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CIT1ZENSHIPAND MMIGRATION:A CURRENTREVIEW

F u r t h e r m o r e , " c i t i z e n s h i p a s p a r ti c ip a t i o n " c a n a c t a s a l in k b e t w e e n t h e d i f -

f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s o f c i t i z e n s h i p .

T h i s r e v i e w is o r g a n i z e d i n t o t h r e e pa r t s . F i rs t, t he r e i s a m or e e x t e n s i ve

de f i n i t i on a l d i s c us s i on o f c i ti z e ns h ip . I n pa r ti c u la r , I c on c e n t r a t e on h o w t h ec o n c e p t s o f t h e c i t iz e n a n d t h e n a t i o n a l h a v e b e c o m e c o n f la t e d . I t is p a r -

t ia ll y a r es u l t o f th i s c o n f l a t i o n th a t i m m i g r a n t s c h a l l e n g e t r a d i t io n a l n o t i o n s

o f ci ti z en s h ip . N e x t , I e x a m i n e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f c i t i z e n s h i p - - l e g a l s t a t u s,

r ig h ts , a n d i d e n t i t y - - m o v i n g fr o m w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e t h e m o s t o b j e ct iv e

d i m e n s i o n o f c i ti z e n s h ip to t h e m o s t s u b je c ti v e. F o r e a c h d i m e n s i o n , I h i g h -

l i g h t t h e r o l e p a r t i c i p a t i o n p l a y s i n s h a p i n g d e b a t e s a n d h o w i t m i g h t o f f e r

n e w a v e n u e s f o r f u tu r e r es e a r c h . F in ally , I c o n s i d e r p a r t ic i p a t io n a s a n i n d e -

p e n d e n t d i m e n s i o n o f c it iz e n sh i p , e m p h a s i z i n g i ts J a n u s - f ac e . I n o n e s e n s e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y p o l i t ic a l ac t iv i ty , r e i n f o r c e s t r a d i t i o n a l

c o n c e p t u a l i z a ti o n s o f c it iz e n s h ip c e n t r e d o n t h e n a t i o n - s t a te , b e c a u s e p o -

l it ic a l s p a c e s a r e m o s t l y d e l i m i t e d b y s t at e s. Y et i n a n o t h e r s e n s e , i m m i -

g r a n t s ' pa r t i c i pa t i on i n g l oba l e c onomi c s ys t e ms , t r a ns na t i ona l s oc i a l s pa c e s ,

i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c ia l m o v e m e n t s , a n d t h e p o li ti cs o f t h e i r h o m e c o u n t r i e s

u n d e r m i n e s t h e l i n k b e t w e e n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e , r a i s i n g t h e

p o s s ib i li ty t h a t s o m e a s p e c ts o f c i ti z e n s h ip n e e d t o b e r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d .

D efining Cit izenship: The C itizen, Na tionali ty , and the Na tion-State

T h e v e r y d e f i n i t i o n o f a n i m m i g r a n t i s l i n k e d t o t h e c o n c e p t o f c i t i z e n s h i p .

T h e t e r m i m m i g r a n t d e n o t e s s o m e o n e f r o m e ls e w h e r e w h o m o v e s to a n e w

p l a c e . H e o r s he is a n ou t s i de r bo t h l e ga l l y a n d s oci al ly . M or e p r e c is e l y ,

a n d c o n g r u e n t w i t h m o s t e m p i ri ca l l it er a tu r e, a n i m m i g r a n t is s o m e o n e b o r n

i n o n e c o u n t r y w h o liv es in a n o t h e r , u s u a l ly w i t h s o m e i n t e n t i o n o f s ta y -

i n g . 3 Y et e v e n t h is s e e m i n g l y s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d d e f i n i t i o n b e c o m e s p r o b l e -

m a t i c w h e n o n e c o n s i d e rs t h e i n t e r se c t io n o f im m i g r a t io n a n d c it iz e ns h ip .

F o r e x a m p l e , if G e r m a n c i ti z e n s l iv e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s fo r a c o u p l e o f

y e a r s , h a v e a c h i l d , a n d t h e n m o v e b a c k t o G e r m a n y , t w o p a r a d o x e s a r i s e .

F irs t, b e c a u s e t h e G e r m a n s t at e w i ll c o n f e r ci t iz e n s h i p o n t h e c h i l d o f G e r -

m a n p a r e n ts , w h e n t h e c h il d m o v e s b a ck t o G e r m a n y , h e o r s h e is n o t c o n -

s i d e r e d a n i m m i g r a n t e v e n t h o u g h o f f o r e i g n b i rt h . C o n v e r s e ly , i f t h i s G e r -

m a n c h i l d d e c i d e s t o w o r k i n t h e U S a s a n a d u l t , h e o r s h e w i l l n o t b e a n

i m m i g r a n t - - d e s p i t e h a v i n g l iv ed a lm o s t h is o r h e r w h o l e l ife i n G e r m a n y - -

be c a us e t he U S s t a te a c c o r ds c i t iz e ns h i p ba s e d on t e r r it o r i al b i r th . I m m i g r a -

t i o n a n d c i t iz e n s h i p a r e s o cl o s e ly l i n k e d b e c a u s e , a s m u c h a s t h e w o r d

i m m i g r a n t d e n o t e s a n o u t s i d e r st at us , c i ti ze n s h ip i m p l i e s m e m b e r s h i p .

C i t i z e n s h i p w a s d e f i n e d a b o v e a s m e m b e r s h i p i n a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o m -

m u n i t y . T h e s o c io - p o li ti c al c o m m u n i t y h a s t a k e n v a r i o u s f o r m s o v e r ti m e ,

b u t i n t o d a y ' s w o r l d t h e k e y st r u c t u r e i s t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e . I n p a ra l le l , t h e

c o n c e p t o f c it iz e n sh i p h a s e x is te d i n W e s t er n t h o u g h t i n o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r

R e v u e de l 'i nt e g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 1 1



BLOFNIRAAD

f o r t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s, f ro m t h e A t h e n i a n c i ty st at e, t h r o u g h t h e R e n a i s -

s a n c e a n d E n l i g h t e n m e n t , u n t il it g a i n e d r e n e w e d i m p o r t a n c e w i t h t h e d e -

ve lop m en t o f na t ion- s t a t e s in the 19 th cen tu ry (Klusm eyer , 1996) . Th i s re -

v i e w f o c u s e s o n c o n t e m p o r a r y d e f i n i t i o n s o f c i t i z e n s h i p , d e f i n i t i o n s i n t i -m a t e l y i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h id e a ls o f t h e m o d e m n a t io n - s t a te . T h e s e id e a ls

c rea te a conc ep t ion o f c it izensh ip tha t conf la t e s the n a t iona l an d the c it izen .

Al though few coun t r i e s today can c l a im a pe r fec t ove r l ap o f s t a t e and

n a t i o n , t h i s i d e a l i s s a l i e n t i n p u b l i c i m a g i n a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e

(Ander son , 1991 ; Ge l lner , 1983 ; Ho bsbaw m , 1992). The na t ion - s t a t e c om -

bine s an ef fec t ive an d an af fective e lem ent . The s ta te can be c on s ide red an

ent i ty tha t i s able to en ga ge in ef fec tive pol i tica l de cis io n-m ak ing in a cer -

t a in t e r r i t o ry over wh ich i t exe rc ises sovere ign ty , o r con t ro l . The idea o f

na t io n i s m u ch m ore sub jec tive , gene ra l ly r e fe r r ing to a f f ect ive sen t im en t .A l tho ug h cul tura l s imi lar i ty i s of ten a bas is for na t ional ity , m ore im po r tan t

is m u t u a l r e c o g n it io n . G e l l n e r s u g g e st s t h a t " t w o m e n a r e o f t h e s a m e n a -

t i o n if a n d o n l y if t h e y r e c o g n iz e e a c h o t h e r a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s a m e n a t i o n "

(1983, p. 7 , em phas i s i n o r ig ina l) , wh ereas An der so n co nce ives o f an " im a-

g i n e d c o m m u n i t y " a n d W e b e r d ef in e s t h e n a t i o n a s a " c o m m u n i t y of se n t i-

m en t" (1946, p. 176).

E a c h o f t h e t w o e l e m e n t s o f t h e t e r m n a t i o n - s t a te h a s a p a r a ll e l te r m

d e n o t i n g m e m b e r s h i p . M e m b e r s h i p in th e n a t io n m a k e s o n e a n a ti o n a l o rg ives one nat ional i ty , thus denot ing one ' s p lace in the af fec t ive communi ty .

M em bersh ip in the s ta t e g ran t s one the s ta tus o f c it izen , o r g ives one c i ti zen-

sh ip , accord ing a say abo u t the e f f ec t ive con t ro l o f t he s t at e . C r i ti ca l t o

un de r s t an d in g the c u r ren t deba tes on c i t izensh ip is t he r ecogn i t ion tha t na -

t iona l ity and c i ti zensh ip have be en conf la t ed , im ply ing m em bersh ip bo th in

a pol i t ica l com m un i ty an d in a col lec t ive ident ity .

The over lap of na t ional i ty and c i t izenship f inds d i f ferent express ions in

d ive r se coun t r i e s , bu t t he coup l ing rem ains desp i t e coun t ry - spec i f ic va r i a -

t ions . C er t a in au thor s have d is t ingu i shed Ge rm an y ' s e thn ic -based c i t izen-

sh ip f rom France ' s c iv i c concep t ion (B rubaker , 1992 ; de W enden , 1987) .

H ow ever , as Wei l (1996) notes , F rench ideals l inks c i t izenship , na t ion al ident ity ,

a n d v o t i n g t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t i s n o t v a l u e - n e u t r a l .

Kym licka (1995) argues a lo ng s imi lar l ines : the d i f ference be tw ee n so -ca l led

e thn ic -based and c iv i c -based c i t i zensh ip i s no t one o f cu l tu re ve r sus con-

t rac t, bu t a d i f fe rence be tw een a c losed cu ltu re tha t exc ludes peop le w ho a re

di f ferent and an open cul ture , or na t ional ident i ty , tha t a l lows in tegra t ion .

