A

UNDERGROUND SPACE

Marienplatz Station in Munich. The city of Munich opened its first subway (U-Bahn) line in 1977 and since that time has expanded the underground - system, investing an average annual rate of DM200 million.

Costs and Benefits of

Underground Railway Constructiont

by Gunter Girnau*

ccording_to the results of a rep­ resentative survey, m recent years the image of local public

passenger transport in the Federal Re­ public of Germany has improved con­ siderably. This is largely a result of the

tRevised and reprinted with permission from Advances in Tunnelling Technology and Sub­ surface Use (Developpement des Travaux en Souterrain), Volume 2, No.2, 1982. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

"'Professor Dr.-Ing. Gunter Girnau is pres­ ident of the International Tunnelling As­ sociation (ITNAITES) and president of STUVA,

Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany.

massive financial support that has been given to promote local public transport in the past 15 years. Since 1967, when federal funds first became available, a 30-year program of planning and in­ vestment in public transport has been under way nationwide. It is now "half­ time" in the 30-year program. A de­ tailed breakdown of the funds as ac­ tually invested and of the construction work already done is now available, and equally important, the program has advanced to the stage where prelimi­ nary conclusions can be drawn from what has been achieved.

The immediate benefits of this huge investment program in terms of in­ creased ridership and convenience to the individual passenger can easily be seen. What is not so obvious is that the public interest has been served in a number of other ways. Reduced noise, improved air quality, fewer traffic ac­ cidents, and a positive economic effect on the community can also be counted among the benefits of this program. Indeed, a cost-benefit analysis of public transport that did not include these benefits would be remiss. This brief survey of Germany's revitalized public

Underground Space, Vol. 6, pp. 323-330, 1982

Printed in the U.S.A. All rights reserved.

0362-0565/82/060323-08$03.00/0

Copyright © 1982 Pergamon Press Ltd. 323

transport system will consider both the costs and the various benefits of this huge undertaking.

West Germany's Investment

in Public Transport

Between 1967 and 1980, federal, state, and local governments, German Railways, and individual transport companies spent a total of DM22 bil­ lion on extending the facilities of pub­ lic passenger transport systems. Be­ tween 1967 and 1975, in particular, there was a marked upturn in the level of annual investment (Fig. 1). Since 1977, the annual yearly expenditure has been in the range of DM2 billion to DM2.3 billion.

The major sources of funds over the years were the federal and state gov­ ernments, which provided 52% and 20% respectively. (The chief basis for financing today is the Municipal Fi­ nance Transport Act- Gemeinver­ kehrsfinanzierungsgesetz. The federal share is currently some 60%.) The amount provided by local govern­ ment- 24%- is much higher than is generally assumed. However, as own­ ers of local transport systems, local governments bear the cost of the roll­ ing stock, which amounts to DM600 million annually.

The major portion of funds was in­ vested in improving and extending railway traffic; by far the largest amount,

1 ,000 mill . DM

2.4

D PRIVATE PROJECTS 2.2

DM13.4 billion (61%) went toward un­ derground (U - Bahn), metropolitan (light rail, or Stadtbahn) and tramway systems. This was followed by the DM7.3 billion (33%) spent selectively on the German Railways' rapid transit systems (commuter railways, or S-Bahn). Most of the remaining DM1.3 billion was used to extend or construct service stations and workshops, central bus stations, in­ terchange stations, park-and- ride fa­ cilities, or grade separating structures.

The funds invested during the first

14 years of the development program have genera ted a huge volume of con­

' struction work.

Facilities for

municipal railway systems

The development program covers the following projects:

• All-out underground systems (U­ Bahn) are now in operation or are being extended in Berlin, Ham­ burg, Munich, and Nuremberg­ cities, with the exception of Nur­ emberg, having populations ex­ ceeding one million.

• Metropolitan systems (light rail , or Stadtbahn) are being built in 17 cities: Bielefeld, Bochum, Bonn, Bremen, Cologne, Dortmund, Dusseldorf, Duisberg, Essen, Frankfurt/Main , Gelsenkirchen, Hanover, Herne, Ludwigshafen,

AVERAGE CONSTRUCTION COST PE R KM

DM in mil l

per km

50

45

40

25

(23% in tunnel) (78% in tunnel)

Figure 2. Cost comparison between sub­

way (U -Bahn) and light rail (Stadt­

bahn) systems.

