Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
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Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
James M. Dunn
Upaya Chaplaincy Program
March 6, 2010
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Abstract In the last several decades an increasing number of empirical studies have offered strong evidence that meditative and contemplative practices have great value in health-care and mental health as well as improving well-being in general. This paper reviews this literature with special emphasis on the benefits of these practices in a correctional setting and explores the benefits of meditation and contemplative practices as they might apply to restorative justice. After reviewing several methods of meditation practice and how they work, the paper explores the benefits of meditation in general and then focuses more specifically on the benefits of meditation in a prison environment. Some of the key benefits noted are enhanced sense of well-being, improved health with a reduction of medical problems such as high blood pressure, increased self-esteem, lower substance abuse issues, greater anger management skills, significant reduction in aggressive behavior, fewer prison rule infractions and an overall positive change in behavior. Also, better adaptive responses to the stresses of life in general including those encountered in the correctional system. The paper also develops the relationship between meditative practice and restorative justice. The primary point is that as meditative practices develop, self-awareness grows and the inmates capacity to accept responsibility for their actions also grows. This capacity for responsible participation is a critical factor in successful restorative justice programs Table of Contents: I. INTRODUCTION II. Introduction to Meditation, Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices A. Buddhist bases for meditation B. What is Mindfulness? C. How Meditation Works
III. Clinical Applications A. MBSR B. Other Mindfulness Based Therapies C. Cultivating Mindfulness
IV. Empirical Evidence for Mindfulness Awareness Practices in Correctional Settings
V. Mindfulness and Restorative Justice
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VI. Discussion
A. Meditation: Religious or Secular? B. References
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the last several decades, there have been several promising developments in our
approach to the challenges of crime and criminal justice. This paper will focus on two of these
developments: contemplative practices (including meditation and mindfulness) within the
prison system and restorative justice. It may not be immediately apparent how these two
disparate developments apply to the criminal justice system, but it is the intention of this
paper to show that these two trends can come together in a way that can be applied in the
prison system. I will also discuss the benefits of meditative or contemplative practices, both
in general and specifically to the their value in a correctional setting.
Meditative and contemplative practices are derived primarily from the Eastern religions,
especially Buddhism. Most notable are the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MSBR)
programs and mindfulness-based cognitive therapies (MBCT) that have emerged from the
work begun by Jon Kabat-Zinn thirty years ago. MBSR programs have demonstrated
successes in a variety of areas, especially the medical and behavioral sciences. Additionally,
recent findings in the field of neurobiology demonstrate how these programs can actually
alter the brain through its capacity for neuroplasticity, the brains ability to develop new
connections and neurons. Because the brain has this capacity, meditation practices can
actually “rewire” or alter the brain in ways that literally change the mind and lead to more
prosocial behaviors (Siegal, 2007, 2010), thereby offering the possibility of a truly
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transformative corrections program.
This paper will explore how these meditative practices might apply within the
correctional system. A rapidly growing body of empirical evidence shows the value of
meditation in a number of areas related to health-care and mental health. There also is a
growing number of studies directly related to meditation in prison, both as way to improve
inmate behavior and well-being while incarcerated, as well as a way to reduce recidivism and
relapses back into drug and alcohol addictions (Zgierska, 2009; Marlatt 2002). While the
number of studies that directly apply to prison are limited, there are a large number relating
to behavioral problems often seen in prison populations, including addiction, aggression,
depression, post traumatic stress disorder, and health-care issues such as high blood
pressure. The potential cost benefits for health-care alone are significant, but the real benefit
is the possibility of restoring the human potential typically lost within the correctional system.
The other development in criminal justice is the restorative justice movement, which
offers new ways of dealing with crime and criminal justice by bringing healing and
reconciliation both to the victim and into the community. Restorative justice has its origins
first in the indigenous traditions of North America and other parts of the world. Then, working
from these principles, a group of Mennonites began trying to apply them in Canada to the
criminal justice system. Today, the restorative justice movement is becoming well established
as an alternative approach throughout the Canadian criminal justice system and beginning to
take root in the United States, New Zealand and other places (Zehr, H., 2002).
Section II discusses the meaning of meditation and the various ways that the term is
used. The paper will also explore the various practices used in several traditions and the
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theoretical basis for their positive effects on physical and mental well-being in general.
Section III will discuss some of the clinical applications, and Section IV reviews empirical
studies of the impact of meditative practices on physical and emotional health, with an
emphasis on studies of the use of meditation and mindfulness awareness practices in a
corrections environment. Section V introduces the concepts of restorative justice and the
potential benefits that mindfulness practices might add. Section VI concludes the paper with
a discussion of the relevance of the findings of these studies to the challenges and benefits of
introducing meditation practices into the correctional system.
Section II. Introduction to Meditation, Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices
A. Buddhist bases for meditation
Contemplative and meditative practices of one type or another have been in use for
centuries in all of the major religions and have been generally found to be of value. Although
some of the monastic branches of Christianity have maintained a contemplative tradition, the
mainstream Western traditions seem to have lost touch with these practices in the scientific
era. However, with the growing interest in Eastern thought in the last 50 or so years, various
contemplative and meditation practices have become almost mainstream in Western society.