The r ecen t i n t e rest i n c i t i zensh ip occurs a s bo th academ ics an d po l it ica lactiv is ts cha l l enge the im pl i ed equ iva lence be tw een s t at e and na t ion , c i ti zen

a n d n a t i o n a l . P a rt o f t h is d e b a t e h a s s t e m m e d f r o m t h e a c t i vi sm o f " n a -

t i o n a l " m i n o r i t ie s w i t h i n w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d s ta t es , s u c h a s Q u e b e c a n d A -

bor ig ina l na t iona l i sm in C anada , Sco t t i sh na t iona l i sm in the Uni t ed King-

d o m , o r C a t a l o n i a n a n d B a s q u e n a t i o n a l i s m i n S p a i n ( K y m li ck a , 1 9 9 5 ;

1 2 3ournal of International Migration and Integration



CITIZENSHIPAND MMIGRATION:A CURRENTREVIEW

L a p o n c e & S a f r a n , 1 9 96 ) . A s e c o n d c ri ti c al f a c to r , a n d t h e f o c u s o f t h i s r e -

v ie w , is t h e c h a l l e n g e p o s e d b y m a s s i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t io n s , p o p u l a -

t i o n s h i f ts th a t b r i n g p e o p l e o f d i f f e r e n t c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d s a n d r e l ig i o u s

t r a d it io n s t o c o u n t r ie s t h a t h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s r e la t iv e ly h o m o g e -

n e o u s n a t i o n - s ta t e s . T h i s m i g r a t i o n c h a l l e n g e h a s b e e n p a r t ic u l a rl y s t r o n g

i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e : c o u n t r i e s t h a t h i st o ri c al ly w e r e n a t i o n s o f e m i g r a t i o n a re

n o w c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e r ea l i ty of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n . Y et t h is

c h a l l e n g e i s a l s o b e i n g f e lt i n t r a d it io n a l i m m i g r a n t - r e c e i v i n g c o u n t r i e s s i n c e

t h e " n e w i m m i g r a n t s ' - - t h o s e f r o m S o u t h A m e r ic a , t h e C a r i b be a n , A s ia , a n d

A f r i c a - - a r e b r i n g i n g i n t o q u e s t i o n e x p l ic it o r im p l i c it c u l t u r e s o f A n g l o - c o n -

f o r m i t y a n d w h i t e , C h r i s t i a n i d e n ti t i e s . 4

The Dim ensions of Citizenship

Legal Status

I n i t s m o s t b a s i c f o r m , c i t i z e n s h i p d e n o t e s a l e g a l s t a t u s a c c o r d e d b y a s t a t e

t o a n i n d iv i d u a l, a t y p e o f m e m b e r s h i p t h a t B a u b 6 c k (1 99 4) t e r m s n o m i n a l

c i t i z e n s h ip . B y g r a n t i n g a p e r s o n c i t iz e n s h i p , a s ta t e la y s s o m e o b l i g a t i o n s

o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( e.g ., th e s t a t e m i g h t ca ll u p o n t h e p e r s o n i n a t i m e o f w a r )

a n d a l l o w s t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o m a k e c l a i m s i n r e t u r n ( e . g . , t h e r i g h t t o a c c e s s

s t a te t e rr it o ry ) . I n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l , e a c h p e r s o n i n t h e w o r l d h a s as i n g l e c i t i z e n s h i p a n d l i v e s i n h i s o r h e r c o u n t r y o f c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e r e b y f a -

c i li ta t in g t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n i n d i v id u a l s a n d t h e s ta t e . M i g r a t io n , h o w -

e v e r, c o m p l i c a t e s t h is m o d e l . W h a t i s t h e le g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

h o s t c o u n t r y a n d t h e f o re i g n m i g r a n t ? T o w h a t e x t e n t c a n th e h o m e c o u n tr y ,

t h e c o u n t r y o f c i t i z e n s h i p , i n t e r c e d e t o p r o t e c t i t s c i t i z e n s w h o l i v e i n a n -

o t h e r s ta t e? T o w h o m d o e s t h e i n d i v id u a l o w e a l l e g ia n c e , t h e c o u n t r y o f

c i t iz e n s h i p o r t h e c o u n t r y o f r e s i d e n c e ?

T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o a v o id s u c h c o m p l ic a t io n s i s t o h a v e t h e m i g r a n tc h a n g e c i ti z e n s h ip . I f h e o r s h e i n t e n d s t o r e s i d e f o r m a n y y e a r s i n a n e w

c o u n t r y , l e g a l l y i t w i l l b e e a s i e r i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l n a t u r a l i z e s , t h a t i s , c h a n g e s

h i s o r h e r c i t i z e n s h i p t o t h a t o f t h e c o u n t r y o f r e s i d e n c e . N a t u r a l i z a t i o n

s e e m s s i m p l e in t he o ry , y e t th e p r a c ti c e ca n b e q u i te c o m p l ic a t e d . C o m p l e x

l eg a l c o d e s g o v e r n w h o a r e c it i ze n s, o n w h a t g r o u n d s o u t s i d e r s c a n b e c o m e

c i t iz e n s , a n d w h a t e x c e p t i o n s , if a n y , m i g h t e x i s t d u e t o m a r r i a g e , d i s a b il it y ,

a n d s o f o r t h . N a t u r a l i z a t i o n p o li c ie s a n d p r o c e s s e s h a v e c o m e u n d e r in -

c r e a s e d a c a d e m i c s c r u t in y si n ce th e 1 9 8 0 s a s s c h o l a rs s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d

c r o s s - n a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n c i t i z e n s h i p r e g u l a t i o n s a n d c i t i z e n s h i p a c q u i s i -

t i o n .

T h e r e is a s tr o n g s p l it i n t h e l it e ra t u re b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o s t u d y W e s t

E u r o p e a n s t a t es a n d t h o s e w h o f o cu s o n t r a d i t io n a l im m i g r a n t - r e c e i v i n g

c o u n t r i e s s u c h a s t h e U S , C a n a d a , o r A u s t r al ia . S c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d i n E u -

r o p e t e n d t o s t u d y c i t i z e n s h ip a c q u i s i t io n w i t h i n a f r a m e w o r k o f l eg a l

R e v u e d e l 'i n t e g r a t io n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 1 3



BLOEMRAAD

regime s . The y focus mo st ly on the s ta te as a grantor o f c i t izenship sta tus .

Cross -na t iona l compar i sons o f lega l codes a re em ploye d to h igh l igh t s imi -

lar i ties an d differences. The exp lanat ion for variabil ity i n natu ral izat ion rates

ac ross s t a t e s i s exp la ined by making r e fe rence t o un ique coun t ry - spec i f i c

f ea tu res , no t t o imm igran t s ' a tt ri bu tes . In con tr as t, r e sea rcher s in No r th

Am er ica , Australia , and N ew Zea land g enera l ly use a m icro- level approach,

focus ing on imm igran t s choos ing c it izenship . Th is a l te rna tive emp has i s i s

ha rd ly su rp r i s ing as na tu ra l i za t i on i n t hese coun t r i e s has been r e l a t i ve ly

easy for m os t imm igrants , w i th th e h i s tor ic except ion of Asians (Pr ice, 1974;

U eda , 1996 ; Sm i th , 1997). 5 W here as t he fo rm er app roach se es the s t a t e

gran t ing legal c i ti zenship according to i ts ow n logic , the la t te r co ns iders ho w

immigrants ' mot iva t ions and a t t r ibutes lead to na tura l iza t ion .

Brubaker 's (1992) com par i son o f France an d G erm any typ if ie s t he ap-p roach t aken w he n s tudy ing European coun t ri es . B rubaker a rgues t ha t F rench

an d G erm an conc ept ions of c it izenship are s ignif icant ly d i f ferent beca use of

diss imi lar na t ional idea ls rooted in par t icular pol i t i ca l events and cul tura l

geography . Sta te-cent red , revolut ionary France de velo ped an ass imi la tionis t

an d re la tive ly inc lus ive f ramew ork of c i ti zenship . In cont ras t, G er m an y- -a

na t iona l i dea l be fo re i t becam e a s t a t e - -h as aVolk-cen t red , e thn i c de f in i t ion

of t he n a t ion , wh ich p roduces an exc lusive c i t izensh ip r eg im e . Brubaker

i ll us tr a te s t h i s d i f fe r ence by n o t ing th a t i n G erm any c i ti zensh ip is m os t lyacco rded a lo ng legal tradi t ions of ius sanguinis , ci t izenship according to b lood.

In cont rast , France a l so accords c i t izenship bas ed on ius soli , ci t izenship b y

birth on a terri tory.

D esp i t e h i s to r i c d i f fe r ences , c i ti zensh ip po l i c ie s m igh t s l owly be con -

ve rg ing in Europe . O ne f acto r encou rag ing convergence is t he de ve lo pm ent

of t he E uropea n Un ion and the acco m panying p res sure fo r comp arab le po li cy

s tances (Soysal, 1996; Wei l, 199 6) . Thus G erm an y has g radual ly m ov ed to

gran t t h e possib il it y o f Germ an c i ti zensh ip to t he G erm an -bo rn ch i ld ren o f

migran t worker s , con t r a ry t o i u s sangu i n i s . European c i t i zensh ip po l i c i e s

m igh t a l so be m ovin g close r t o t he i r No r th Am er i can coun te rpa rt s , f o r ex -

am ple , i n so m e cases r e s idency r equ i r eme nt s a r e ge t t i ng short e r, f ees a r e

lower , an d requ i rem ents of cultura l adaptabil ity are b eco m ing less s tr ingent .

A t t he same t ime , t he re has been pub l i c deba t e i n Nor th Amer i ca t o make

c i ti zensh ip r egu lat ions m ore s t r ingen t? In t h is s ense , c it izensh ip m igh t be

w i tness ing a conv ergen ce s imi lar to tha t ident i f ied by Cornel ius, Mar t in and

Ho l l if ie ld (1994) in th e f ie ld of im m igra t ion policy . They argue tha t in in-

dus t r ia l ized , l abour- im por t ing count r ies , imm igra t ion laws , cont ro l m easures ,i n t e g r a ti o n p o lic ie s, a n d p u b li c o p i n i o n o n i m m i g r a ti o n a re b e c o m i n g i n -

c r e a s i n g l y a l i k e d u e t o t h e p r e s s u r e s o f n e w i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e s , e c o -

no m ic f lows, an d l iberal r ights discourses. The ap pen dix hig hl igh ts natu ral-

iza t ion pol ic ies for Canada, France , Germ any, and the US in bo th th e m id-

1980s and 2000.