Mulheim/Ruhr, and Stuttgart­ cities whose populations vary widely between 200,000 and 900,000.

• To finance extensions to their tram

networks, 11 cities have received in­ vestment assistance: Augsburg, Brunswick, Darmstadt, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, Kassel, Nuremberg, and Wurzberg- cities having popula­ tions ranging between 100,000 and 200,000.

By the end of the construction period

2.0

1 .8

1 .6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

(:::::::::::::1 FEDERA L RAILWAY PROJECTS

MUNI CIPA L PROJEC TS

(1967-1980), some 180 km of new non­ intersecting routes (tunnel, cutting, el­ evated) as well as 250 km of on-grade routes (special right-of-way) with a to­ tal of 720 stops were put into operation in the municipal railway sector.

German Railways'

rapid transit system (S -Bahn)

To open up the region by rapid transit (S-Bahn), 100 km of new track with 145 stops were laid and 490 km of ex­ isting track with 164 stations were con­ verted to commuter railways and opened to traffic. Again as much con­ struction work is planned for the near future- an additional 125 km of new track will be laid and 405 km of existing track is to be converted. The Costs

o U- UL _L a_

1967 1 970 1971

• Munic ipal and pr ivate projects not sep ar a ted.

Figure 1. Investment in local public passenger transport during the first 12 years of the Federal Republic's 30-year planning and investment program.

324 UNDERG ROU N D SPACE

The question of costs- and espe­ cially of costs for subsurface construc­ tion- is always difficult to

answer. There are so many factors influencing costs that they may vary between 30 million

--'""-<:L ',

to 80 million DM per kilometer of un­ derground railway tunnel (with all in­ stallations including stations). In the same city, costs vary considerably from line to line and even from contract to contract. It is virtually meaningless, therefore, to talk about cost per kilo­ meter in a general sense, for the cost is never general. Having said that, however, some figures indicative of costs can be given.

The main factor influencing the cost of railway construction is the relation between the length of a line in tunnel and at grade. This relation is markedly different between the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn. The results of the first eleven years of construction are:

U-Bahn: 78% of track length in tun­

nel; overall costs 35 million to 40 million DM/km (tunnel and at grade)

S-Bahn: 23% of track length in tun­ nel; overall costs 20 million to 25 million DM/km (tunnel and at grade)

The figures show that the U-Bahn is nearly twice as expensive as a light rail system on separated track (Stadtbahn). (See Fig. 2.)

Another important factor influenc­ ing the cost of underground construc­ tion is the tunneling method (which depends on the ground conditions). For example, a tunnel in water-bearing soft ground may cost two to three times more using the compressed-air shield driven method than if the tunnel had been excavated using the cut-and-cover approach. However, the experience in Germany has been that the technolog­ ical developments between 1966 and 1979, as well as the very strong com­ petition among contractors has mark­ edly reduced the cost differential be­ tween the cut-and -cover approach and

the "underground" tunneling meth­ ods. In Munich today, the costs for the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM), the shield method, and the open cut are very close together (Fig.

How the funds were invested

DM13.4 billion = 61% --? Underground 180 km non-intersect-

(U-Bahn) ing routes

--? Metropolitan 250 km on-grade

(Light rail, or routes

Stadtbahn) 720 stations and --? Tramway stops

(Strassenbahn)

DM7.3 billion 33% --? Commuter railways 100 km new track

(S-Bahn) 145 new stations and

stops

490 km existing track

converted

164 existing stations

converted

DM1.3 billion 6% --? Workshops

--? Central bus stations

--? Interchange stations

--? Park-and-ride

--? Grade separation DM22 billion 100%

cost

(OM per m track)

60,000

50,000

NATM

40,000 +---+----+--+----+=....-=+1-o---""""....._c----+'o"----_-+----fo'i---+---+---l

I . shield dr ----

30,000 -t-----,.!-+ --+---+----+---+---t---+---ll------t....o_-=\"""""";:l--+- ;if' .......... o.....