Beginning with the Hindu-based practice of Transcendental Meditation (TM) as taught by
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in the 1960s, meditation practices have steadily emerged as an
important method for developing well-being, relieving stress and providing some measure of
happiness. Since that time, a growing interest in Buddhist practices has brought a wide
variety of meditative practices to the West and has inspired the Centering Prayer movement
within the Catholic Church (Keating, 1994, 2009). As result of this profusion of forms and
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practices, a discussion of what is meant by meditation and a review several of the major
practices seems appropriate.
For the purposes of this paper, meditation is the overarching term that will include a
variety of meditative practices. (For a full discussion of the issues and concerns in defining
the various forms of meditation see Lutz, A., Dunne, J.D., Davidson, R.J. (2007), Lutz, A.,
Slagter, H., Dunne, J., & Davidson, R. (2008) and Bishop, S. R. et al (2004)). Mindfulness
awareness practices (MAPs) (Siegel, 2007) will be used primarily as the general term for
those practices based on Eastern thought and especially on Buddhist teachings. These
include mindfulness meditation, insight meditation (also called vipassana) and Zen meditation
(also called zazen). These will be the major focus of this paper. Contemplation will refer
primarily to the Christian practices that include centering prayer, lectio divina and
contemplative prayer (Keating, 2009).
Although movement meditations such as yoga, tai chi and qigong appear to offer
similar benefits, significant research is lacking, and therefore little emphasis is placed on
these practices. While all of these practices differ in specific techniques, all types of
meditation can be viewed as mental training not unlike physical training. They all share a
common goal of developing attention and awareness to become more finely attuned to
events and experiences in the present moment in an open, nonjudgmental manner.
In traditional Buddhist psychology, meditation is an essential part of the spiritual path
if one hopes to advance to any meaningful degree. The central goal of Buddhist practice is
the alleviation or cessation of suffering, which is broadly defined as the pervasive
unsatisfactoriness of our ordinary life. The underlying root of this suffering is a mistaken or
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defective understanding of the contingent nature of reality and of what is the true source of
well-being or happiness. Any remedy to correct this fundamental misapprehension must alter
the habitual thought processes that are the source of suffering, and they must do this in a
way that will actually uproot these deeply established habitual patterns. This is the intention
of the various meditation practices found in all Buddhist traditions (Nyanaponika, 1965;
Gunuratana, 2002).
Although there is a diversity of practices, they may be viewed as two primary types:
concentrative practices or focused attention practices, and receptive or open monitoring
practices. Focused attention practices are the most basic and are the usual starting point for
new practitioners. The primary technique is to direct attention to an object, most often the
breath, and to sustain attention and to return to the object when attention wanders. Open
monitoring involves no explicit focus on objects and maintains a nonreactive monitoring of
whatever arises in the mind moment-to-moment (Austin, 2009; Lutz, A., Slagter, H., Dunne,
J., & Davidson, R., 2008). Open monitoring meditation is also known as bare attention in the
Theravadan tradition of Buddhism practiced in Southeast Asia and beginner’s mind in the Zen
traditions.
B. What is Mindfulness?
Mindfulness has become the dominate term for meditation in the West and especially in the
scientific literature. Jon Kabat-Zinn, the pioneer in applied mindfulness practices in a secular
context, defines mindfulness as paying attention on purpose to what is happening in the
present moment with an attitude of openness and acceptance, and without adding concepts
or elaborations, dropping our emotional reactions to whatever may be occurring. He further
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states that mindfulness “involves above all the regular, disciplined practice of moment-to-
moment awareness or mindfulness, the complete 'owning' of each moment of your
experience, good, bad, or ugly” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Bishop, et al. (2004) proposed a two-
component definition of mindfulness. “The first component involves the self-regulation of
attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased
recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves
adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the present moment, an
orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance (Bishop, et al,
2004).” Mindfulness, then, can be thought of as a state or mode of awareness that is
characterized by an attitude that is non-judgmental and that can be developed by regulating
attention intentionally.
It can be cultivated by a variety of mindfulness awareness practices which all share
common procedures. Sitting-meditation is the most common method taught and will serve as
an example of how these approaches work. The meditator sits in an erect posture, either on
the floor cross-legged or in a chair, and places attention on the in and out flow of the breath,
focusing on either the out breath at the nostrils or on the rise and fall of the abdomen. When
attention wanders, the meditator simply notes the distraction and returns to the breath. This
is repeated throughout the meditation session. After some stability has been attained, the
meditator may let go of the focus on the breath and simply note whatever experience arises
with an attitude of openness, acceptance and without making judgments or elaborations on
their significance (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002; Bishop, et al, 2004).