14 Journal of'International Migration and Integration





BLOF/vlRA/~

an immigrant ' s in tegra t ion in to the soc ia l , economic , and cu l tura l s t ruc tures

of so c ie ty (Barkan & Kholov , 1980; Bernard , 1936; Evans , 1988; Liang , 1994).

T h e m o r e i n t e g r a t e d o n e is , t h e m o r e l ik e l y o n e is t o n a tu r a l i z e . W h i l e

t h e o r i z i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y , r e s e a r c h i nth is t rad i t ion has gen era l ly no t s tud ied soc ie ta l e ffec ts , ins tead c on cen t ra t in g

on ind iv idua l s. Leve l o f i n t eg ra t ion is mea su re d by such va r iab l e s as im m i -

g ran t s ' l angu age ab il it y and the p re sence o f ch i ld r en in t he f ami ly .

The re i s no consensu s a s to w he the r m ore su ppor t ex is ts fo r the i n t eg ra -

t i on o r co s t -bene f i t app roac h to na tu ra l iza t ion . Th is l ack o f consensus s t ems

f rom a t le a s t two sou rces . F ir st, t he re has be en a no tab l e l ack o f ag ree m en t

on the t he e f fec t o f the d i r ec t ion o f m an y va r iab l e s up on the p rope ns i ty t o

n a t u r al iz e . T h u s w h e r e a s s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s f in d th a t b e i n g m a r r i e d h a s a

posi t ive effect (Fr ideres e t a l ., 1987; Yan g, 1994), oth ers h ave fo un d n o rela-t ion (Evans, 1988), and som e have e ven fou nd a nega t ive on e (Neice , 1978).

P a r t o f t h e l a c k o f c o n s e n s u s m i g h t b e d u e t o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s

an d f laws in o ld er s tud ies . 7 In the las t decad e , scholars hav e use d a var ie ty

o f soph i s t i ca t ed t echn iques t ha t sugges t s fu tu re consensus migh t be ea s i e r

to e s tabl ish (Jasso & R ose nzw eig, 1990; Liang, 1994; Yang, 1994). Par t icular ly

he lp fu l wou ld be l ong i tud ina l s tud i e s such a s t ha t r epo r t ed by Por t e s and

Curtis (1987).

In t he even t o f consensus , t he re w ou ld r em a in a s ec ond c r it ic a l p rob lemin ad jud ica t ing be tw een the cos t-bene f i t and in t eg ra t ion app roaches . Qu i t e

s imply , i t is o f ten no t c lear w hic h theo ry a par t icu la r var iab le suppor t s . Th ere

does s eem to be so m e r egu la r it y t o t he f i nd ing tha t educa t ion has a cu rv il i-

near re la t ionship to na tura l iza t ion , tha t the probabi l i ty of na tura l iza t ion in-

c r eases a s l eng th o f r e s idence inc reases , and tha t E ng l i sh - l anguag e ab i li ty is

pos i t i ve ly co r r e l a t ed w i th be ing a c i t iz en . ~ Tak ing th is l a s t f i nd ing a s an

example , does t he l i nk be tween Eng l i sh ab i l i t y and na tu ra l i za t ion mean , a s

Evan s (1988) an d L iang (1994) a rgue , tha t E ngl i sh - lang uag e ab il i ty i s a s ign

o f i n t eg ra t ion? Or , a s J a sso and Ro sen zw e ig (1986, 1990) con tend , doe s

kn ow ledg e o f Eng l i sh r educe the cos ts o f na tu ra l i za tion by m ak in g the c it i-

zensh ip exam seem eas ie r ? S ign i fi can t " concep tua l b l eed ing" is fou nd a t t he

bou nda r i e s o f bo th pe r spec tives. W ha t i n on e theo ry i s a bene fi t, is a me a -

su re o f i n t eg ra t ion fo r t he o the r.

To da t e , ma ny s tud ie s o f na tu ra l iza t ion have bee n s t a t e - cen t r ed o r i nd i -

v i d u a l - c e n t r e d , e x a m i n i n g o n e s i d e o f t h e c i t i z e n s h i p e q u a t i o n m o s t l y i n

i so la t ion f rom the o ther . A prof i tab le d i rec t ion for fu ture research is to con -

s ide r t he acqu i s i t i on o f l ega l c i t i z ensh ip a s a soc i a l p roces s i nvo lv ing thein t e r ac t ion o f t he s t a te , im m igran t , and o the r soc i et a l g roups. A long these

l ines , A lva rez (1987) unde r l i nes t he imp or t ance o f com m un i ty o rgan iza tions

a n d n e t w o r k s i n t h e n a t u r a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s o f H i s p a n i c i m m i g r a n t s i n t h e

US, w h i l e Jones -C or rea (1998a) po in t s o u t t ha t po l it ic a l pa r ti e s i n Q ueen s ,

N e w Y o rk d o n o t r e a c h o u t t o H i s p a n i c i m m i g r a n t s , t h e r e b y f a il in g t o

1_ 6 . I our na l o f I n te r na t io na l Mig r a t ion and I n tegr a t ion



C1TIZENSHIPAND MMIGRATION:A CURRENTREV1EW

e n c o u r a g e p o li ti c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d c i ti z e n s h ip . B l o e m r a a d ( 1 99 9 ) s u g -

g e s t s g o v e r n m e n t i n t e g r a ti o n p o li ci es a n d s ta te r e l a ti o n s w i t h c o m m u n i t y

g r o u p s m i g h t a c c o u n t fo r d i ff e r en c e s i n n a t u r a l iz a t io n r a t e s b e t w e e n t h e U S

a n d C a n a d a .S o m e N o r t h A m e r ic a n r e se a rc h e rs a re c o n s e q u e n t l y m o v i n g b e y o n d

m i c ro - l eve l app roac hes t o a dee pe r inves t i ga t i on o f soc ia l con t ex t s . A t t he

s a m e t im e , c e r t a in E u r o p e a n s c h o la r s a re i n c r e a s i n g ly f o c u s e d o n t h e d e t e r -

m i n a n t s o f n at ur a li za ti o n, m o v i n g m o r e t o w a r d a N o r t h A m e r ic a n - s ty l e m i -

c ro - l eve l app roa ch (de R ham , 1990 ; C la rke , van D am , & G oos t e r , 1998 ). A

n e w t h e o r e ti c a l s y n t h e s is m i g h t b e a p p r o p r i a te a t t h is t im e . A s P o r t e s a n d

R u m b a u t (1 99 6) h a v e s u g g e s t e d fo r s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n i n te g r a ti o n , w e n e e d

m o d e l s th a t i n c o r p o ra t e b o t h m i c ro - le v e l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d c o m m u n i t y

i n f l u e n c e s a n d s t a t e d y n a m i c s .

R ts

R i g h t s a r e a s e c o n d k e y d i m e n s i o n o f c i ti ze n s h ip . O n c e d e e m e d a le g a l

c i t i z en by a s t a t e , a num ber o f r i gh t s and r e spons i b i l i t i e s have becom e a t -

t a c h e d t o t h is s ta t u s o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e 1 9 t h a n d 2 0 t h c e n t u r ie s . T h e

c e n t r a l d e b a t e a m o n g s c h o la r s o f m i g r a t i o n a n d c i ti z e n s h ip is t h e e x t e n t to

w h i c h r i g h ts r e m a i n l i n k e d t o c i t iz e n s h i p em p i ri ca lly , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f such a l i nkage t heo re t i ca l ly and no rm a t ive l y .9M arsha l l (1964) p rov i de d t he c la s si c m od e l o f c i ti z ensh i p r i gh t s i n h i s

s t ud y o f t he En g l i sh w ork i ng c la ss . M arsha l l co n t e nd s t ha t t he re i s a p ro -

g re s s i on f rom g ran t i ng c iv il f i gh t s - - t h a t i s, equa li ty be fo re t he l aw - - t o g ra n t i ng

po l it ic a l r i gh ts , nam e l y un i ve r sa l su ff r age . W i th t h e l a tt er , w orke r s w e re ab l e

t o d e m an d t h e f i na l se t o f r i gh t s a s soc i a t ed w i t h c i t iz ensh i p : soc i a l r i gh t s .

T h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f m i g r a n t s i n l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s

and t he r i s e i n a g l oba l hum an r i gh t s d i scou r se have l ed t o c r i t i ques o f t h i s

l in e a r m o d e l , a s w e l l a s t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n r ig h t s a n d c i ti z e n s h ip m o r egene ra ll y . V a ri ous au t h o r s m a i n t a i n t h a t i n t he l a t e 20 t h cen t u ry , m os t peop l e ,

even i l l ega l en t ran t s to a count ry , a re accorded some bas ic c iv i l r igh t s , fo l -

low ed by soc ia l r igh t s , bu t on ly c i ti zens en joy po l it i ca l r igh t s (Brubaker , 1989;

L ay ton -H en ry , 1990; So ysal , 1994). 1~

W h e r e a s M a r s h a l l c l a i m e d t h a t w o r k e r s n e e d e d t o m o b i l i z e p o l i t i c a l

r i gh t s i n o rde r t o ach i eve soc ia l r i gh ts , t oda y soc ia l r i gh t s a r e g i ven t o pe op l e

r e s i d i n g in a c o u n t r y e v e n i f t h e y a r e n o t c it iz e n s . A c c e s s to s u c h s o c i a l

r ig h t s, a n d t h e e x t e n t o f t h e m , d if fe r f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y, b u t m o s t W e s t -

e r n s t a t es h a v e f o u n d i t h a r d t o d e n y t h e m t o n o n - c i t iz e n s . T h e c a s e o f t h e1996 W el fa re R e fo rm A c t i n t he U S i s no t ab l e fo r it s a t t e m p t t o go aga i n s t t he

t r e n d o f e x t e n d i n g s o ci al r ig h t s t o n o n - c i ti z e n s . W h i le t h e r e h a s l o n g b e e n

a n A m e r i c a n d e b a t e w h e t h e r t o g i v e s o c i a l b e n e f i t s t o i l l e g a l i m m i g r a n t s ,

t h e 1 9 96 W e l fa re R e f o r m A c t e l im i n a t e d S u p p l e m e n t a l S e c u r it y I n c o m e (S SI)

b e n e f it s a n d f o o d s t a m p s t o m o s t n o n - c i t iz e n l eg a l, p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s