20,000t---r- ··-··_··- op e_n cu t--t--r-. o7.-··4PO ·- ··· -- -· · ---- ---

..-o····

10,000 t---+---l--+---+---l--+---+---11--+---+--1---1

1966 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

Figure 3. The cost differential between the New Austrian Tunnelling Method, the

shield method, and the open cut has been markedly reduced.

3). There are instances in Munich and other German cities where the NATM

is already cheaper- especially when the costs for environmental protection are taken into consideration.

(To be sure, the cost of underground construction is influenced by many fac­ tors, e.g., tunnel length, cross section, type of lining. To deal with these in detail, however, would fall outside of the province of this paper.)

Finally, a factor not to be overlooked when discussing cost is inflation. Since 1980, inflation has had an effect on the

May/june 1982

Federal Republic's entire transporta­ tion development program . While con­ struction prices could be kept on the same level during the 1970's due to technological advances and competi­ tive bidding, these prices rose in 1980 and 1981 by 20% to 40%- which means that we can now build less for the same amount of money.

The Benefits

Besides being readily apparent, most of the benefits of this investment activ­ ity are quantifiable. However, since a

period of approximately 30 years was assumed for the implementation of the total development plan, an interim sur­ vey cannot have complete data: con­ struction on individual projects is still under way, but more importantly, the total railway network is not complete. The full effect of an underground or metropolitan railway in attracting pas­ sengers is only really felt when a full route is in operation and, even more so, when the full network has been completed.

A statement of the results of invest-

UNDERGROUND SPACE 325

Transport Mode

Measure Taken Delays

Before After

Bus/Tram

Separate right-of- way or bus lane

Average up to 10 minutes

Maximum of 2 minutes

Underground/ Metropolitan (U-Bahn/Stadtbahn)

Tunnel or separate right-of-way

Average up to 10 minutes

Virtually none

ment in local public transport would be wanting, however, if it were con­ fined to be the effects on traffic con­ ditions, i.e., if the value of rapid transit systems were assessed in terms of pas­ senger loads alone. Besides the in­ creased ridership resulting from im­ proved services, it is important to note that there are other results which are in the public interest, both economi­ cally and socially.

Transport improvements

Regularity, punctuality, and speed are the basic criteria determining how attractive public transport is. Success is very apparent where route separation has permitted an unmix i ng of public and private traffic. Compared with former bus and tram serv ice, this has cut travel time (Table 1), reduced de­ lays to zero in most cases (Table 2), and increased passenger loads (Table 3). To demonstrate in detail the succe3s of the investment policy in regard to in­ creased ridership, data from the Mu ­ nich U-Bahn and the Hanover Stadt­ bahn are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

What is particularly important is that upgrading public transport makes it a

An interchange station in Hanover, where the metropolitan light rail system (S­

Bahn) links up with the city's bus system.

genuine alternative for those who still travel by car. Again, the examples of Munich and Hanover are representa­ tive:

• Since the opening of Hanover's metropolitan Line A, public trans­ port has accounted for 78% of all trips into the city within the area of influence of the new line- even though 50% of the passengers have a car at their disposal at all times.

• In Munich, the number of daily car trips i n the urban area dropped by 70,000 after underground and rapid transit services began oper­ ation (reference period: 1970- 1973).

These figures suggest that attractive public transport systems are appreci­ ated and used even by car drivers.

Stepping up safety

Compared with other modes of

transportation, bus, tram, and under­ ground railway are the safest of all. Pushing ahead with the construction of separate lanes and routes- resulting in a further unmixing of traffic-could do even more to improve safety.

The pedestrian, in particular, is a beneficiary of these improvements in the transportation system. The sub­ surface relocation of railway traffic has permitted the creation of extensive pe­ destrian zones where pedestrian traffic can move unimpeded by vehicles. Be­ low-grade stops provide greater safety

Table 1. Reduction in travel time as a result of improvements in public transport in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Transport Mode Measure Taken Result

Bus/Tram

Separate right-of-way or bus lane

Cuts in travel time of 2 to 15 minutes depending on length of line.

