Underground Space. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 99-115. Pergamon Press 1978. Printed in Great Britain.
City Planning and the Urban Underground
BIRGER JANSSON
Chief Consultant Architect, VBB ( Vattenbyggnadsbyr&n), Gothenberg, Sweden
2 THE CITY is the buildings, the streets, the shape, the
organism and the people within. The city is how we
experience living, working, mixing. (Fig. 1)
People and activities fight to be on top of the city,
in the sun, in the fresh air, able to overlook the urban
landscape. (Fig. 2)
*Originally presented at the A UA Conference, Going Under to Stay on Top, in Minneapolis, October 14-15, 1977.
99
100 Birger Jansson
3 4
At ground level, people and activities fight to be in
the best position for commercial exchange, for
moving quickly, for space to store cars and goods,
and to find a place where they can relax. (Figs. 3, 4,
5)
Under the ground, you will find the foundations,
pipes, cables, sewers, and, in basements, storage of
the things most necessary for the city. Another battle
is going on there between the owners of facilities
beneath the surface to break through the pavement
for maintenance and repair. (Figs. 6, 7)
5
6 7
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, '_··.· . City Planning and the Urban Underground 101
WHAT CAME OF THE VISION?
The city pattern was overwhelmed by unbelievable
urban extension. The city itself was rapidly
"" overcrowded with buildings, in attractive sites, in
limited areas leaving completely insufficient space on
the ground for the increasing traffic and parking.
Noise, air pollution, crowding and the lack of ground
space forced people to live outside the city. (Fig. 9)
8
The city has been developed over generations of
people from the original conditions, from demands
and wishes for and visions of a better urban life.
A visionary of specific interest was Monsieur
Henard of 1900. He lived in a period of great
expectation regarding technical innovations and
increasing welfare resultig from the new machines.
He was convinced that people in the city structured
through the late 19th century would be exclusively
served by the new techniques. (Fig. 8)
His vision consisted of trams for local traffic in the
street on a second level below the service street for
fuel and goods going in and for waste coming out. In
between, there were pipes of different kinds.
On a third level, underground, room for sewers
and long distance trains. In basements, storage space
for automobiles and small aeroplanes served by a
common lift. He was concerned for a safe, noiseless
and pleasant city.
9
Inexpensive transport by car facilitated settling in
the open landscape close to nature and recreation
areas. (Fig. 10)
10
102 Birger Jansson
r
13
14
'
11
The increasing traffic made its way through the
urban area on highways often separated from the
original pattern of streets. Horizontal differentiation
has taken place. (Fig. 11)
12
-r-.
In fact the city has been reduced to an area for
certain kinds of work and commerce, used only to a
marginal extent for living in, mainly by the poor.
(Fig. 12)
WHAT ABOUT VERTICAL
DIFFERENTIATION?
To some extent the vision of Monsieur Henard has
been realized. Chicago is one of the towns in which
tunnels have been constructed under the streets for
coal distribution and transport of ash. The tunnel
system was used for indoor ventilation of buildings.
The muck excavated from the tunnels was filled out
on the shore of the lake - today a valuable city park.
(Fig. 13)
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However, you do not find streets for loading and
unloading under ground. In many big cities you can
find a metro system. The almost unchecked erection
of buildings in blocks has forced mass transportation
of people into tunnels below the street surface in the
most exploited areas. (Fig. 14)
Most cities can today be recognized as incomplete
and unequally renewed town districts, each fighting
for its economy, environment and its social
reputation.
In addition, you are aware of a more and more
expensive and energy-demanding urban pattern of
urgent transport within the urban body. People in
areas of recent urbanization suffer from the
inconvenient and meaningless movement between the
differentiated areas of activity.
The city is in visual and social disharmony. Nor is
the city in harmony with the suburbs. We have run
into the city dilemma of today.
City Planning and the Urban Underground 103
WHAT IS THE WAY OUT OF THE DILEMMA?
I have the impression that there is a demand for a
new Utopia where the current demands on economy,
energy and ecology must be considered. I am
convinced that the subsurface offers possibilities
which so far have been all too little recognized.
The relationship between the parties involved in
urban development has however changed since the
beginning of the century. The new Utopia must be a
political rather than a technical one. When trying to
convince the decision-makers of our recent and future
society that the subsurface is there and offers new
solutions, you must consider: we have urbanization -
we have the city - we have the population.