It should be noted that mindfulness is not the same as relaxation. Although reduced
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tension and feelings of stress may be a desirable outcome of mediating, this is not the
primary purpose for practice. Relaxation techniques are usually taught as means of coping
with stress and are usually applied at times of stress and are, therefore, serving as goal-
directed activities. Mindfulness practices, on the other hand, are intended to cultivate
awareness and the ability to maintain non-judgmental presence. This is intended to lead to
insight into one's thought processes and to increased well-being.
Centering prayer is the method that was developed by the Rev. Thomas Keating, a
Roman Catholic priest. Based on The Cloud of Unknowing by an anonymous fourteenth-
century writer and the works of St. John of the Cross, it is intended to bring practitioners into
the presence of God, thereby fostering contemplation. In the Catholic tradition this is
considered to be a pure gift of the spirit. Father Keating had observed that a number of
young people were leaving the church and exploring the Eastern meditative practices and
were actually experiencing contemplative states sought but rarely obtained by Catholic
monastics. Keating and some of his fellow monastics learned TM, and they also actually sat
for several sesshins (a week-long intensive meditation retreat) led by a Zen master. Lectio
Divina (a method of contemplation as applied to the reading of scripture) is another
meditative technique that also is intended to lead to the gift of contemplation (Keating,
2009). Although there is little research on the benefits of these practices, there is
considerable evidence that shows religious practice supports health and longevity (Carmody,
et. al. 2008).
In practice, centering prayer usually uses a short prayer or a word as the focus of
one's attention with a clear intention “to consent to God's presence and action within us”
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(Keating, 2009, p28). This is said to enable the supplicant to let go of his or her entrenched
emotional programs and to begin to move deeper toward the “Divine Indwelling” that is the
source of the divine energy or “ground of being” (Keating, 2009).
C. How Meditation Works
Mindfulness can be considered both a trait or mode of awareness and the practice that
develops a state of awareness or of being in the present moment. The state of being mindful
can be looked at in terms of the underlying physiological mechanisms or in terms of its
underlying psychological mechanisms.
The body of research examining the physiological mechanisms of consciousness has
been burgeoning with the availability of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), EEG
and other techniques. These tools to explore the neurological substrates of the brain have
allowed for much greater understanding of how MAPs operate in the brain. One of the most
important results to emerge from the field of neurobiology is the concept of neuroplasticity,
which states that the brain can continue to develop new neurons and new neural connections
well into old age. This means the brain continues to develop in response to experience, and
trait changes are quite possible (Davidson & Lutz, 2007). Among these new findings is
evidence that long-term meditators may actually alter the structure of their brains. These
changes include significant growth of neural tissue in the brain and can alter how the brain
works as a system. For example, Richard Davidson, a leading researcher in the field, finds
that mindfulness practice enables individuals to regulate their emotions in a positive direction
and are better able to regulate negative emotional states (Davidson 2004). Neuroplasticity
also applies to changes in brain function and in mental experience including feeling and
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mental balance. There are also demonstrated changes in stress response and improved
immune function (See Siegel, 2007, 2010 for a complete discussion of mindfulness and
neuroplasticity). In another study, Lutz , et al (2008) found that long-term meditators
demonstrate increased empathic responses, more so than novice meditators, although
novices did show some degree of increased empathic response after limited practice times. K.
Rubia (2009) reviewed several studies that emphasized physiological aspects of several
different meditation techniques and concluded that there are short-term and long-term
effects on functional and structural neuroplasticity. There are also physiological indicators for
stress relief and relaxation. Long-term meditators also showed enhanced emotional balance
and were better able to maintain focused attention when compared to short-term
practitioners.
On a psychological level, mindfulness provides an impressive set of skills. The
underlying principle of mindfulness awareness is that it develops non-judgmental, present-
moment awareness (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). This attitude of non-elaborative, open acceptance
can be developed by mindfulness awareness practice and involves a self-awareness that
allows one to witness his or her thought processes without altering them. This is a non-
judgmental attitude of curiosity, openness, acceptance and is a “state of mindfulness that is
open and receptive to whatever arises in the field of awareness” (Siegel, 2007 p. 332). This
attitude, which is called bare attention in the Theravadan vipassana tradition, is the condition
for clear comprehension and the ability to see things as they are (Nyanaponika, 1965), and
all theories of mental health contend that an accurate perception of reality is the hallmark of
psychological adjustment (Brown, et al. 2007). In one study, Brown and Ryan (2003)
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argued that mindfulness may facilitate well-being directly, by adding clarity and vividness to
current experience. They further state that mindfulness encourages closer, moment-to-
moment sensory contact with life, that is, without a dense filtering of experience through
discriminatory thought.
A mechanism posited by Shapiro (2006) that points to how bare attention operates is
“reperceiving,” which is a shift in perspective whereby the subject of attention becomes the
object of attention. Shapiro considers this to be the underlying mechanism of mindfulness
that allows one to become a witness to the drama of one's life. Shapiro posits that
reperceiving alters the relationship one has to experience and brings about four variables:
self-regulation, values clarification, greater cognitive and behavioral flexibility and exposure
that leads to the beneficial outcomes of practice. This awareness of awareness is similar to
what other writers have called metacognition (Siegel, 2007). This sense of self-awareness or
metacognition is also a factor in improved self-regulation (Barnes, Et al., 2006, Shapiro,
2006).