Underground/ Metropolitan (U-Bahn/Stadtbahn)

Bus line replaced by rail system

Average travel time cut by one-half

Table 2. Reduction in delays as a result of improvements in public transport.

not only for passengers, but for pe­ destrian traffic in general, whenever these facilities have walkways permit­ ting pedestrians to cross streets under­ ground.

This separation of traffic accom­ plished by constructing separate ­ mainly underground - routes and lanes for public transport could not fail to be reflected in accident statistics. In Munich, for example, between 1970 and 1977, the road accident rate fell by 37.6%, the injury rate by 22.1%, and the number of fatalities was reduced by 40.7% (Table 6).

Environmental impact

Investment in improved under­ ground transport, resulting in in­ creased passenger loads, has a direct effect on the environment. That un­ derground transport places less strain on the environment is demonstrated in the following examples.

Over a three- year period, air poilu-

326 UNDERGROUND SPACE May/june 1982

Line Year Passenger Load Increase

U-Bahn

U3/U6

1972 ("Before")

124,000 passengers/day

+ 190% 1980 ("After")

360,000 passengers/day

S-Bahn

1971

160,000 passengers/day

+ 244%

1980 ("After")

550,000 passengers/day

U-Bahn U8 (New)

1980

Approx. 200,000 passengers/day without any reduction of passenger loads on other lines

tion from exhaust fumes was measured at 50 points in the urban area of Mun­ ich. Comparing the data from 1970 and 1973, after the opening of the first rapid transit (Schne ll bahn) routes, it was found that the carbon monoxide con­ centration had dropped by 25%, the hydrocarbon concentration by 35%, and nitric oxide by as much as 44%. Th is reduction in pollution is largely attrib­ uted to improved traffic flows, th e sh i ft of some segments of traffic to under­ ground and rapid transit systems, and the use of park-and-ride systems (Fig. 4).

In addition, any investment t hat im­ proves the routes and lanes for public transport or improves the vehicles themselves will lower noise levels. Re­ routing vehicles via an open cutting or trough, for example, yields a substan­ tial noise reduction in the surrounding built-up area (Fig. 5). Rerouting traffic t hrough tunnels eliminates noise pol­ lution altogether.

I n Hanover, the opening of metro­ politan Lane A cut noise by more than 10 dB(A) in the urban area along the route, meaning noise nuisance was halved. Bu t this also means that no spe­ cific measures for protection against traffic noise were needed in this area. The costs, e.g., for noise protection windows, which usually are between DM2,300 and DM5,,400 per meter of road (Table 7), were saved.

Economic implications

It is a fact that improvements in pub­ lic transport systems- especially by use of the underground- are synonymous with greater capital outlays. Higher maintenance costs of sub-grade routes and stations, in particular, m ust be taken in to account. Also of crucial impor­ tance are the costs of energy and ser­ v i cing the systems . Nor is t hi s a ll . Adapting vehicles to meet the specific needs of rapid transit services and costly safety engineering also entail h igher costs.

For these reasons, it was long feared that these costs would be too great for local transport systems to bear, that they would gradually fall deeply i nto debt, thereby placing an u nreasonable finan­ cial burden on local governments. The whole point of the initial investment would then have been called into ques­ tion.

Thanks to the federal government's Post-Construction Cost Report (Fol­ gekostenbericht) t his issue has been clarified. The report found that:

• The construction of under­ ground, metropolitan, and rapid transit systems is not the primary

May/june 1982

Table 3. Rise in passenger loads as result of the construction program.

Transport Mode Measure Taken Rise in Passenger Load

Tram Separate right-of- way

+ 10% to 30%

Underground/ Metropolitan (U-Bahn/ Stadtbahn)

Tunnel or separate right-of-way

Normal:

+ 15% to 60%

Extreme: + 109% (Frankfurt) to 190% (Munich)

Commuter Railway System (S-Bahn)

Separate right-of- way

+ 100% to 250%

Table 4. Rise in passenger loads as a result of subway expansion in Munich.

("Before")

Table 5. Increased ridership on Hanover's Stadtbahn.