R e v u e d e r i n t 0 g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 17



BLOEMRAAD

t hen r e s id ing in t he US , and to a lmos t a l l f u tu re l ega l immigran t s p r io r t o

na tu ra l iza t ion . As the W es te rn cou n t ry w i th t he w eakes t soc i al s ecu r i ty ne t ,

i t i s pe rha ps n o t su rp r i sing tha t t h is chang e occu r r ed in t he US . H ow ever ,

t he A m er i can pus h to r eaf f irm the l i nk be tw een soc ia l r i gh ts an d c i ti zensh iphas been on ly pa r t i a l l y succes s fu l ; a number o f t he l aw ' s p rov i s ions have

s i nc e b e e n a m e n d e d , o r b e n e f it s p r o v i d e d b y s ta te g o v e r n m e n t s , u

Espec i al ly i n Europe , t he re n ow exis ts a popu la t ion o f im m igran t s , an d

i n s o m e c a s e s t h e i r E u r o p e a n - b o r n c h i l d r e n , w h o h a v e r e s i d e d 2 0 o r 3 0

yea r s i n a coun try , bu t w ho r em a in non-c i t i zens i n a l ega l s ense . Ye t t he se

p e o p l e h a v e o f t e n w o r k e d , b e e n e d u c a t e d , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s o c i e t y

w i th in w h ich th ey live, an d they a r e g ran t ed ce r t a in soc ia l and c iv il r igh t s.

H am m ar (1989) sugges t s t ha t such peop le , ne i the r c i ti z ens no r s tr ic t f o r e ign -

e rs , b e c o n s i d e r e d " d e n i z e n s : fo r e ig n c it iz e ns w h o h a v e a s e c u re p e r m a n e n t

r e s idence s t atu s, and w ho a re con nec t ed to t he s t a te by an ex t ens ive a r ray o f

r igh ts a nd dut ies" (p . 84). G oin g further , Soysal (1994, 1996) a rgues tha t no t

on ly a r e t he re m an y n ew ca t ego ri e s and s ta tu se s , bu t t ha t c i t i z ensh ip i ts e lf i s

ch an g in g tow ard a pos tna t iona l mo de l . Ac cord ing to Soysal, i n t e rna t ion a l

m i g r a t i o n , n e w p o l iti ca l b o d i e s s u c h a s th e E u r o p e a n U n i o n , a n d t h e i n t er -

na t ion a l d i s cou r se o f hu m an r igh t s have c r ea t ed a s i t ua tion wh ere r i gh t s a r e

n o w de t e r r it o r i a li zed and loca t ed in t he pe r so n r a the r t ha n in an ind iv idua l 's

na t io na l i ty -ba sed re la t ionship to a s tate . I t is for th i s reas on th a t s ta tes a reu n a b l e t o d e n y r i g h ts t o n o n - c i t i z e n s . H o l l if i el d (1 99 2) m a k e s a s i m i l a r

a r g u m e n t , a l th o u g h h e e x a m i n e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n t h r o u g h t h e p a ra d i g m o f

l ib e r a li sm : e c o n o m i c li b e ra l is m i m p l ie s a f re e m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e , w h i l e

l i b e r a l i s m ' s e m p h a s i s o n r i g h t s m e a n s t h a t t h o s e w h o m i g r a t e c a n n o t b e

t r e a t e d a s s i m p l e c o m m o d i t i e s .

D eba te s con ce rn ing the ex i s tence o r pos s ib il it y o f a pos tna t iona l c i ti -

zens h ip r evo lve a ro un d two i s sues : con t ro l and mora l it y . I n t e rm s o f con -

t ro l , scholars d i sagree over the ex ten t to which s ta tes exerc i se u l t imate au-

thor i ty over righ ts . Ho l l if ie ld (1992) conten ds tha t m ark e t forces a re so s t ron g

tha t s t a t e s becom e power l e s s i n t he face o f l abour mig ra tions . A t t he s am e

t ime , e m be dd ed l i be ra l ism mak es i t imposs ib le t o de ny r igh t s t o mig ran t s .

Soysa l (1994) adds t ha t sup rana t iona l r eg imes and human r igh t s d i s cou r se s

cha l lenge the ab i l i ty of s ta tes to a l loca te r igh ts on the bas i s of na t iona l be-

l o n g i n g . I n c o n t ra s t , B r u b a k e r (1 99 2) w a r n s t h a t " t h o s e w h o h e r a l d th e

e m e r g i n g p o s t n a ti o n a l a g e a r e t o o h a s ty i n c o n d e m n i n g t h e n a t i o n - s t a te t o

the dus tb in o f h i s to ry" (p . 189 ) s ince c i t izensh ip co n t inues t o be " a pow er fu l

ins t ru m en t of soc ia l c losure" (p . x ). S ta tes an d s ta te so vere ign ty co nt inu e tobe gu id in g p r inc ip le s i n t he i n t e rna t iona l sys tem; t he a rr iva l o f pos tna t iona l

c i t i zensh ip r em a ins a has ty con c lus ion (Schuck , 1998). Those in f avo r o f

p o s t n a t i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p m o d e l s r e s p o n d t h a t n a t i o n - s t a t e s a r e n o t i r r e l -

evan t - they s t i l l d i s t r i bu t e r i gh t s - - -bu t t he l i nk be tween r igh t s and na t iona l

8 ,] ourn al f International Migration and Integration





BLOEMRAAD

o f f a ir n e s s a n d r e t u r n , b u t c o u l d e x c l u d e m i g r a n t s w h o d o n o t w o r k . I f

p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s a r e l i n k e d t o o n e ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h e e c o n o m y , c l a s s ( a n d

g e n d e r ) h i e r a rc h i e s w i l l ( r e -) i n v a d e t h e f ra n c h i s e. M o r e b r o a d - b a s e d r e a -

s o n s f o r t h e e x t e n s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s i n c l u d e c l a i m s o f s o c i e t a l m e m b e r -s h i p ( C a r e n s , 1 9 89 ; B a u b 6 c k , 19 9 4) o r a p p e a l s t o h u m a n r i g h t s . I n a d i f fe r -

e n t v e i n , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f p o li ti ca l r i g h ts h a s a ls o b e e n s u p p o r t e d b a s e d o n

t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s t a te . I f s i g n i fi c a n t s e g m e n t s o f a c o u n t r y ' s p o p u l a t i o n d o

n o t h a v e a r ig h t t o v o te , t h e i n te g r it y o f l i b e r a l- d e m o c r a c y is u n d e r m i n e d

( L a y t o n - H e n r y , 19 90 ; S c h u c k , 1 99 8) .

H o w e v e r , if v o t i n g r ig h t s w e r e t o b e e x t e n d e d t o n o n - c i t i z e n s , w h a t r e -

l e v a n c e , i f a n y , w o u l d c i t i z e n s h i p r e t a i n ? S c h u c k (1 99 8) a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e

h a s b e e n a p r o g r e s s iv e d e v a l u a t i o n o f c i t iz e n s h i p a s t h e r i g h ts a n d p r i v i -

l e g e s a c c o r d e d t o c i ti z en s n o l o n g e r d if fe r v e r y m u c h f r o m t h o s e a c c o r d e d t o

i m m i g r a n ts . S c h u c k c o n s id e r s t h e A m e r i c a n ca se . A l t h o u g h h e c o n c e d e s

t h a t t h e r e m i g h t b e a ri se o f i n d iv i d u a li s m a n d a n " e n t i t l e m e n t m e n t a l i t y "

u n d e r m i n i n g " p u b l i c - s p i ri t e d n e s s " if p e o p l e a r e n o t o b l i g e d t o b e c o m e c it i-

z e n s , h e n o n e t h e l e s s a r g u e s t h a t t h e e c l i p s e o f c i t i z e n s h i p a s a c e n t r a l s t a t u s

i s n o t d a n g e r o u s . O t h e r m o r e f lu i d f o r m s o f m e m b e r s h i p w i ll a ri se , a n d t h e

e x t e n s i o n o f r ig h t s re g a r d l e s s o f c i ti z e n s h ip c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a n e n h a n c e -

m e n t o f l ib e r a l p r i n c i p le s o f i n c l u s i v e n e s s a n d e q u a li ty . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e

i d e a o f g iv i n g v o t i n g a n d o t h e r p o l it ic a l r ig h t s t o n o n - c i t i z e n s s e e m s t o c r e -a te a n x i e ty f or m a n y n a t i v e - b o r n c i ti ze n s a s th e y w o n d e r w h e t h e r n e w c o m -

e r s w i ll b e l o y a l t o th e i r n e w c o u n t r y ( P o rt e s & R u m b a u t , 1 99 6). E v e n S c h u c k

(1 99 8), w h o s u p p o r t s d u a l c i t i z e n s h i p f o r A m e r i c a n c i ti z e n s , a d v o c a t e s m o d i -

f y i n g t h e c i ti z e n s h ip o a t h s o t h a t n e w c i ti z en s m u s t p l e d g e t h e i r " c o r e p o li ti -

c a l l o y a l t y " t o t h e U S (p p. 2 2 9 -2 4 7 ; f o r o p p o s i n g v i e w s s e e H a m m a r , 1 98 9;

S p i r o , 19 9 7). G i v e n t h e p o l i ti c a l n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e , p o l i t ic a l r i g h t s r e m a i n

a n a r e a o f s e r i o u s c o n t e s t a t i o n .