Secure or optimal self-esteem has been shown to be associated with reduced
aggressive behavior and should be considered as distinct from contingent self-esteem, which
is dependent on external factors (Ryan, Brown, 2006; Heppner, et al. 2008). Contingent self-
esteem is fragile and unstable. Contingent, or high, inflated self-esteem, is dependent on
outside factors such as feeling respected or having social acceptance. This type of self-
esteem can easily become threatened by insults or rejection, and these threats can trigger
aggressive reactions. A high degree of ego-involvement, which relies on a particular outcome
or experience, is also seen to be related to fragile, unstable self-esteem and is vulnerable to
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aggressive reactions in the case of failure or other negative results. Ryan and Brown (2006)
argue that the cultivation of awareness, operationalized as mindfulness, is the means to
develop optimal self-esteem. Mindfulness, with its aspects of open and accepting awareness,
offers a mechanism to reduce the aggressive reactions that are often typical of criminal
offenders and therefore can enhance secure self-esteem.
A simple standard meditation task involving eating a raisin with complete mindfulness
has been shown to bring about a reduction in aggression as measured by a standardized
questionnaire. Heppner et al. (2008) suggest that alternative mechanisms involving
mindfulness may also play a role. As mentioned, improved self-regulation as been shown to
be enhanced by mindfulness practices. Mindfulness seems to be linked with a sense of
connectedness with others and feelings of compassion.
In another recent study, Borders, et al. (2010) argued that rumination is a significant
underlying factor in anger and aggressive actions. This study offered evidence that
mindfulness has the potential to decrease rumination and other behavioral components of
aggression. The ability to distance oneself from the events of one's life allows for a new way
of relating to experience. Tolerance of negative or unpleasant emotions becomes easier, and
thus maladaptive, habitual patterns lose their hold, offering a degree of freedom. For
example, in many addictive behaviors, the addict turns to alcohol or drugs in response to an
emotion or situation perceived to be intolerable. However, as mindfulness is developed, the
addicts ability to see the situation as a mental state that is impermanent develops, and he
learns that there are other, more skillful means of responding.
As one's practice of mindfulness develops, it becomes possible to clarify the
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established set of conditioned values that may never have been examined and to revise one's
relationship with the world. This also implies increased flexibility along with the opportunity to
become less rigid as one learns to let go of long-held patterns and beliefs. Another
mechanism offered by Shapiro is exposure or the ability to tolerate very strong emotional
states and even pain with objectivity. In fact Kabat-Zinn's MBSR programs were originally
started as a means of aiding with patients suffering from chronic pain.
It should be apparent that many of these issues -- contingent or inflated self-esteem,
inability to tolerate negative or unpleasant emotions, confused or an ineffective set of values
-- often characterize many of those individuals encountered in the criminal justice system.
Section III: Clinical Applications
A. MBSR
Jon Kabat-Zinn's MSBR program is perhaps the best known and most influential source
for bringing meditation and mindfulness out of its essentially Buddhist context and applying
these techniques to the health-care field. Originally, MBSR was developed in the early 1980s
at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center as an attempt to improve the outcomes for
cardiac patients and those with other medical issues thought to be stress-related which are
not amenable to traditional medical interventions (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) . This eight-week
program proved to be quite successful in improving the health and well-being of those who
applied its techniques. Since that time, there has a rapidly growing body of research
supporting MBSR programs and their benefits and a growing interest in developing new areas
where mindfulness can be beneficial including health care, education, business and law
(Duerr, 2004), and to some extent in the criminal corrections system. MBSR is also being
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offered in non-clinical settings as means of enhancing life skills and well-being.
There are seven factors or attitudes that are foundations to mindfulness practices as
stated by Kabat-Zinn: 1. Non-judging – being an impartial witness to experience; 2. Patience
— understanding and accepting that “sometimes things must unfold in their own time;” 3.
Beginner’s Mind — dropping our ideas and beliefs about things and seeing the world as if for
the first time; 4. Trust — developing confidence in your own feelings and intuitions, your
own authority; 5. Non-striving — realizing that there is nowhere to go, you are already here;
6. Acceptance — seeing things as they actually are in the present; and 7. Letting go —
releasing thoughts, feelings, and situations that the mind seems to want to hold on to (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990). These attitudes, perhaps be condensed into acceptance or equanimity and they
can be cultivated with practice and are at heart of all meditative and contemplative practices.
In the eight-week MSBR program, participants are given several practices to use. First,
they are taught to use a formal meditation practice, which usually done in a sitting position.
A body scan and movement meditations in the form of simple yoga techniques and walking
meditation are also included. Weekly classes last two to three hours, and all participants are
asked to practice 45 minutes each day between classes alternating these practices. They are
also encouraged to bring mindfulness to their activities throughout the day.