Line Year Passenger Load Increase

A

1975 ("Before")

70,000 passengers/day

+50%

1980 ("After")

105,000 passengers/day

B (Only half in operation)

1978 ("Before")

32,000 passengers/day

+ 34% 1980 ("After")

43,000 passengers/day

Table 6. Declining road accident rates in Munich.

Year

Road Traffic Accidents

Number

Absol.

%

Injured Fatalities

Absol. % Absol. %

1970 1971* 1972**

1973 1974 1975

1976 1977

45,946 44,085 37,855 31,902 29,470 30,367 29,748 28,676

100 95.5 82.4 69.4 64.1 66.1 64.7 62.4

12,118 11,978 12,505

11,016 9,822

9,241 9,136 9,439

100 98.8

103.2 90.9 81.1 76.3 75.4

77.9

246 248 258 204 193

182 133

146

100 100.8 104.9 82.9 78.5 74.0 54.1 59.3

• Opening of the first underground line, October 19, 1971.

**Start-up of the commuter railway system on May 28, 1972, at the same time as the

introduction of integrated operations.

UNDERGROUND SPACE 327

a. Decline in pollution, 1970-1973. b. Reasons for reduction in CO and CH pollutants.

smooth traffic

flows

12 °/o

metro pork

and 7% ride as f exhaust- fume

4 o1c eo 1ng

1 •s 1

• eg•

0 at1on

1970

1973

II 11 3

%112%1

1-3% I rise in car population

Figure 4. Reduction in air pollution from exhaust fumes according to a study conducted by the Bayerische Motorenwerke

(BMW) in conjunction with the Bavarian State Environment Office, Munich.

cause of the deficits incurred by local transport systems;

• Post-construction costs up to 1985, even using purely commercial ac­ counting, were responsible for only about 5% of the deficit.

Post-construction costs are, there­ fore, far from reaching the level pre­ dicted by the critics of public invest­ ment in local transport. Moreover, the purely commercial considerations un­ derlying the calculations in the Post­ Construction Cost Report ignore the benefits for the economy as a whole­ even though local transport is pro­ moted precisely because of the public benefit.

In sum, this analysis of the invest­ ment in terms of its economic effects on local transport systems demon­ strates that the costs of running rapid transit systems (Schnellbahn) are not out of bounds, that they are indeed affordable.

In Hanover, the opening of the met­ ropolitan Line A yielded a 50% rise in the passenger load, a major part of which was genuinely new business. The increased ridership yielded a higher fare income which more than made up for the higher operating costs (Table 8). Admittedly, the Hanover system is not representative of all rapid transit sys­ tems in that it receives a perk- the City of Hanover foots the energy bill and maintains the tunnel installations­ which other systems do not enjoy. Nevertheless, it remains a fact that in­ vestment in local public passenger transport does not necessarily produce bigger deficits.

And there is another aspect that should be observed. Plans for public

328 UNDERGROUND SPACE

0 10 20m

-7. 5 -10 -15

Figure 5. Noise reduction (in decibels)

when traffic is rerouted through an open

cutting (top) or a trough. and private transportation influence each other, which is to say that big in ­ vestments in underground railroads will reduce investments in roads. The city of Munich, for example, opened its first underground railway line in 1977 and since that time the underground sys­ tem has been enlarged at the rate of approximately DM200 million an­ nually. In 1970 Munich invested DM160 million in road construction. By 1975 the investment in road construction had dropped to approximately DMSS mil­ lion, and since that time the figure has ranged between DM60 to 70 million per year (Table 9). In other words, the reduction in road construction was

about equal to the investment in the underground system.

The overall economic impact With respect to the economy as a

whole, investment in public transport is important because it creates jobs in many sectors. Between 20,000 to 25,000 construction workers are currently em­ ployed on underground, metropolitan railway, and rapid transit projects. Since this work force is concentrated in rel­ atively few locations, the local impor­ tance of these jobs is great. With capital spending totaling DM2 billion an­ nually, approximately 40,000 workers in West Germany are directly or indi­ rectly dependent on the construction of rapid transit systems.