I d e n t i t y

A s o u t l i n e d a b o v e , c it iz e n s h i p d e n o t e s m e m b e r s h i p i n a s o c io - p o li ti c a l c o m -

m u n i t y , w h i c h i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r i o d m e a n s m e m b e r s h i p i n a n a t i o n -

s t a te . I f t h e l i n k b e t w e e n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d ( p ol it ic a l) m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e s t a t e

g e n e r a t e s c o n t ro v e r s y w h e n d i sc u s s in g im m i g r a ti o n , s o t o o d o e s t h e q u e s -

t io n o f i m m i g r a n t s ' m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e n a t io n a l c o m m u n i ty , a n a s p e c t I l a be l

t h e i d e n t i t y d i m e n s i o n o f c i ti z e n s h ip . T u r n e r (1 99 7) s u g g e s t s t h a t a ll s o c i e -

t i e s h a v e b o t h t h e a l l o c a t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t t o d i s p e n s e s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s a n d

a n i n t e g ra t iv e r e q u i r e m e n t t o c e m e n t se c u l a r s o ci et y. S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r sf e a r t h a t i f c i t i z e n s h i p i s b e i n g d e v a l u e d , s o t o o i s t h e n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y

( S c h l e s i n g e r , 1 99 1). T h e f o c u s i n th i s s e c t i o n i s o n i d e n t i t y d e b a t e s a n d t h e

m o v e m e n t t o a s y m m e t r ic a l , o r m u l t i c u lt u ra l , v i e w s o f c i ti z en s h ip . T h e r e is

a g a i n a l i n k t o p a rt i c ip a t i o n : i t i s v a r i o u s l y a s s u m e d t h a t i n c l u s i o n i n t o a

20 3ournal of International Migration and Integration




c o l le c t iv e i d e n t i t y w i ll e n h a n c e p a r t i c i p a t io n o r t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i t s e lf c a n

g e n e r a t e c o m m u n i t y .

I n a r e v ie w e s s a y o f c i t iz e n s h i p t h e o r y , K y m l ic k a a n d N o r m a n ( 19 9 4)

s u g g e s t t h a t o n e r e a s o n f o r t h e e x p l o si v e i n te r e s t in c i t iz e n s h i p d u r i n g t h e1 9 9 0s i s b e c a u s e c i ti z e n s h ip i n t e g r a t e s t w o s id e s o f th e l i b e r a l - c o m m u n i t a r i a n

p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0s . C i t i z e n s h i p i s i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d

t o i d e a s o f in d i v i d u a l e n t i t l e m e n t ( r ig h ts ) a s a d v o c a t e d b y l i be r al s, a n d i t

e m b o d i e s a t t a c h m e n t t o a p a r t i c u la r c o m m u n i t y ( id e n ti ty ) , t h e f o c u s o f

c o m m u n i t a r i a n s ' w r i t in g . F o r c o m m u n i t a r i a n s , t h e v e ry a c t o f c o m i n g to -

g e t h e r , a r g u i n g o v e r p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s , a n d t h e n t r y i n g t o d e c i d e t h e b e s t

c o u r s e f o r t h e c o l le c ti ve cr e a te s a d i s ti n c t c o m m u n a l id e n ti ty . W h e t h e r e m -

b o d i e d i n A r i s t o t l e 's p o l it ic a l a n i m a l o r M a c h i a v e l l i 's c o n c e p t o f v i r t u e , c it i-

z e n s h i p i m p l ie s c o m m u n i t y . I n c o n t ra s t , t h e t r a d it io n a l li be r al v i e w m a i n -

t a i n s t h a t t h e s t a t e s h o u l d b e n e u t r a l , l e a v i n g c i t i z e n s f r e e t o p u r s u e t h e i r

i n d i v id u a l g oa ls . I t s h o u l d n o t be a c o m m u n i t y o r p r o m o t e a n y s p ec if ic

v i e w o f t h e " g o o d l if e. "

O n e c a n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r a s t a t e is e v e r c o m p l e t e l y c u l t u r e - f l e e o r

v a l u e - n e u t r a l . S m i t h (1 99 7) a r g u e s f o r c e fu l ly t h a t e v e n t h e U S , o f t e n h e l d

u p a s a m o d e l o f l ib e ra l c i t iz e n s h ip , h a s a lw a y s c o n t a i n e d a s t r o n g a n d

d e e p - s e a t e d " a s c r i p ti v e A m e r i c a n i s m " a t t h e h e a r t o f it s c i ti z e n s h i p p o li cy .

E x i s ti n g in p a r a l le l t o l i b er a l a n d r e p u b l i c a n i d e a l s, a s c r i p ti v e A m e r i c a - n i s mp r o v i d e s a s e n s e o f " p e o p l e h o o d " t h a t l i b e ra l is m h a s d i f fi cu l t y g e n e - r a t i n g .

I t is th u s a t t ra c ti ve b o t h t o t h o s e i n c l u d e d i n th i s m e m b e r s h i p c a t e g o r y a n d

t o t h e p o li t i c ia n s w h o w i s h to l e a d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e . W h e t h e r i n N o r t h

A m e r i c a , E u r o p e , o r e l s e w h e r e , a c r i t i c a l c i t i z e n s h i p q u e s t i o n d o m i n a t e s t h e

c o n t e m p o r a r y p e ri o d : h o w c a n a s o c ie t y c r e a t e c o m m u n a l l o y a lt y a n d a

s e n s e o f s o li d a r it y f r o m d i f f e re n c e ? I s e p l u r i b u s u n u m p o s s i b l e ?

T h e m a i n l i be ra l r e s p o n s e t o th is q u e s t i o n i s f o u n d i n t h e w o r k o f R a w l s

( 19 7 1) . T h e t r a d i ti o n a l li b er a l v i e w e s s e n t i a l ly p o s i t s a n a t o m i z e d s o c i e t y - -

o n e w h e r e i n d iv i d u a ls h a v e d i ff e r e n t i n te r e s t s a n d g o a l s w h i l e t h e s t a t e i s

n e u t r a l - - a n d i t o f f e r s f e w m e a n s o f c r e a t in g s oc ia l c o h e s i o n . R a w l s a t -

t e m p t s t o a d d r e s s t h i s p r o b l e m b y i m a g i n g a n "o r ig i n a l p o s i t i o n " w h e r e

p e o p l e a r e p u t b e h i n d a " v e i l o f i g n o ra n c e ." N o t k n o w i n g w h e r e t h e y w i ll

e n d u p i n s o c i e ty - - r i c h o r po o r , o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u ra l g r o u p o r n o t - -

r a t i o n a l p e o p l e w o u l d a g r e e t h a t s o c ie t y s h o u l d b e c o n s t i t u t e d i n s u c h a

w a y a s t o e n s u r e , f ir st , a fu ll y a d e q u a t e s c h e m e o f b a s ic r i g h t s a n d l ib e r ti e s,

a n d s e c o n d , t h a t i n e q u a li t i e s m u s t w o r k i n s u c h a w a y a s to b e n e f i t th e m o s t

d i s a d v a n t a g e d p e r s o n i n s oc ie ty . F o r R a w l s , t h is i s " ju s t i c e a s f a i r n e s s , ' ac o n c e p t s h a r e d b y all i n a l ib e r a l so c ie t y. I t p r o v i d e s s o c ia l u n i t y a n d a l l e -

g i a n c e e v e n t h o u g h i n d iv i d u a ls p o s s e s s d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e g o o d

l i fe .

R a w l s ' ( 19 71 ) w o r k w a s c ri t ic a l i n m o v i n g l ib e r a l is m b e y o n d u t il it a ri a n ,

i n t e re s t m a x i m i z a t io n t o i n c lu d e th e i d e a o f c o m m u n i t y a n d b o n d s . A s s u c h ,

Revue de I'intogration et de la migration internationale 21



BLOEMRAAD

h i s w o r k h a s o f t e n b e e n t h e c e n t re o f d e b a t e s r e g a r d i n g c it iz e n s hi p . W i t h

r e g a r d t o i m m i g r a t io n , h o w e v e r , R a w l s ' o r ig i n a l t h o u g h t - e x p e r i m e n t s e e m s

t o h a v e a f a t a l f l a w : h e p r e d i c a t e s h i s w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n o n a c l o s e d s o c i e t y

w h e r e m e m b e r s n e i t h e r le a v e n o r e n te r . T h e r e i s n o e x pl ic it p l a c e fo r i m m i -g r a t i o n i n h i s th e o r y . I t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t ju s t ic e a s f a i rn e s s m i g h t b e a

g o o d g l u e - - i n d e e d , p e r h a p s t h e o n l y g l u e - - b y w h i c h p e o p l e o f d iv e rs e c ul -

t u r e s a n d b a c k g r o u n d s c a n b e i n te g r a te d . I n th i s r e g ar d , t h e A m e r i c a n o a t h

o f a l l e g i a n c e t h a t n e w c i t i z e n s m u s t s w e a r e m b o d i e s s u c h a l i b e r a l v i s i o n : i t

r e q u i r e s c i t iz e n s to " s u p p o r t a n d d e f e n d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d l a w s o f t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s o f A m e r ic a . "

T h e o a t h o f a l le g i an c e a c ts a s a m o d e l f o r S c h u c k a n d S m i t h ( 19 85 ), w h o

s u p p o r t a c o n s e n s u a l v ie w o f A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n sh i p . T h e y b e l ie v e t h a t t h e

c h i l d r e n o f il le g a l i m m i g r a n t s a n d o f t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t s b o r n o n U S s o il

s h o u l d n o t b e g i v e n a u to m a t i c A m e r i c a n c i ti ze n sh ip . T h e y re c o g n i z e t h a t

d e n y i n g s u c h c h i ld r e n A m e r i c a n c i t iz e n s h ip m i g h t c r e a te i n e q u a l i t ie s a n d

m i g h t b e u n f a i r ( as c h i l d r e n a re p u n i s h e d f o r t h e i r p a r e n t s ' a c t io n s ) . Y et

S c h u c k a n d S m i t h m a i n t a i n t h a t b e c a u s e i ll eg a l i m m i g r a n t s a r e in t h e c o u n -

t r y a g a i n s t t h e w i ll o f t h e s ta t e , t h e s t a te c a n n o t c o n s e n t to g r a n t i n g c i t i z e n -

s h i p t o t h e c h i ld r e n o f s u c h i n d iv i d ua l s. A c c o r d i n g to S c h u c k a n d S m i th , n o t

o n l y m u s t t h e r e c i p i e n t o f c i t i z e n s h i p b e i n a g r e e m e n t , b u t s o t o o m u s t t h e

s ta t e, o r th e U S C o n g r e s s a s t h e v o ic e o f t h e s ta te . S c h u c k a n d S m i t h m a i n -t a in t h a t a c o n s e n s u a l A m e r i c a n c i t iz e n s h ip r e q u i r i n g t h a t b o t h p a r t i e s c o n -

s e n t w o u l d b e " m o r e l e g i t i m a t e i n th e o r y , m o r e f le x ib le i n m e e t i n g p r ac t ic a l

p o l ic y p r o b l e m s , a n d m o r e l ik e ly t o g e n e r a t e a g e n u i n e s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y

a m o n g a l l c i t i z e n s " ( p . 5 ) .