The new Utopia has to be developed in the living
room of the existing society. The city planner has the
task of examining the conditions for changes towards
better city life. My experience is that there are three
groups of problems which restrict the wider use of
the subsurface.
These are: legal constraint, technical hesitation,
and psychological impact.
LEGAL CONSTRAINT IS RELATED TO THE RIGHT OF OWNERSHIP AND THE
RIGHT OF DISPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND SPACE
The right of ownership goes from the surface to
the centre of the earth. In many countries the right of
disposition of the underground strictly follows the
right of ownership. In city blocks the owner has
disposition of the underground used for basements
and foundations of buildings. The only space left for
public amenities such as pipes, cables, and tunnels is
below the streets and the parks. (Fig. 15)
15
However, somewhere deep down the possibilities
for private disposition end. Here there is an endless
space which could be available for public use. (Fig.
16)
16
In Sweden, legal and administrative practice has
been developed which allows the owner of an
establishment to expropriate the right to pass his
neighbours' properties under ground. The practice has
brought about simple administrative routines to
obtain permission and to have the right recorded.
This is very important for rational, economic, and
feasible use of the underground. Our Lord lacked
foresight when he created the geology of the earth
not in accordance with the city pattern. The
economy and ecology in use of the underground are
decisively dependent on sensitive obedience to
geological formations.
Stockholm is located on islands, and the built-up
areas on the mainland around the flow from Lake
Miilaren out to the Baltic are affected by spatial
limitations caused by many waterfronts. (Fig. 17)
17
104 Birger Jansson
18
Various generations of tunnel have been con
structed for railways, different metro lines, sewage
and telecommunications directly under blocks of old
and picturesque buildings. The green area contains a
parking garage which can also be used as a
bomb-shelter. Geological conditions in the area are
favou rable and this has caused crowding in the
underground. (Figs. 18, 19)
20
The renewal of the most important part of the city
centre with the main station for the Stockholm metro
was carried out with many underground levels as cut
and cover work. These involve metro lines, a through
pass for street traffic, loading streets, parking garage
and storage - all underground. (Fig. 20)
On top, we have a new shopping area,
administration buildings and the new parliament
building.
The right of disposition has been distributed
vertically according to the practice mentioned above.
By regulations in town planning, the owners right of
disposition of the underground is limited to 7,
sometimes 10, metres below the surface in most of
the blocks within the inner city. A general right is
also given to use the space beneath this boundary for
tunnels. I can imagine that unprejudiced considera
tion of the subsurface and the deficiencies of the city
could bring forth new demands and new suggestions.
By vertical differentiation of conflicting activities the
ground level could become more attractive for living.
An underground tunnel system for rational trans
portation of goods - developed in the deep free zone
- may be just the support the city requires. (Fig. 21)
21
-
City Planning and the Urban Underground 105
NOW WE COME TO
TECHNICAL HESITATION
Great efforts have been expended on the
development of surface construction. The whole
construction industry concentrates on solving
problems on the surface or just under the surface.
Deep subsurface constructions have been used to
avoid severe conflicts in very specific areas and have
been carried out by a comparatively small group of
contractors. Experience of underground works is
limited and the construction industry is conserva·
tively bound to the surface - with some exceptions:
The mining industry and companies specializing in
tunnelling have reached a very high level of
competence in underground coostruction.
The conservatism concerning subsurface construc
tion also rules the responsible clients - the builders.
Knowledge of the geology underlying the city is
for this reason sparsely recorded and analysis of the
conditions for underground construction is as a rule
lacking. .
You should know what kind of structure you have
below your feet, problem-full or problem-free.
Which area is most suitable for underground
construction? Where are the faults and crush zones?
(Figs. 22, 23)
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23
How will the ground water level be influenced by
an underground installation? (Fig. 24)
24
22
bOilHH)
PIC·C)fOullng boltmg boltmg
"'I· tt
.. ,..,.
•qng
!o.hOt..:rNt' or ,lt\E"r ·qr Oululg sho t cretc ::ohO I < ..: ' l'te
,....._ ,,, pre·groutmg
l) hOIC rt:'l
'illill
bol11n9
concuHl' l1 nmg
Birger Jansson 106
tl
rcl.1trv e
c o s t s 10 -15 3-4 10 -1 5
s ht eld - dnvc n tunne l rock tunn e l " c ut cnd cove r ' > unktunne l
l )
- s heet prle
.. ! ..
