy, ca. 1728
Neo-Classicism
The consideration of Greek and Roman art and literature as “the canon” of art
Adoption of Classical conventions into art, architecture and literature
Desire for stability and order Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns
The Ancients: Greece and Rome established standards and models never to be excelled
The Moderns: those standing on the shoulders of their predecessors could see farther – the new could excell the ancient
G. P. Pannini assembles the canon of Roman ruins and Roman sculpture into one vast imaginary gallery (1756)
Neo-Classical Artist
Social Arbiter of Taste Elitist Moral Intellectual Critic
Louis Michel van Loo Portrait of Diderot
Artistic Conventions Verisimilitude
a semblance of truth Hazlitt: “ the close imitation of men and manners… the very texture of
society as it really exists.” recognizable settings and characters in real time elimination of fantastic and supernatural elements
Morality Revelation of ideal moral patterns Poetic justice: the good are rewarded and the wicked punished God’s plan is inevitably just
Universality Social norms are unchanged regardless of period or locale
Decorum Appropriate adherence to contemporary behavioral standards
J. S. Muller after Samuel Wale, A General Prospect of Vaux Hall Gardens Shewing at one View the disposition of the whole Gardens
(after 1751).
ARTIFICE
ARTIFICE Art as an improvement upon nature Neo-classical ideals: balance, harmony, reason Gardens Major poetic forms:
Heroic couplets: rhymed iambic pentameter (English): / / / / ں ں ں ں / ں
Alexandrines: rhymed iambic hexameter (French): / / / / / ں ں ں ں ں / ں
Epic and mock epic Poetic essay
Literary Genres Drama: comedy and tragedy Epistle: public letters in poetry or prose Epic: didactic, idealistic, Ode: occasional poem in praise of an event or person Satire: exposure of public and private foolishness
Mock epics Mock odes
Epigrams: pithy, witty ideas Novels: realistic portrayals of bourgeois life
Social Satire
Voltaire, Candide Alexander Pope
Mock epic: “The Rape of the Lock”
Literary Satire: “The Dunciad
Jonathan Swift “A Modest Proposal” Gulliver’s Travels
The Laughing Audience (1733). Etching and engraving by William Hogarth. The New York Public Library
Entertainment
TheatreOpera
Symphony
French Neoclassical Theatre, 17th-18th C.
Modelled theatre on Greek and Roman examples Disdained English Elizabethan theatre’s
“messiness” and eclecticism Neoclassical Conventions
Decorum Verisimilitude Universal truths Poetic: Alexandrines 5 act structure 3 unities: time, place action
Tragedy and Comedy
Rulers/nobility Affairs of state Unhappy ending Lofty poetic style Revealed the horrible
results of mistakes and misdeeds committed from passion
Corneille and Racine
Middle class/bourgeosie Domestic/private affairs Happy ending – often deus
ex machina Ordinary speech Ridicules behavior that
should be avoided Moliere
Pierre Corneille1606-1684
Known as “the founder of French tragedy”
Chafed under the critical strictures of Cardinal Richelieu and the Académie Français
Le Cid 1637Querelle de Cid
Jean-Baptiste Poquelin Moliére1622-1673 Playwright, actor, producer – headed his
own theatrical company Favorite of Louis XIV – troupe was
established at court: Palais Royale Theatre Influenced by commedia dell arte and by
Roman comedies and French farces – he used these forms to ridicule social and moral pretensions.
Le Misanthrope, (The Misanthrope), L'École des femmes (The School for Wives), Tartuffe ou l'Imposteur, (Tartuffe or the Hypocrite), L'Avare ou l'École du mensonge (The Miser), Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).
Jean Racine1639-1699
• First tragedies originally produced by Moliere’s company – he defected to the rival Hôtel de Bourgogne
• Most of his tragedies are based on classical themes and tragedies
• Considered the master of the Alexandrine line
• Major works:Andromaque (1667) Britannicus(1669) Bérénice (1670) Iphigénie (1674) Phèdre (1677)
English Restoration Theatre Theatres reopened
with restoration of Charles II
French influence:ActressesHeroic
coupletsNeoclassical
modes:Social
comediesHeroic
tragedies
Comedy of MannersWitty--
language driven
Satirical of social mores
RisqueMarriage
and moneyPainting of the interior of the Drury Lane Theater.
Thomas Rowlandson. The British Library.
England’s first professional female author:
Aphra Behn
Novelist Venice Preserv'd The History of the
Nun Love Letters
between a Nobleman and his sister (1684)
The Fair Jilt (1688) Oroonoko (c.1688) The Unfortunate
Happy Lady: A True History
Playwright The Forced
Marriage (1670) The Amorous Prince
(1671) Abdelazar (1676) The Rover (1677-
81) The Feign'd
Curtezans (1679) The City Heiress
(1682) The Lucky Chance
(1686) The Lover's Watch
(1686) The Emperor of the
Moon (1687) Lycidus (1688)
Commerce
The Royal Exchange. Engraving by Bartolozzi. The British Library
The Rise of the Middle Class
Increased LiteracyLeisure Time
International TradeEmpire Building
Triangular Trade
Global Cooling: 1550-1700The Little Ice Age
Shorter growing seasons Rising grain prices Increased illness – outbreaks of the plague in
Europe and China Shifts in fishing and trade patterns
Frost Fair on the Thames River,1677
Pieter Breughel, 1565Hunters in the Snow
Transculturation
“The Age of Discovery was largely over, the age of imperialism as yet to come. The seventeenth century was the age of improvisation.” Timothy Brook, Vermeer’s Hat
Mutual influence among cultures – negotiation and borrowing
Age of mobility Europeans adopted new technologies: magnetic
compass, paper, gunpowder – all invented in China
China’s Demand for Silver
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=2158
Potosi Silver Mine
New Spain
Center for Chinesetraders
Manila Galleon
VermeerThe Geographer1668-69
VermeerThe Astronomer1668
Model: Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek?