W h e t h e r a c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t y a r is es f r o m j u st ic e a s f a ir n e ss o r f r o m t h e

c o n s e n s u a l n a t u r e o f c i ti z en s h ip , t h e l ib e ra l p e r s p e c t i v e h a s b e e n a t t a c k e d

a s (a) u n r e a l is t ic , (b) u n a c c e p t a b l y " t h i n " a n d (c) u n f a ir . C o m m u n i t a r i a n

c ri t ic s a r g u e t h a t t h o u g h t - e x p e r i m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g a n " o r ig i n a l p o s i t i o n " a re

u n r e a l i s t i c b e c a u s e s u c h a t i m e n e v e r ex i st e d . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , l ib e r a ls ig -

n o r e t h e c ri ti ca l p o i n t th a t n o o n e is b o r n a n a t o m i z e d , r a t io n a l a c to r . A s

S a n d e l (1 98 4) a r g ue s , " w e c a n n o t c o n c e iv e o u r p e r s o n h o o d w i t h o u t r ef er -

e n c e t o o u r r o l e a s c i t i z e n s , a n d a s p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a c o m m o n l if e " (p . 5 ).

P e o p l e a r e b o r n i n t o f a m i l i e s , s o c i e t i e s , a n d c u l t u r e s t h a t s h a p e t h e i r o u t -

l o o k a n d t h e ir c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e g o o d l if e t o s u c h a n e x t e n t th a t t h e y s h a p e

t h e i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f ( S a n d e l , 1 9 82 ).

B e c a u s e l i b e r a li s m f ai ls t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t b e i n g p a r t o f a c o m m u n i t y i s a

p r i m o r d i a l g o o d , i t i s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e l i b e r a l c o n c e p t i o n o f c i t i z e n s h i p i su n a c c e p t a b l y t h in . W a l z er ( 19 82 ) a r g u e s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n i g n o r e i n d i v i d u a l s '

e t h n i c a n d c u l tu r a l h e r it a g e s, t h e s e m u s t b e r e c o g n i z e d a s c o n s t i tu t i n g th e

i n d i v i d u a l s o a s t o e n c o u r a g e p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y a ll . L i b e r a l i s m a l l o w s in d i -

v i d u a l s i n t h e p o l i ty to r e m a i n p a s si v e : o n c e t h e r u l e s o f l i b e ra l i sm h a v e

b e e n a c c e p t e d , i n d i v i d u a l s m a y - - i n d e e d , a r e e x p e c t e d - - t o c o n c e r n

22 ,lournal of International Migration and Integration





BLOEMRAAD

i n g e n e r a t i n g a s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y b e c a u s e " t h e m e m b e r s o f c er ta i n g r o u p s

a re incorpora ted in to the po l i t i ca l com m uni ty , no t on ly a s ind iv idua l s , bu t

a l so t h r o u g h t h e g r o u p " (p. 1 7 4 ) . T h u s i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s

can h ave a dou b le t ie t o the s t at e, bo th ind iv idua l ly and th rou gh the i r g rou p

m e m b e r s h i p .

C o m m uni t a r i a n Tay lo r (1991) calls such doub le inco rpora t ion "de ep d i -

vers ity ." G oin g s l ight ly fur ther th an Kymlicka, Taylor m ainta in s tha t a l l indi -

v iduals in a socie ty do n ot n ecessar i ly ne ed d i rec t t ies to the s ta te as l ibera l

c i ti zensh ip sugges ts . R a the r , som e peop le ' s t ie s m igh t be m ed ia t ed en t i r e ly

t h r o u g h t h e g r o u p . T ay lo r c la im s th a t " w e m u s t a c c o m m o d a t e n o t o n l y a

d ive r s ity o f cu ltu ra l g roups , bu t a l so a d ive rs i ty o f way s in wh ich the m em -

ber s o f such g roups b e lon g to the l a rge r po l i ty" (p . 75 ) . Tay lo r's a rgu m en t

c e n t r e s m o s t l y o n t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s s u c h a s t h eQu6bdco i s , bu t h i s approach cou ld be r e l evan t fo r som e m igran t g roups .

The idea o f m ul f i cu l tu ra l c i t i zensh ip i s no t wi thou t i t s c r i t i c s . Gignac

(1 99 7) a r g u e s t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t a r i a n f o cu s o n t h e c o m m o n g o o d m e a n s

tha t ou t s ide r g roups a re o n ly accep tab le to the ex ten t they con t r ibu te to , and

a r e p a r t o f, t h a t c o m m o n g o o d . I f g r o u p s a t t e m p t t o f r a g m e n t t h e w h o l e , t h e y

m us t be r e j ec t ed o r con t ro ll ed , t hus ne ga t ing the i r d if f erence. Gignac f inds

the l ibera l v iew super ior because i t has a p lace for in ter -group conf l ic t , but

he po in t s ou t t ha t g ran t ing r igh t s to a g roup r e i fi es tha t g roup ' s bound ar i e s .B or row ing from F oucau lt , G ignac sugges t s t ha t r ecog n iz ing g roup d i f fe rence

m i g h t m e r e l y b e a w a y to c o n t r o l it. A l o n g t h e s a m e l in e s , B i s s o o n d a t h

(1994) m a in ta ins tha t ce l eb ra t ing cu l tu ra l d i f f e rences and ins i s t ing on hy-

p h e n a t e d n a m e s ( su c h as C h i n e s e - C a n a d i a n o r M e x i c a n -A m e r ic a n ) ,

g h e t t o i z e s m i n o r i t y p e o p l e s f r o m t h e m a i n s t r e a m . " M u l t i c u lt u r a li s m " a n d

" c e l e b r a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e " a r e a t t a c k e d a s a n i n h e r e n t l y f r a g m e n t a r y a n d

ant i the t ica l to C ana dian (Bissoondath , 1994) or A m er ica n (Schles inger , 1991)

c i t izenship .

I n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , f i e r c e d e b a t e s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f

m ul t icul tura l c i tizenship rage (Gu tma nn, 1994; W ieviorka , 1996). Th ere i s no

con sensu s a s to the b es t app roach fo r us ing c i t izensh ip to c rea te a co l lec tive

iden ti ty , no r a s to w he the r th is goa l is even wor thw hi l e . Surp ri sing ly , t he

ex ten t t o w hich these p h i losoph ica l d i scuss ions r e fl ect im m igran t s ' ow n pe r -

ce ived iden t i ti e s has b een m uc h l e s s a sub jec t o f scho la rly r e sea rch . Som e

in i t i a l f i nd ings sugges t t ha t im m igran t s to Nor th Am er ica f ee l a s Am er ican

or C anad ian as the i r na t ive -born coun te rpa r t s , and pe rhaps in som e cases

m ore so . For exam ple , de l a Garza , Fa lcon an d G arc ia (1996) com pare d ther e p o r t e d p a t r i o ti s m o f M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s ( b o th f i r st - a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a -

t io n ) w i t h t h a t o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a n s a n d f o u n d t h a t M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s i n a

n u m b e r o f c a s e s e x p r e s s e d g r e a t e r p a t r i o t i s m o n c e d e m o g r a p h i c c o n t r o l s

w ere in t roduc ed . In C anad a , Ka l in (1996) r epor t s r e su l t s f rom a na t ion a l

s u r v e y t h a t i n d i c a t e r e s i d e n t s f r o m a v a r i e ty o f e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s

24 3out'hal of International Migration and Integration




o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s e lf - i de n t i fy a s C a n a d i a n b e f o re m e n t i o n i n g a n e t h n ic i d e n -

t ity . H o w a r d ( 19 9 8) d i s c u s s e s s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s b a s e d o n q u a l i ta t i v e in t e r -

v i e w s w i t h c iv ic l e a d e r s in t h e H a m i l to n , O n t a r i o a r e a; i m m i g r a n t s g e n e r -

a lly e x p re s s e d s t r o n g s e n t i m e n t s o f f e e li n g C a n a d i a n , p r a i s in g C a n a d i a n s '

u n i q u e c h a ra c te r is t i cs a s w e l l a s th e f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y t h e y e n j o y e d

i n t h e i r n e w h o m e . T h e r e is a n e e d f o r a s u s ta i n e d , i n - d e p t h c o n v e r s a t i o n

b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o t h e o ri z e t h e i d e n ti ty d i m e n s i o n o f c i ti z e n sh i p a n d t h o s e

w h o h a v e e n g a g e d i n e m p ir ic a l r e se a rc h r e g a r d i n g im m i g r a n t s ' o w n v i e w s

a n d f e e l i n g s .