A secondary effect on the economy is that the construction firms working on the rapid transit systems have been able to apply the experience acquired in handling domestic projects to open up foreign markets as well.

The impact on urban development This catalog of results will be con­

cluded with what is perhaps the most important consideration of all: con­ struction of rapid transit systems is an instrument of urban development and renewal. That underground, metro­ politan railway, and rapid transit sys­ tems have a substantial impact on the urban infrastructure and improve the quality of life for our citizens is dem­ onstrated by the following examples, of which many more could be cited:

• The function of city centers as market, trading, and communi­ cation centers is restored.

• Below-grade routing of public transport permits more intensive

May/june 1982

-

use of the surface for higher-den­ sity business and residential dis­ tricts (Fig. 6).

• Locating rail traffic underground

makes it possible, in many in­ stances, to save historically valua­ ble buildings and thus preserve the familiar townscape.

• The development of structurally

weak areas (old town districts, re­ newal areas) can be furthered by public transport in conjunction with supplementary urban replanning.

• Motor vehicle traffic can be bun­

dled on fast arterial roads, thus creating areas that are largely free of traffic in which pedestrian zones can be built.

• Settlement along the right-of-way

of rapid transit systems is pro­ moted and urban sprawl is checked.

• Public amenities (museums, zoos,

libraries, parks) and recreation and sports facilities can be made more accessible and used by larger sec­ tions of the population. In han­ dling traffic peaks to and from major events, public transport has proved to be particularly valuable.

Finally, one scarcely noticed factor is the large-scale renewal and moderni­ zation of utility supply lines and sew­ erage systems that goes hand in hand with the construction of below-grade transportation facilities. For example, when the metropolitan railway was built in Cologne (involving the construction of II km of tunnel), 62 km of sewers and piping as well as 233 km of cable were laid or relaid. Much the same is true of other cities. The new lines and networks were designed to meet future demands, thus obviating the need for regular repairs and extensions to the old system.

Costs Versus Benefits

The assessment of costs versus ben­ efits is very popular today, but atten­ tion has to be drawn to the fact that there are a lot of problems in this field which are still unresolved. It is very difficult to assign a money value to everything. Some of the most impor­ tant benefits of underground railways are hard to quantify. What, for ex­ ample, is the economic equivalent of the growing prosperity of a city, of less polluted air, lower traffic noise levels, and lower accident rates?

In spite of these difficulties in quan­ tification, in the mid 1970's the German Minister of Transportation developed

May/june 1982

1&.1 U) U)

<l a: 1- U)

<!)

a: 0 1&.1 <!)

Figure 6. Routing public transport underground permits higher, more intensive

use of the surface in the central business district (example: Kropcke in Hanover).

Table 7. Costs of noise protection windows for three- to five-floor buildings

adjacent to highways.

Exceeding the acceptable noise level

Approximate costs of noise protection windows (DM per meter of road length)

+ 5 dB 2,300 to 3,300

+ 10 dB 2,900 to 4,200

+ 15 dB 3,700 to 5,400

Table 8. A comparison of operating costs of Stadtbahn (light rail) and tram

systems. (The costs used in this 1976 study were those of Hanover's Line A.)

Expenses Stadtbahn

(million DM)

Tram

(million DM)

Operators1 , inspectors, station

staff

4,248

5,986

Propulsion energy2 1,846 1,575

Maintenance (vehicles, buildings,

equipment)

5,693

4,658

Capital cosP 6,846 5,578

Tunnel lease4 200 -

Other5 5,229 4,423

Total cost 24,132 22,220

Revenues 18,000-18,500 15,000-15,500

Total cost minus revenue 6,100- 5,600 7,200- 6,700

'The Stadtbahn requires 45 fewer operators. 2More powerful engines in Stadtbahn rolling stock. 3Stadtbahn rolling stock is more expensive.

•The City of Hanover maintains the tunnels. 5E.g., costs for tickets, ticket machines, taxes; proportional overhead costs for

administration, insurance, and social payments.