B. Other Mindfulness Based Therapies
Since MBSR began about 30 years ago, several mindfulness-based clinical applications
have emerged. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale,
2002), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes et al., 1999), Dialectical Behavior
Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993a), and variants of these approaches have been studied and
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overall found to be beneficial overall in different contexts. MBCT has been most widely used
for a variety of mental health issues and demonstrated to be effective in treatment of
depression, and especially in prevention of relapse from depression. Mindfulness is a key
component of DBT which has been one of only therapies effective in the treatment of border
line personality disorder. Although it does explicitly present mindfulness as a practice, ACT
uses many of the strategies drawn from MBSR and mindfulness awareness practices has been
found beneficial for various clinical problems. Mindfulness has also been demonstrated to be
efficacious in preventing relapse for substance abuse problems (Marlatt, 1994). Overall, in a
thorough review of the literature concerning mindfulness-based interventions, Baer (2003)
found that these techniques are demonstrated to be efficacious to varying degrees, although
the research is ongoing and cannot yet be considered definitive.
Other reviews of the research of MBSR and mindfulness-based clinical interventions
have all been supportive. As the underlying mechanism for the effectiveness is being
researched, it is becoming clear that these approaches have value in both treating clinical
disorders, as well as improving human well-being. Grossman et al. (2004) concluded that
mindfulness training is of value in improving coping with the challenges of everyday life as
well as more serious disorders. In a more recent literature review, Santo & Pinto (2009) also
conclude that mindfulness-based approaches are of value in the management of a range of
mental and physical health issues.
Another MBSR approach is mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP) proposed by
G. Alan Marlatt (Marlatt, 2002, Bowen, et al., 2009). This approach is based on Buddhist
psychology and cognitive-behavioral treatment approaches. The emphasis is on the mind-
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based nature of addictive behaviors and how thoughts and expectations influence addiction.
It offers a “middle way” approach that can allow for continued substance use but with harm-
reduction training if total abstinence is unacceptable to the client. To date the research is
quite supportive of MBRP.
Another literature review by Greeson (2008) concludes that the current research on
mindfulness has demonstrated its beneficial effects on several aspects of whole-person
health, including the mind, the brain, the body and behavior. The growing body of research
points to the beneficial effects of mindfulness practices involving shifts in cognition,
emotion, physical health and behavior that work together to improve well-being. Mindfulness
practice has also been demonstrated to enhance a greater sense of meaning and
peacefulness in one's spiritual life and in improved social relationships. Additionally, the
developing field of neurobiology with its cutting-edge technologies of brain imaging are
providing a solid physiological basis for mindfulness practice (Greeson, 2008; Rubia, 2009).
Finally, it seems that research is proving what Buddhists and other meditators
have known for centuries — that greater attention, openness, acceptance and compassion
can bring about more adaptive responses to the stresses of life, which, in turn, can help free
us from suffering and realize greater health and well-being.
C. Cultivating Mindfulness
One question that arises in considering the value of mindfulness practices is the degree
to which is mindfulness a personality trait compared to the degree to which mindfulness can
be cultivated and what methods are most suitable. In traditional Buddhist teaching, the
cultivation of mindfulness is a given. In fact, the Pali – the language of the earliest Buddhist
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teachings -- word for meditation is bhavana, which more precisely means mental cultivation
and is a meditation practice that develops mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2002). However, as
indicated above, with Jon Kabat-Zinn's development of MBSR and the work of many
researchers, we now have a large body of evidence supporting the possibility of developing
and enhancing mindfulness through a variety of meditation practices that do not need to be a
part of a religious tradition.
One recent study by Carmody, et al (2009) tested Shapiro's theory discussed above
and, with some reservations, found support for the key ideas, especially the benefits of
practice. In another study by Carmody and Baer (2009), they also found beneficial results
when meditators practice regularly at home. One finding was that the mindful yoga was
possibly more beneficial than the sitting meditation. Falkenström (2009), in a study of
vipassana meditators on intensive retreat, found that mindfulness clearly enhances well-
being and that mindfulness practice improves well-being. Also, the development of
mindfulness is related to the amount of time spent in meditation and also retreat practice
enhances mindfulness.
The standard MBSR program is eight-weeks and typically requires two to three hours
of instructor-led practice. Participants are asked to practice for 45 minutes per day at home.
There is also a six-hour practice day after the sixth week. This can pose a significant obstacle
to those who might benefit from MBSR. Klatt, et al. (2008) offered a “low-dose” variation on
the standard MBSR program (MBSR-ld) at a major Midwestern university to determine if a
shorter, more available program would be as effective. The low-dose program was offered to
faculty and staff who met specified requirements. The MBSR-ld program lasted six weeks with
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a one hour instructor-led session each week, and participants were asked to spend twenty
minutes practicing each work day. The results for perceived reduced stress, increased
mindfulness and enhanced well-being were fully comparable to the full MBSR program and a
clear demonstration that a shorter program is beneficial.
While much more research is needed, it is clear that mindfulness can be developed
with practice and that meaningful benefits can result from even relatively short-term training.