Genre painting – science embodied in astronomy and geography
The Terrestrial Globe
The Celestial Globe
Jan Vermeer, 1632-75View of Delft, 1658
Warehouse of the Dutch East India Company
The pre-eminence of Holland in Global Trade: The Dutch East Indies Co.
Officer and Laughing Girl1655-60
Interior with a Dordrecht Family (detail)Nicolaes Maes1656
Delft China 18th Century, Companie Des Indes
Girl Reading a Letter1657-59
Woman Asleep,1656-57
Woman Holding a Balance1662-65
Dutch Silver Ducat
The Emergence ofWOMEN ARTISTS
andWOMEN LOOKING AT THEMSELVES
Sofonisba Anguisolac. 1532- 1625
Self-Portrait, c. 1554
Italian Spent 10 yrs. at court
of Philip II in Madrid An aristocrat, not
daughter of painter but encouraged by her father
Numerous self-portraits -- more than any other artist between Dürer & Rembrandt
Sofonisba Anguisola, The Chess Game, 1559
Sofonisba Anguisola, Portrait of Queen
Anne of Austria, 1570
Sofonisba Anguisola, Self-Portraits, 1610 and 1620
Lavinia Fontana 1552-1614
• Daughter of painter in Bologna
• First woman to have normal successful artistic career -- she had a very helpful husband who supported her in her career and helped to care for their many children
• 32-57 extant paintings (over 100 listed) including still-lifes, small and large scale Biblical and mythological works, and altarpieces (very rare for women artists of this time period)
• In 1572, she received a papal commission and was elected to the Roman Academy. Self Portrait, 1577
Lavinia Fontana, Noli Me Tangere,
1581
Clara Peeters1589-1657
• Clara Peeters was born possibly in Antwerp, Holland.
• By the time she was seventeen, her works indicate that she was already a highly accomplished artist.
• She specialized in still life studies of gorgeous objects, luscious fruits, exotic flowers and expensive food.
• She was also a portraitist whose works included self-portraits.
Still Life, n.d.
Vanitas c. 1610
Artemesia Gentileschi1593-1652
• Daughter of painter Orazio Gentileschi, a follower of Caravaggio
• Raped by teacher Agostino Tossi
• Married to a Florentine and moved to Florence
• Considered to be 1st influential woman artist
• Biblical and mythical subjects with heroines -- female nudes-- psycho-drama rather than physical charm
• Strong personalitySelf-Portrait as a Female Martyr, c. 1615
Artemesia Gentileschi, Jael and Sisera, 1620
Artemesia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying
Holofernes, 1612-13
• Judith as model of psychic liberation -- female who acts- confrontation of sexes from female point of view
Artemesia Gentileschi, Judith and Her Maidservant1613-1614
Artemesia Gentileschi, Cleopatra, 1621-22Her first reclining nude -- departs from tradition by
showing effects of gravity
Woman Playing the Lute, 1610-
12
Artemesia Gentileschi
Artemesia Gentileschi, Pittura, 1630
Judith Leyster1609-60
One of 2 female members of the painters' guild in her native Haarlem
an independent Dutch artist with her own workshop & pupils.
Her work was influenced by Frans Hals
Lively genre scenes popular with newly-rich merchants.
Self-Portrait, 1635
Judith Leyster, The Musicians, 1631-33
Judith Leyster,
A Game of Cards
Mary Beale, 1633-99
Daughter of a puritan rector, an amateur painter.
Became a well-known portrait painter who supported her family by her painting.
Self-Portrait, 1675
Her husband, Charles gave up his occupation in the Patents Office to join her in her studio to prepare her canvases and mix her paints.
He experimented with pigments and became an expert in the field, sometimes selling his ideas from his “tryalls” to other artists.
It was interest not necessity that made Mary and Charles such a good partnership.
Mary Beale Portrait of Aphra Behn
Elisabetta Sirani(1638-65)
Daughter of a Bolognese artist, she took over his studio when he developed gout.
Known for religious and historical scenes.
Opened the first studio for women artists.
Self-Portrait, ca. 1660
Elisabetta Sirani
Timoclea, 1659
“This year's (1994) Traditional Holiday stamp is the first to depict the work of a woman artist. Elisabetta Sirani's Virgin & Child was chosen for the stamp.
An artist of international renown, Sirani created 190 pieces during the 1660s, a time when there were very few women artists. She established a painting school for women in her early twenties and was so beloved in her native Bologna that the entire city went into mourning when she died at age twenty-seven.
Her depiction of the Virgin and child has been admired both for its technical mastery and for its tenderness.”
Virgin and Child, 1663 Elisabetta Sirani