U N DERGRO UN D SPACE 329

Year

Expenditure for Road Construction

(million OM)

Total Investment in Transportation

(million OM)

Percentage of Total Investment Spent on Road Construction

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

115.8 126.4 102.0 105.7 117.0 159.9 156.3 136.9 91.8 69.7 54.6 67.9 60.6 72.0

370.4 360.0 403.7 366.6 398.8 484.0 531.5 491.7 600.8 554.7 554.9 644.9 734.3 835.3

31.3 35.1 25.3 28.8 29.3 33.0 29.4 27.8 15.3 12.6 9.8

10.5 8.3 8.6

a standardized cost-benefit analysis which had to be completed by all cities asking for financial support for their projects. The method used was a com­ parison of the "with" and the "without" situation, i.e. , the expected effects of the i nvestment were compared with the situation as it would be without the in­ vestment. The following effects were evaluated and quantified in relation to the three concerned groups:

• for the passengers - costs for traveling time - fares for public transport -operating costs for private

automobile

• for the transit authority - annualized capital cost - operating cost - fare-box revenue

• for the general public - noise reduction costs - costs for the reduction of ex-

haust fumes - accident costs

Because of the great expense, this cost­ benefit analysis was limited to projects involving an investment of more than DM50 million. After a few years of ex­ perience, however, this analysis proved unsuitable and was withdrawn. A new cost-benefit analysis is now being worked out, which tries to avoid the defects of the first one. But even an improved version can only be an aid to and not a replacement of political and technical judgment in the investment decision.

Frankenstrasse Station (open cut) in Nuremberg. Table 9. Expenditures for the construction of roads, streets, and highways in

Munich, Federal Republic of Germany.

Conclusion

The examples cited in this paper show not only that improvement of local public passenger transport provides the individual passenger with a direct per­ sonal benefit, but also that under­ ground construction work in the field of public transport produces other positive effects that are in the public interest, both socially and economi­ cally- benefits which make a big con­ tribution toward improving the often­ cited quality of life. Experience in the Federal Republic of Germany indi­ cates, on the one hand, that this re­ quires a huge volume of capital spend­ ing and, in some cases, very long periods of construction. On the other hand, this seems to be the only way we have of saving our deteriorating cities.

Bibliography

Bayerische Motorenwerke (BMW), and Ba­ varian State Environment Office. 1973. Auto, motor, sport, no. 76/1973, Munich.

Bundesminister fur Verkehr. 1976. Anlei­ tung fur die Standardisierte Bewertung von

330 UNDERGROUN D SPACE

Verkehrswegeinvestitionen des OPNV, Heft 51. Bonn.

Federation of Public Transport Undertak­ ings (VOV), and Association of Municipal Corporations (Deutscher Stadtetag, DST). 1978. Offentlicher Personennahvehrkehr: In­ vesitionen- Bauleistungen- Erfolge 1967 bis 1976 (Local public passenger transport: investment and construction, results 1967 to 1 976). An i nterim survey on the finan­ cial assistance programme of the Munic­ ipal Passenger Transport Finance Act, p. 100 ff. Cologne.

Federation. ot Pubhc Transport Undertak­ ings (VOV). 1980. VOV-Statistik '80. Co­ longe: Verband Offentlicher Verkehrs­ betriebe.

German Parliament. 1976. Report on post­ construction costs of local public passenger transport (OPNV), publication VII/4556, January 12, 1976.

Girnau, G., and Muller, K. W. 1980. Success

of investment in local public transport in Germany, Transport policy and decision mak­ ing, pp. 253-265, Jan uary 1980.

Meister, D., and Girnau, G. 1980. Statement of the official delegation of the Federal Republic of West Germany at Round Ta­ ble Session I on Environmental Protec­ tion. In Subsurface Space (Rockstore '80), ed. M. Bergman, pp. 1061-1071. Ox­ ford: Pergamon Press.

Scheelhasse, K. 1979. Einsatzbereich von

Stadtbahnsystemen, Vehrkehr und Technik: October, 1979.

Society for Consumption, Market and Sales Research (GfK-Nurnberg). 1978. Offentlicher Personennahverkehr im Urteil der Beviilkerung (Local passenger traffic as the public sees it), a representative survey. Cologne.

May/june 1982