Section IV: Empirical Evidence for Mindfulness Awareness Practices in
Correctional Settings
It is apparent by now that mindfulness and meditation practices have well documented
beneficial effects for overall mental and physical health and enhance well-being in a general
population. These benefits will also apply to those who are incarcerated. The current
research on meditation and mindfulness directly pertaining to the correctional system is
relatively small. However, there are several studies and a significant amount of more
anecdotal evidence.
In one important study, a modified MBSR program was offered to over 2,000 inmates
in the Massachusetts correctional facilities, including one women's prison, four medium
security men's prisons and one minimum security/pre-release facility between 1992 and
1996. A reported 1,350 inmates completed the program. Results were measured on three
widely accepted measures of hostility, self-esteem, and mood disturbance. All three
measures indicated significant improvements for all participants, although the women and
men in the minimum security facility did better. Opportunities for follow-up were limited from
six to eight weeks but the gains were still evident (Samuelson et al. 2007).
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
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These outcomes were very encouraging, especially with the limitations imposed by
prison circumstances requiring shorter class times and program length. Also, available
facilities to conduct the program were often less than ideal, and in prison it is often
challenging for inmates to find a quiet place and time to practice. Furthermore, the report
acknowledges several limitations: first, it was not designed as a research study and lacked a
control group and other criteria usually used in formal research. Second, little background
data was available for the participants. Finally, there was no opportunity for long-term follow-
up or a measure of recidivism.
Other studies involving the use of meditation techniques similarly have demonstrated
their value in prisons. A ten-day vipassana meditation retreat was first offered in Tihar jail in
India in 1994. It was so successful in improving the behavior and attitudes of both the
inmates and their jailers who participated in the course that the programs have since become
a standard offering in Indian prisons (reported in Bowen, et al., 2006, www.Prison.Dhamma.-
org). The Indian vipassana retreats are the subject of a powerful documentary movie, Doing
Time, Doing Vipassana (Ariel, 1997).
Since that time, vipassana retreats have been introduced in several U.S. prison
systems including California, Washington and Alabama. Although well-designed research
studies have not been conducted for most of these programs, the reports have all been quite
positive. However, through a grant from the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism awarded to G. A. Marlatt, Department of Psychology, University of Washington,
Seattle, his department has been able to perform a series of studies at a minimum-security
adult jail in Seattle, Washington.
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One of these studies, based on a series of vipassana retreats in the North
Rehabilitation Facility (NRF), a minimum-security adult jail in Seattle, by Bowen, et al. (2006)
concerned substance use disorder (SUD). This study examined the effectiveness of vipassana
meditation as a treatment for substance abuse and looked at questions of improved
psychosocial outcomes and reduced recidivism. The results indicated significantly lower use of
alcohol, marijuana, and crack cocaine in the three-month post release follow-up studies, as
well as fewer alcohol-related incidents. The participants also reported significantly increased
optimism and lower levels of psychiatric symptoms. There was some supporting data for
reduced recidivism; however, the overall rates were too low to draw meaningful conclusions.
There is also concern that the three-month follow-up period was too short.
Another study by Simpson, et al. (2007), looked at post traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) symptoms, substance abuse disorder (SUD) and vipassana meditation in incarcerated
individuals. As the writers point out, rates of PTSD and substance abuse have been higher
among incarcerated individuals than in the general population. Incarcerated men with both
PTSD and SUD are more likely to re-offend than those with only SUD, and women are more
likely to relapse into substance abuse. The presence of both issues is now viewed as an
attempt at self-medication for PTSD. One of the issues with both SUD and PTSD is the need
to avoid unpleasant or negative experiences. Mindfulness meditation offers the conditions
allowing one to look at painful aspects of experience by fostering non-judgmental acceptance
of moment-to-moment experience. It is possible that mindfulness practices may, then, be a
useful intervention in treating PTSD. The authors report that earlier studies supported the use
of meditation practices, including TM, as one of several strategies in managing PTSD. In this
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
22
study, the key finding for those who were diagnosed with both PTSD and SUD was that there
were comparable reductions in drug use and alcohol abuse for those with and without PTSD
symptoms. As with many of these studies, the outcomes are encouraging and point to the
importance of further research.
There have now been several meditation retreats held in prisons. The first vipassana
retreat held in a maximum security in a North American prison was at the Donaldson
Correctional Facility in Bessemer, Alabama. It is the subject of the documentary film, The
Dhamma Brothers, (2008). The outcomes have, again, demonstrated of the ability of
meditation to transform lives. The stories of the men who participated in the ten-day retreat
are testimony to this transformation. In some cases, this was the first time in their lives that
they were able to accept full responsibility for their actions and make peace with themselves.
The prison staff, although initially quite skeptical, also found that the men had benefited from
the experience and were easier to deal with. However, to date there appears to be no
published analysis of the outcomes beyond the favorable testimonials from all parties
involved and the decision of the prison to continue the programs.