25
The cost of construction varies greatly in different
geological formations. According to Scandinavian
experience, a cut and cover tunnel in soft ground is 3
to 4 times more expensive than a hard rock tunnel. A
shield tunnel or an immersed tube tunnel will cost 10
to 15 times more than a hard rock tunnel. (Fig. 25)
In a more or less homogeneous formation you can
quite easily calculate the cost of construction by
using an adequate investigation of the geological
conditions. You put together the excavation cost, the
strengthening and sealing cost and add the cost for
administration, planning, inspection and main
tenance, together 25-35%. (Fig. 26)
26
A . Costs of rock blasting
Tat ar A 0
1 Rock chamber
2 Ad1ta
Rarse
C kr/m
B. Costs of handlmg or blasted r ock
Total B D
C. Co t of str engthening and sealing
Tot al C D
TOTAl TUNNEl COS T
Sum 1 01111 A• H•C
Plannrng ,,<Jnurustr r to on
In p <.loon mr c. t1.1neoull
flO fO T A COS T
City Planning and the Urban Underground
1": ·· ... 1· f/ 107
SHOTCRE TE
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ROCKBOLTS
28 A telecommunications exchange in Stockholm. (Fig. 28)
29
USf,llt
27
PREGROUTING SYSTEMATIC ROCI<SOLTING
POSTGROUTH G CASI 1N PlACE CONCRETE
Excavation, strengthening and sealing costs are
related to the width of the tunnel or the rock cavity
and the rock discontinuities. A detailed geological
survey and cost calculation based on it are a necessity
for planners, local authorities, potential clients, and
contractors to be able to consider the realistic
underground location .of a function . (Fig. 27)
A cold store in the same area - the rock cavern saving energy and offering a stable low temperature. (Fig. 29)
30
An attractive recreation centre in Norway with a swimming pool. (Figs. 30, 31) (See UNDER· GROUND SPACE Vol. I No. 2 for a detailed discussion of this centre.)
31
EXAMPLES OF USES OF THE
URBAN UNDERGROUND
We will now review a range of projects which have
been located underground in Scandinavian countries,
often within the boundary of the city.
108 Birger Jansson
I
34
An oil-fired electric power station of considerable size planned as a peak ·toad station within the national supply net located on the west coast of Sweden. (Figs. 34, 35)
35
Budding tor e lec t ric boiler. hea t e x changer umt . etc
depth 210m -Pipe shaft
36
Oil storage in several areas located directly under the city. (Fig. 36)
38
<;A,jl,.(;.llr 1·,0 M ft• 7•2.i0Wllf
,,,ull IIP$1fii'10Wl \IOLUIII(_ llll _,l
{o(lllfiiUIO!o 100 lH(Jit.ti'S
)._.]"'.....f"\ .{ Rock chamber
! I I \ reservoir 200000m3
c 37
Rock chamber hea1
storage reservoir
SUBTERRA
PUMPED STORAGE PCmER PLANT
Subterra hydro-electric pumped storage could be located right under Manhattan. A peak load station of
Within the field of energy conservation, we should consider energy storage underground, in this case a hot water reservoir connected to a town and to a thermal power station. (Fig. 37)
considerable size will provide a safety margin to prevent electric power failure. The tremendous volume of excavated rock provides a supply of crushed material for many years. (Fig. 38)
: .·
•
i
I
DISTRICT HEATING PLAN
City Planning and the Urban Underground 109
39 32
District heating served underground located in distribution. (Figs. 32, 33)
33
by the
a heating station best position for
40
The Kappala sewage treatment plant outside Stock holm. Close to a pleasant residential area, the sewage treatment plant is located underground, serving up to 1 million people in the northern suburbs. (Figs. 39, 40, 41)
'i
r
In this diagram the cost of different subsurface
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l /
j
I
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Vallent una
( -r '\
( )
sewage treatment plants is compared with the cost of conventional surface plants. The cost is about the same. (Fig. 42)
1....,, I
-.-l i..>
: \_.
• Tl:lby
Sw. Crs/person
1000
Loudden (Sub.I
-Normal above
surface installation
Lake at arc n
500 r-------------------- --. - .
Ballrc Sc;
Henriksdal (Sub.) The
Eolshiill (Sub.)• • Kappala (Sub.)