Future Directions: Citizenship as Participation

T h e l e n s o f p a r t i c i p a t io n is o n e o f t h e m o s t t r a d i ti o n a l w a y s o f s e e i n g c i ti -z e n s h i p - a f t e r a ll, i n a n c i e n t A t h e n s o n l y c i ti z en s c o u l d p a r t ic i p a t e in p o l it i-

c a l l if e o r e n g a g e in c e rt a in e c o n o m i c p r o j e c ts . B e c a u s e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f

m a n y a c t i v i t i e s o v e r l a p w i t h g e o - p o l i t i c a l b o r d e r s , p a r t i c i p a t o r y c i t i z e n s h i p

o f t e n f o c u s e s o n t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e , r e i n f o r c i n g t r a d i t io n a l v ie w s . Y e t t h e l e n s

o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n is a l s o a n a r e a f o r f u t u r e in n o v a t i o n . P a r t i c i p a t i o n - - i n t h e

f o r m o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y , s o c i a l i n v o l v e m e n t , o r p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t - - c a n

s p a n g e o - p o l i t ic a l b o u n d a r i e s : i m m i g r a n t s m i g h t p a r t i c ip a t e i n th e i r h o s t

c o u n t r y , t h e i r h o m e c o u n t r y , b o t h , o r i n s o m e o t h e r s p a c e , s u c h a s t h r o u g hi n f o r m a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k s . S u c h t r a n s n a t i o n a l p a r t i c ip a t i o n ra i se s t h e

q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r c i t i ze n s h ip , b o u n d e d a s it i s t o m e m b e r s h i p i n a s p e -

c ific n a t i o n - s t a t e , r e m a i n s a n a d e q u a t e w a y o f o r g a n i z i n g s t at u s , r ig h t s , a n d

i d e n t i t y in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r i o d g i v e n t h a t p a r t i c ip a t io n t r a n s c e n d s t ra -

d i t i o n a l s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s .

B e c a u s e t h e l i t e r a tu r e o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n is s o l a rg e , a n d c o u l d it s e lf m e r i t

a s e p a r a t e r e v ie w , t h is f i n al s e c t i o n m e r e l y h i g h l i g h t s t w o w a y s i n w h i c h t h e

l e n s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o v i d e s n e w w a y s o f e x p l o r i n g c i t iz e n s h i p . F i rs t , p a r -

t ic i p a t i o n p r o v i d e s a m e a n s t o in v e s t ig a t e th e d y n a m i c b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a li m m i g r a n t s ' a g e n c y a n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l o r in s t i tu t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n ts t h e y f a c e i n

e x e r c is i n g t h a t a g e n c y. T h u s w e c a n l in k b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e s t a t e ,

t w o s i d e s o f t h e c i t i z e n s h i p e q u a t i o n , a n d a ls o b r i n g in o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s

s u c h a s s o c i e ta l g r o u p s a n d e t h n i c a s s o c ia t io n s . S e c o n d , p a r t ic i p a t i o n i n

t r a n s n a t i o n a l s p a c e , a n d t h e i m p l i c a ti o n s o f s u c h p a r t ic i p a ti o n , b r i n g u s b a c k

f u ll c ir cl e t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e l in k b e t w e e n c i t iz e n s h i p a n d n a t i o n - s t a t e s .

The P articipation Dyn amic: Agency and StructureT h e p a r t i c ip a t i o n d y n a m i c r e v e a ls c le a r ly t h a t i m m i g r a n t s ' a c t i o n s c a n s u c -

c e e d i n c h a n g i n g t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s , b u t a t t h e

s a m e t i m e th i s c o n te x t s t r u c tu r e s t h e f o r m s p a r ti c ip a t io n c a n t a k e . T h r o u g h

t h is i n te r a c ti o n , t h e m e a n i n g o f i m m i g r a n t c i t iz e n s h i p is d e f i n e d a n d r e d e -

f in e d , i n t r o d u c i n g a d y n a m i c e l e m e n t i n to c i t i z e n s h ip d e f i n it io n s . B e c a u s e

t h e l i n k b e t w e e n c i t iz e n s h i p a n d p o l it ic a l r i g h t s i s t h a t m o s t t e n a c i o u s l y

Revue de Iintegration et de la migration internationale 25



BLOEMRAAD

h e l d b y l a w m a k e r s a n d t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , I f o c u s m o s t l y o n p o l i t i c a l

par t ic ipa t ion .

Immigran t s have c l ea r ly been the ob j ec t o f po l i t i c s : fo r example , t he

G e r m a n p a r t y s y s t e m h a s b e e n r e c o n f i g u r e d a s c l a s s a n d r a c e i s s u e s b e -

com e in t e r tw ined (Fa is t, 1995) , wh ereas i n France n ew par ti e s o f t he r i gh t

hav e em erg ed and splits i n t he l ef t can be a t tr i bu ted t o t he i s sue o f m igra -

t i on (de W ende n , 198 7) . How ever , imm igran t s can a lso be po l it ica l ac to r s

inf lue ncin g the politica l sys tems of imm igrant - rec e iving count r ies . For ex-

ample , in France , Franco-Maghrebis (French c i t i zens of Nor th Afr ican of f -

g ins a nd dual na t ionali ty) have , according to Feldb lum (1993) , sh i f ted Frenc h

po l i t i c s t oward an "Anglo-Saxon" m od el o f i n t e r es t g roup po li ti cs . A l -

tho ug h th is sh i ft is by no m ean s com ple te , de W end en (1987) s imi la r ly no t es

t h a t i m m i g r a n t u r b an y o u t h m o v e m e n t s h av e c h a l l e n g e d s ta n d a r d F r en c hpo l i ti ca l d i scour se by p rom ot in g the pub l ic r eco gn i t i on o f cu l tu ra l d i ff e r-

ences , ra ther tha n re leg at ing th em to the pr iva te sph ere (Si lverman, 1996).

Such cha l l enges have d i r ec t l y a t t acked French concep t ions o f c i t i zensh ip .

T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e m o v e m e n t a w a y f ro m t h e t r ad i ti o n al F re n c h i d e al o f

d i r ec t c iv i c r e l a t i ons be tween the French s t a t e and the i nd iv idua l c i t i zen

str ipped of any personal par t icular i t ies .

Because i n m any cases imm igran t s i n Europe hav e no t na tu ra l ized and

do no t p osses s m an y fo rmal po li ti ca l r igh ts , Europ ean scho la r s have o f t enbe en m ore crea tive in the i r concept ion s of politica l par t ic ipa t ion th an the i r

coun te rpa r t s w ho s tudy Nor th Am er ica . For example , im m igran t wo rker s

ha ve ch an ge d French pol i ti ca l space by in t roduc ing cul tura l i ssues and col -

lect ivis t claims d urin g industr ial conflicts (de W en de n, 1987; Vra nken , 1990) .

O the r fo rms o f p ro t es t po li ti cs ava il ab l e to n on-c i t i zens i nc lude m ass de -

m o n s t r a t io n s , h u n g e r s t ri k es a n d t h e u s e o f d ip l o m a t i c p r e s s u re t h r o u g h

fore ign embass ies . In t radi tional imm igrant - rece iving count r ies , w he re na tu -

r a l iza t i on i s mu ch m ore w idespread , po l it ica l pa r t ic ipa t ion is o f t en cons i -

de red as ac t iv i ty w i th in t he e l ecto ral sys tem. The b enef i t o f i nves t i ga t ingelec tora l par t ic ipa t ion i s the wide var ie ty of immigrants who are involved;

fo r example , vo t ing can be en gag ed in by more p eop le a t l ower cost than a

pub l ic dem on s t r a t i on o r a hu ng er strike. O n the o the r han d , r e sea rcher s

s tud ying im m igra nt pol it ica l par tic ipa tion in t radi tional rece iv ing count r ies

cou ld a l so e xpan d the i r co ncep t ion o f t he po l it ica l t o i nc lude n on- in s t i t u -

t ional fo rm s of p ar tic ipa t ion .

In a n excel lent review of the Can adian l it e ra ture on im m igra nt pol it ica l

participation, Stasiulis (1997) notes , f ir st, th e re lat ive dea r th o f research o nt h e t o p ic a n d , s e c o n d , th e c o n s e rv a t iv e m a n n e r i n w h i c h i m m i g r a n t s ar e

i n c lu d e d . M o s t s ch o l ar ly w o r k e x a m i n e s p h e n o m e n a su c h a s v o t i n g p a t -

terns an d e lec t ion results , m ere ly addin g imm igrants in to th e analys is as a

ne w category. Th ey are e i ther l e f t as an und i f ferent ia ted grou p or bro ke n

do w n by cou nt ry of or ig in . M ajori ty pol it ica l pa t terns are of ten use d as a

2 6 3ournal of International Migration and Intef~ration



CITIZENSHIPAND M MIGRATION:A CURRENTREVIEW

b e n c h m a r k , a n d p a r t ic i p a ti o n b y i m m i g r a n t s i n t h e ir e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y is

r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d , a s m a i n s t r e a m p o l i t i c s i s t h e a n a l y t i c a l n o r m ( b u t s e e

Bre ton , 1991) . The ge ne ra l conc lus ion f rom th is r e sea rch seem s to be t h a t

o v e r t i m e , i m m i g r a n t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a c r o s s a r a n g e o f m e a s u r e s - -

such a s vo t ing , campa ign ing , o r con tac t ing o f f i c i a l s - - i s s imi l a r t o t ha t o f

n a t i v e - b o r n C a n a d i a n s, a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s s o m e v a r i a ti o n d e p e n d i n g o n c o u n -

t ry of or ig in (Black , 1987, 1991; Chui , C ur ti s & Lam ber t , 1991). At an e l i te

l ev e l, e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y l ea d e r s a re h i g h l y i n t e re s t e d i n a n d k n o w l e d g e a b l e

abou t Canad ian po l i t i c s (S imard , 1991) , and inc reas ing number s o f e l ec t ed

f e d e r a l p o l i t i c i a n s a r e f r o m m i n o r i t y e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s , a l t h o u g h t h e s e

g roups a r e s till by and l a rge und e r r ep re sen ted g iven the i r p ropor t i on in t he

na t iona l popula t ion (Black & Lakhani , 1997) .

I n t h e U S , c o n t e m p o r a r y i m m i g r a n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l ysu bsu m ed w i th in t he f ie ld o f m inor i t y po l it ic s . I n r epo r t e d f i nd ings i t is

o f t e n d if fi cu lt t o k n o w w h e t h e r " A s i a n - A m e r i ca n s " o r " L a t i n o s " a r e i m m i -

g ran t s o r US -born and w he the r p lace o f b i r t h makes a d i f fe r ence in a s tudy 's

resu lt s . Tenta tive ly , i t seem s tha t H ispanic im m igra nt c i t izens par t ic ipa te in

e l ec to ra l po l i t i c s and o the r ma ins t r eam po l i t i c a l ac t i v i t i e s a t l eve l s a lmos t

c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e o f th e n a t i v e - b o r n o n c e c o n t ro l s h av e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d

fo r soc io -eco nom ic s ta tu s , bu t As i an imm igran t s t end o n m os t m easu re s t o

be less ac tive tha n W hi te an d Black na t iv e-bo rn g roups (Lien , 1994; U hlan er ,1996; Uh lane r , Cain, & K ieweit , 1989; Verba, Sch lozm an, Brady, & N ie, 1993) .