In a study at the Tidewater Detention Center (TDC) in Chesapeake, Va., Sumter
offered a seven-week meditation course modeled on Kabat-Zinn's MBSR program. TDC is a
residential detention facility for female detainees. Their program maintained a highly
supervised, highly structured, paramilitary community environment, which lasted from 20 to
24 weeks. The meditation program was held weekly offering two-and-a-half-hour sessions of
meditation practice and instruction. The method taught was based on the meditation practice
presented by Herbert Benson in The Relaxation Response. Participants were required to
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
23
maintain silence the rest of the week. No mention was made of encouraging meditation
practice outside of the class. The results were overall quite encouraging: reported reduction
in sleeping difficulties, greater anger management skills, and reduced stress and anxiety.
Also, participants showed improvement by experiencing less guilt and feelings of
hopelessness about the future (Sumter, 2007).
In an unpublished evaluation of the program sponsored by the Heart Mountain Prison
Project at the men's prison in Grants, New Mexico, the writers, Wadsworth, Strong and Brown
(2007), found great value to the programming. The program evaluated was held in a special
“meditation” pod with 16 participants who had chosen to live in the pod and who agreed to
more restrictive rules than the prison's general population. These rules included daily silent
periods set aside for meditation, no television in the common areas and a commitment to
spiritual practice. As an interfaith program, several traditions were represented, and there
was no requirement to adhere to a specific faith. The results showed that most participants
did practice and work at utilizing the skills presented. The inmates also reported less stress
and frustration, and they appreciated the opportunity to participate. Objectively, there was a
significant reduction in prison infractions and an overall positive change in behavior was
noted. The evaluators recommended the program be expanded and otherwise enhanced.
Section V: Mindfulness and Restorative Justice
Restorative justice, in its modern incarnation, was started in Canada in the early 1970s
by Mennonites looking for alternative methods of approaching crime in a primarily Mennonite
community. It has since spread extensively and restorative justice practices are being used
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
24
throughout Canada, Europe, North America, New Zealand and Africa (Dhami, et al. 2009).
Restorative justice offers a new way of thinking about wrongdoing and criminal and
punishment. Howard Zehr (2002) offer a concise introduction to the basic principles
summarized here:
In its essence, restorative justice has three central concepts or pillars:
1.Restorative justice is concerned mainly with the harm to the victim of the wrongdoing as well as the community. This primacy to the victim's needs and concerns requires repairing the harm done. In considering the harms done to the victim, attention may also be given to the causes of the crime, which will include the offender. The concerns of the community in which the crime occurred are also given attention, with the intent of putting things right.
2.Harm entails obligation. The offender is held accountable and must take responsibility for the harms caused. This may include some type of reparation, community service or even more traditional punishments such as incarceration. The community may also have obligations as well, both to the victim and the offender. Restorative justice has a limited role to play in cases where the offender will not accept responsibility.
3.Engagement is the key element to the restorative justice model. All the stakeholders, the primary parties affected by the crime, are asked to participate in the process in one way or another. There are several methods for doing this, sometimes involving direct dialog or talking circles and at other times indirect exchanges. At times the courts will be heavily involved; at other times the courts may play little or no role at all (Zehr 2002).
The overall impetus is toward healing and restoring the community to wholeness. Ideally this
also means bringing the offender back into the community as a fully participating member
and repairing the harms done to the victim and the community. This emphasis on “putting
things right” is at the heart of the restorative justice movement. This will especially include
victims, who have been left out of much of traditional judicial proceedings. Some of the
methods used are victim-offender conferences, family group conferences and circles as
practiced in the Native American communities of North America. There are a number of
variations on how these methods are employed and who participates. Some include only the
communities involved; others may include the court and will be a part of more traditional
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
25
legal proceedings. At times, simply acknowledging the victim's need for information and
keeping the victim informed as the case progresses will be all that can be done if the
perpetrator remains unknown.
The role of the offender as a responsible participant is essential for the restorative
justice process to be successful. Responsible participation is not always possible because so
many offenders either overtly or subtly try to place blame away from themselves. One of the
outcomes of meditation and mindfulness practices is an increased self-awareness which may
lead to a more willing attitude toward accepting blame. There is also, as has been discussed,
an increased ability to accept and face the old memories, painful feelings and personal
failures that surface in meditation. It is important to remember that sometimes what the
offenders really needs to face are their own woundedness as well as their responsibility for
the harms they may have caused others.
The accepting, nonjudgmental attitude of mindfulness practice creates a spaciousness,
making painful feelings tolerable, thus allowing a sense of personal responsibility to arise.
Empathic responses to others have been shown to increase with meditation practice (Lutz, et
al. 2008). As Siegel (2007, 2010) suggests, mindfulness skills may actually alter the brain
circuitry for compassion and empathy. This change can foster a state of self-empathy and
create the capacity to enhance our sense of connectedness to ourselves and to others. This
can be the beginning of personal healing as well, which is important to the successful
implementation of restorative justice.
In several of the studies cited in this paper as well as in the testimonials noted from
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
26
the documentary films cited, mindfulness practices do enable the offender to let go of the
anger and self-protective stance that prevents a healthy connectedness to the world. A new
sense of connectedness, in turn, will enhance the ability of the offenders to face the painful
emotions that arise when they look at their actions, leading to enhanced ability to empathize
with the victim.