10Km
41
sewage treatment plant
100 ---------r---,---------,------
10000 50000 100 000 500 000 Size (number of persons
42 served)
110 Birger Jansson
,:r
u.. :1) ... 1
Q
-
WD.TER
HEATING
43
Multi-purpose tunnels have been used to a large
extent in the cities. (Fig. 43)
44
Tunnels Surface conduits
A :lH' l
Newly built Town
areas centre
Would you hesitate to enter this temple of Abu
Simbel? I would not. (Fig. 45)
The entrance fills me with great expectation; there is
really something inside. (Fig. 46}
0
6J LlliLj Sw Crs/M Sw Crs/M Sw Crs/M Sw Crs/M
District
heating 500 3 300 300 3 400
Water 900 1 000 600 1) 900
Cable I 500 I 500 600 1) 1 500
Total 4 900 800 j 500 800
Table 1. The cost comparison in this table shows the same
cost for surface and subsurface installations in the town centre but higher cost for multi-purpose tunnels in
new areas. As a rule multi-purpose tunnels are chosen because of better availability and safer
maintenance (Fig. 44)
Reviewing the above examples of what has been
done, and the costs of doing it, there is seen to be
little if any justification for technical hesitation as far
as subsurface use is concerned.
WHAT ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT THEN?
Human reactions during time spent underground
have not been scientifically investigated. I would
prefer to make my personal comments. Three aspects
should be considered: the entrance , what is inside,
and what will happen to me when I am there.
46 This is a rat hole , whatever may be hiding inside. (Fig
47)
.. . ,,...... .. .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
City Planning and the Urban Underground 111
51
The majority of people faced with this drawing react in a negative way. They do not accept this entrance to their home. (Fig. 48)
49
Behind the pretty marguerites you find a nice entrance to a dirty activity, a sewage treatment plant. (Fig. 49)
The entrance gives confidence to the activity inside, developed into a good working environment. ( Fig. 50)
50
Visitors to the Swedish wines and spirits monopoly in Stockholm enter the building and meet an artistic corridor. (Figs. 51, 52)
52
They lose every sense of being in a rock cavity, and not only on account of the wine. (Fig. 53)
53
112 Birger Jansson
ST·
54
A nuclear power station located underground a few kilometres from the centre of Stockholm has been in operation for ten years. The station is used for district heating and met no objections , to a great extent because of the friendly exterior. (Fig. 54)
Another sketch - this one of a business centre in Kansas City, and much more realistic. In spite of the more complex vertical transport to the surface, it consists of differentiated activities and possibilities for varied working environments on the surface and in the subsurface. (Fig. 57)
55
At the moment, no design, even if carried out by the
, ._'tR:
----------.-
..,1 , r /--.\T.i\J": _ ',!.'.!ON
58
most gifted architect, will have any influence on the objections against the storage of nuclear waste, even if located under ground. (Fig. 55)
A futuristic sketch of a city in rock contains industry deep down in the subsurface. As a working environment, this would not be accepted today, as it is, interpreted as being at the bottom of the social ladder. (Fig. 56 )
The new metro line to the north of Stockholm caused a big debate as to whether it should be located partly or completely under the surface. (Fig. 58)
The protest against deep location has today given way to successful acceptance. (Fig. 59) The Stockholm metro in operation is pleasant and colourful and emphasizes the natural cavern appear ance.
City Planning and the Urban Underground
113
60
Metro stations have been designed in different ways. The new Paris metro reminds one of the atmosphere in outer space. (Fig. 60)
Both of these design features have been readily accepted by the public. (Fig. 61)
61
Original protests against deep location have now
given way to ready public acceptance, in large part
due to the aesthetic treatment in the stations.
For those who work permanently underground,
conventional failures such as loss of light and
ventilation and outbreak of fire are the most
worrying factors.
Summarizing the comments on psychological
impact, I would like to say: Careful design, observing
both ordinary human behaviour and possible risk of
conventional failure will effectively reduce psycho
logical objections to underground use.
THE SWEDISH R&D REPORT
The Swedish R&D report "Planning of Subsurface
Use" is a comprehensive investigation of planning
procedures, especially in Sweden. There are, however,
many features that are universal in application.
Subsurface planning must take into consideration
a series of fields of specific knowledge: (Fig. 63)
63
demand for
subsurface
space
,......------, \
connection
to surface
planning
tunneling
technology
' cost benefit ' analysis
geology
soil mechanics
62
The rock itself has achieved congenial integration in this rock church in Helsinki. The church is excavated in rock, and the altar piece is intact. (Fig. 62)
liability
indemnity
laws
adm.rules
I
internal
environment
hydrogeology
ecology
registration of
subsurface
establishments
Birger Jansson 114
Demand for subsurface space must be based on .-------- - -- -- -- - ---------- ,
P!,/\ NING OF
specific statistics and investigatory studies.