When such a change occurs, there is movement toward healing and restoration. While
restorative justice in its fullest sense can only happen if the other stakeholders are interested
and willing, allowing offenders the opportunity to find the strength to look honestly at
themselves is no small thing, and the possibility of actually using restorative justice methods
is now present from one part of the equation. Also, the healing and the actual transformative
power of mindfulness practices offer the real possibility that the offender will be able to
become a productive member of the community upon release. From the personal experience
of teaching meditation and mindfulness practices in prisons both in Ohio and in New Mexico, I
have seen inmates transform from being confused or angry, bitter men who seemed to
blame anyone or anything for their situation grow toward becoming self-aware, responsible
adults.
To date, there are few restorative justice programs in prisons, and the ones that
are in place are often only partially restorative in their programming (Dhami et al., 2009).
However, there are several potential restorative programs that can, with varying degrees of
difficulty be implemented within a prison. Van Ness (2007) offers several possibilities
beginning with programs to develop awareness and empathy for victims. Other possibilities
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
27
include programming that offer opportunities for reconciliation and making amends to the
victims. Prisoners are often alienated from their own families, and programs that facilitate
reconciliation with family members will have value. Restorative justice can be applied within
prison for conflict resolution between prisoners, staff and between prisoners and staff with
the larger goal of creating a culture of peaceful conflict resolution. In all of these potential
programs, the transformative effects resulting from meditation practices can play an
important role.
The role that mindfulness can play in restorative justice programs is significant.
Offender accountability is an essential part of any restorative justice program, and developing
the ability to accept responsibility for one's actions is a natural outcome of meditation
practice. This sense of personal responsibility will apply to both acknowledging accountability
for the harms caused by the crime and also to taking one's place as a responsible,
contributing member of the community after release.
Section VI: Discussion
The research into meditation and contemplative practices is still in its infancy but is
growing at an exponential rate. The research has strongly supported the value of these
ancient practices for treating psychological and health concerns, as well as improving well-
being in general.
The scientific and anecdotal evidence both suggest that these practices are beneficial
in the criminal justice system. The health-related benefits of reducing medical costs alone
would make them a valuable addition to prison programming. The lower rate of inmate
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
28
frustration and stress would also reduce the problems of potential violence and prison rule
violations. The inmates who have participated in the programs appreciate them and tend to
follow through with the practices and, in fact, in most of these programs, the inmates
volunteered to participate. Meditation programming also seems to carry a less negative
image than some of the SUD programs.
A. Meditation: Religious or Secular?
One question that often arises concerns the status of meditation as a religious practice
as opposed to being a secular practice. Because the origins of meditative practices are from
religious traditions, this is a reasonable question. In recent times the predominate sources are
the Eastern religions, primarily Buddhism but also Hinduism and yoga. There is an on-going
question that asks if Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy since it is non-theistic. However,
in either case, as Jon Kabat-Zinn has demonstrated, mindfulness practices can be fully
effective and beneficial in a secular setting (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and need not be considered as
religious practices. Much can certainly be said in favor of a secular approach that is open to
all without the off-putting religiosity that would limit participation.
Even so, there is some debate about what is lost when meditative practices are
disengaged from their spiritual and cultural origins. One consideration would be the
qualifications of the teachers. Because meditation has been taught for centuries by religious
practitioners with great depth of experience as meditators themselves, there is some concern
that Western therapists may lack the necessary depth of experience. Questions also arise
regarding what aspects of the traditional teachings are beneficial in establishing the benefits
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
29
but may not be presented because they are perceived to be religious (Dimidjian & Linehan,
2003). Although all the research to date has been supportive of mindfulness practice as
universally engendering prosocial behaviors, there can be concern that these practices will
enhance the concentrative powers necessary for, say, safe-cracking. In any event, it would
seem that retaining a connection with the spiritual roots of mediative practice is of value.
And it may not be entirely possible to separate meditative practice from
spirituality. In a study on spirituality, mindfulness and health-related symptoms, Carmody, et
al (2008) found that participants in a MSBR program not only showed the expected
improvements in stress levels, but also associated with these gains were an increased sense
of spirituality. This change is defined as emphasizing humanistic values and qualities
concerning a sense of meaning and purpose in life beyond material values. So, it seems that
the question of spirituality and religion are in some way integral to meditative practice.
Not long ago, meditation practices were viewed as exotic Eastern religious practices
with little value in the modern world. To the extent that anyone thought of the ideas behind
restorative justice, they were dismissed as being hopelessly idealistic and out of touch with
the real world. Now both meditation practices and restorative justice programs are emerging
among the most promising new directions in dealing with the challenges in the criminal
justice system.
End notes: 1Mindfulness and spirituality were measured by established measurement instruments: the Functional
Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting
30
Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy – Spiritual Well-being Scale (FACIT-Sp), the Toronto Mindfulness Scale, (TMS) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Two scales were used to measure medical symptoms – the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 90 – Revised and the Medical Symptom Checklist (MSCL).
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