Cost benefit analysis, as well as liability and
indemnity, are general considerations for all kinds of
llVL:IUILL
P!.r\NN ING
HJ : GISTER OF
GEN RAL P LA NNING
P/I,RTlCULAR
rUNC TIONS
HOUSING SUPPLY
land use planning.
The law and administrative rules should be
recognized in a way which avoids unnecessary
restriction of underground use, but which gives
reasonable regulations for safe and rational use.
CONDITIONS INDUSTRIAL
ACTIVITIES
CCON01I CS SERVICES
SOCIAL RECREATION
TRANSPORTS PHYSJC/\L
The following five fields require specific know
ledge of subsurface construction and subsurface use.
They are:
• internal environment
• registration of subsurface establishments
• hydrogeology ecology
Ni\ T li R/\L
I'!<SOtll"lCE.:S
65
STORAGE
UTILITIES
DEFENCE
• geology, soil mechanics
• tunneling technology
The conclusion of the Swedish report is that
subsurface planning should be seen as integrated
planning within society's planning as a whole, that is,
in close connection with surface planning.
An exchange of conditions and demands is required between authorities responsible for overall planning and bodies responsible for the planning of particular functions. The valuable result of such an exchange depends on the level of knowledge and understanding obtained. (Fig. 65)
NATIONAL
LOCAL AUTHORITY RESPONSIBILITY
PARTICULAR FUNCTION RESPONSIBILITY
PLANNING GOVERN MENTAL
ARE ...
OVERALL PLANNING
FUNCTION
PLANNING
IN GOV. AREA
$TIIAlE(lV A l SYSTUII$
LOCAL AREA DETAil
PLANNING
IMPLEMEN· TAllON
PL ANNING
REGIONAL PLANNING
----0--- --0--- DECISION ON IMPLEMENTATION
DIRECTIVES DESIGN
MEANS LEGALISATION
COMMUNITY - --- -- -- - DECISION ON CONSTRUCTION
PLANNING
PROJECT
PLANNING
64
EXAMINATION CONSTRUCTION
CONTROL
66
Subsurface use must be considered in
national planning: e.g. strategic oil storage
regional planning: e.g. water transport for water
supply
community planning: e.g. local sewerage and in
project planning.
Step-by-step development of integrated planning procedure is listed .
Overall planning is need.cd to arrive at decisions on investigations into underground conditions.
District planning is needed for decisions on detailed studies.
Local area planning is needed for a decision on implementation.
The final design can then be developed, and should take into account directives by regulatory authorities, legal sanction and consideration of alternative means. The final design provides the basis for decision on construction. (Fig. 66)
68
City Planning and the Urban Underground 115
The Swedish Report contains the following major
recommendations to government authorities.
Legislation or directions from the National Board
of Urban Planning should include the requirements
of:
67
Swedish law does not require a building permit for a tunnel or a rock cavity. (Fig. 67)
The present legal processes for dealing with underground construction are unnecessarily complex . A wide variety of regulations cover different kinds of functions and activities contained in tunnels and cavities. We recommend that tunnels and subsurface cavities be officially considered as build ings. (Fig. 68)
Water Legtsla!ton
Env uonmen t Dec re e
J Legtslat •on Concerntng Ele ctrtcal Ins t allations
l. Registration of subsurface establishments
2. Registration of geo-information from pre
investigations and from completed construction
3. Planning of subsurface construction, comprising
outline planning, partial planning and detail
planning
4. Obligatory building permit for subsurface
building
5. Obligatory geo-analysis, description of conse
quences and cost-benefit analysis in all
preparatory examination of subsurface con
struction
6. Continuous checking and control of subsurface
establishments
It is also recommended that there be established:
7. A department with responsibility for subsurface
construction
8. An official expert institute, to which issues of
subsurface construction are referred for con
sideration.
In conclusion it should be emphasized that: the
city planner alone can have limited influence only in
urging the wider use of the subsurface.
A co-ordinated co-operative effort is needed
between planners, contractors, clients, and
authorities.
Through sound co-operation, we will be able to
develop the existing city into the new Utopia. (Figs.
70, 71)
Leg•slat •on Conce rntng Highly Inflammable Goods