S tas iu l is 's (1997) c r i tique regard ing the lack of researc h an d the s eco nd ary

pos i t ion of immigrants in the l i t e ra ture on pol i t i ca l par t ic ipa t ion can apply

as r ead i ly to t he US a s t o C anada .

A l thoug h in some cases p l ac ing imm igran t s i n to the gene ra l ca t ego ry o f

m i n o r i t y m i g h t b e h e l p f u l , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s t o b e l i e v e t h a t

i m m i g r a n t s , a n d p o s s i b ly th e i r c h il d r e n , f ac e u n i q u e c i r cu m s t a n c e s. I n a

s tudy of b lack im m igran ts and N ew Y ork Polit ics, Kas in i tz (1992), fou nd tha t

on som e i s sues, such a s t hose r e l a t ed to d i s c r imina t ion , W es t Ind i ans w i l l -

i ng ly fo rme d po l it ic a l coa li ti ons w i th A f r i can -Am er i can l eade r s a nd o rgan i -

z a ti o n s. A r o u n d o t h e r i s su e s, h o w e v e r , t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s c e l e b r a te d t h e i r

u n i q u e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a n d w e r e i n v o l v e d in N e w Y o rk 's p o l i ti c s a s a n

e thn ic , no t m inori ty , g roup . In con t ra s t to t he na t ive -bo rn , imm igran t s m igh t

a l so f ee l t o rn be tw een the s end ing and r ece iv ing coun try , f o r ced to p rac ti ce

a "po li ti c s o f i n -b e tw een " ( Jones -Cor rea , 1998a ). Jones -C or rea do cu m en t s

h o w i m m i g r a n t L a ti n o s in Q u e e n s , N Y id e n t if y w i t h b o t h c o u n t ri e s y e t f e el

c o m f o r ta b l e in n e i th e r . O f t e n t h e s e im m i g r a n t s d o n o t a c q u i re A m e r i c a nc i t i zensh ip because t hey do no t wan t t o appea r d i s loya l t o t he i r coun t ry o f

or ig in ; they co nse qu en t ly m us t prac t ice po l it ics a t the m argins . Bo th cases

h igh l igh t t he ex t en t t o wh ich imm igran t po l it ic a l pa r t ic ipa t ion m er i t s s tudy

ind ep en de n t o f t he m ore gene ra l "m inor i t y po li ti cs " ca tego ry .

Im m igran t s ' age ncy wi th in t he po l it ic a l sy s t em sho u ld no t obscu re t he

R e v u e d e l ' i n te g r a t i o n e l d e l a m i g r a t i o n m t e r n a t i n h a le 2 7



BLOEMRAAD

f a c t t h a t i m m i g r a n t s a l s o f a c e n u m e r o u s c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t s t r u c t u r e t h e i r

ac t ions . W e have see n tha t c i t izenship regula t ions m igh t mak e i t d if ficu lt for

im m igra nts to na tura l ize . S imi larly , ins t i tu t iona l fac tors can shap e im m i-

gran ts ' par t ic ipat ion. Ex am ining s ix E uro pea n countr ies , Soysal (1994) sh ow s

ho w the o rgan i za t i ona l conf igura t ions o f s t at e s an d t he i r loc i o f au thor i t y

ge ne rate dif feren t inco rpo rat ion regim es. States can be corporatist , l iberal,

s tat is t , o r f ragm enta l v i s -a-v i s imm igrants . Such conf igura t ions an d a t t i-

t udes shape t he t ype o f mo b i l iza t i on em ploy ed by imm igran t s t o i n f luence

s ta te pol ic ies an d practices. Thus in so m e count r ies imm igrants m igh t group

toge th e r i n a h igh- l eve l um bre l la g roup, w hereas i n o the r s t hey wi l l ne ed t o

mobi l ize through grass root e f for t s .

The impor t ance o f i n s t i t u t i ona l cons t r a in t s i n shap ing immigran t pa r -

t ic ipa t ion i s be s t h igh l igh t ed t h rou gh c ros s -na ti ona l com para t ive r e sea rch .Th e effects of inst i tut ional constraints a lso go be yo nd poli tics . Rei tz (1998),

for example , has made an argument s imi la r to Soysa l ' s , but he focuses on

im m igran ts ' ec on om ic par ti c ipa t ion: ins t i tu t iona l sys tems hav e d i rec t e f fec ts

on im m igran t s ' e cono m ic ou t comes . Loo k ing a t t he US, Canada , and A us -

t r a l i a , Re i tz no t e s t ha t imm igran t s f rom the s ame coun t ry o f o r ig in do m ore

poor ly i n t he U S than i n t he o the r tw o coun t ri es , desp i te t he f ac t tha t t h ese

imm igran t s usual ly have h ighe r educa t i on leve ls t han t he i r compa t ri o ts w ho

go e l sew here . Reitz expla ins th i s d if fe rence by argu ing tha t l abour m arkets ,edu cat io nal system s, social w elfare s tructures , an d im m igra t ion pol icy ha ve

di f fe rent ia l impacts on immigrants ' par t i c ipa t ion in the labour market .

Ins t i tu tiona l a r rang em ents a l so have a n ef fec t on soc ia l c i ti zenship . Al -

t ho ug h r e sea rch on t he w e l fa r e s ta t e has gene ra l ly bee n m ore i n t e r e s t ed in

issues o f class, B ant in g (1999) po in t s ou t t ha t s ta te s can r e spon d in d i f fe r en t

ways w h en faced w i th a mu l ticu l tura l soc ie ty . A w el fare sta te m igh t incor -

pora t e im m igran t s wi th f ew change s to t he p reva il ing r eg ime an d consensus

un de r ly in g soc ia l policy. Second , econo m ica l l y vu lne rab l e g roups i n t he

cul tura l major i ty might suppor t wel fare provis ions , but a t t empt to shut out

i m m i g r a n t s b o t h f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e c o u n t r y a n d f ro m r e c e iv i n g s o cia l b e -

nef it s. Third, w el fare s ta tes co nf ron ted by e thn ic d ivers ity m igh t enc ou nter a

f ragmenta t ion in the suppor t for soc ia l programs, fue l ing a neo- l ibera l a t -

t ack on such p rograms . Ban t ing sugges ts tha t a l t hou gh one m igh t expec t t he

h i sto ri cal ly ho m og en eo us na t ion - s t a t e s o f con t inen t a l Europe t o su ff er mo s t

f rom con sens us f ragm enta t ion , i t is in fac t those count r ies use d to accep t ing

im m igran ts tha t a re fo l lowing the neo- l ibera l pa th . Factors such as unio n

stre ng th in Eu rope or pr ior racial divis ions in th e US affect the type of socialc i t i zenship of fered to immigrants .

Transnat ional Ci t i zenship

Focus on the par t ic ipa tory ac tiv ities o f imm igrants a l so he lps to ident i fy the

l imi t s of l inking c i ti zenship to m em be rsh ip in on e par t icu lar na t ion-s ta te . In

2 8 Journal of International Migration and Integration



CITIZENSHIPAND M MIGRATION:A CURRENTREV1EW

t he l a s t decade , r e sea rche r s have inc reas ing ly h igh l igh ted the ex t en t t o wh ich

"migrants , th rough the i r l i fe ways and da i ly prac t ices , reconf igure space so

tha t t he i r l ive s a r e l ived s imu l t aneou s ly w i th in tw o o r mo re n a t ion - s t a t e s "

(Basch, G lick Schil ler, & Sza nton -B lanc, 1994, p . 28). C on seq ue nt ly , so m e

argue tha t t r ansna t iona l i sm- - "occupa t ions and ac t iv i t i e s t ha t r equ i r e r egu -

la r and sus ta ined soc ia l contac ts over t ime across na t iona l borders for the i r

im p lem en ta t io n" (Po rte s, G uam izo , & Lando l t , 1999, p. 219 ) - - cha l l enges t r a -

d i t iona l concep t ions o f c i ti z ensh ip . A l thou gh the ex t en t t o wh ich the m a jo -

r i ty of immigrants l ive t ransna t iona l l ives remains unc lear , i t i s ev ident tha t

t e c h n o l o g i c al a d v a n c e s in c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t r an s p o r t a ti o n , a s w e l l a s

e c o n o m i c g l o b a l i z a t i o n , a r e c h a n g i n g t h e w a y p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e b o t h l o -

ca l ly an d g loba l ly (G l i ck Sch i ll e r, Basch , & S zan to n -B lanc , 1992; Po r t e s ,

Guarn izo , & Landol t , 1999) .W e h a v e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d th e a r g u m e n t f o r p o s t n a t i o n a l c i t iz e n s h ip

as i t re la tes to r ights (Jacobson, 1996 ; Soysal , 1994). Tra nsn at ion al ism sim i-

la r ly cha l lenges t rad i t iona l concept ions of c i t i zenship by expanding par t ic i -

p a t i o n b o u n d a r i e s b e y o n d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e t o i n c l u d e n e w s o c i a l s p a c e s .

D o m i n i c a n i m m i g r a n t s i n N e w Y o rk C i ty p ro v i d e s u b s t an t ia l m o n e t a r y r e -

sou rces t o po l i ti ca l pa rt ie s i n t he Do m in ican Repub l ic , and these N ew York

re s iden t s a l so some t imes in f luence the vo t ing behav io r o f t he i r r e l a t i ve s a t

ho m e ( It z ig sohn , Cabra l, H e rm ~ne z -M ed ina , & V~zquez , 1999). Sho u ld im-m ig ran t s con f ine the i r po li ti ca l pa r t ic ipa t ion to one na t ion - s t a t e? F rom the

po in t o f v i ew o f t he s t at e , Schuck (1998) a rgues t ha t l o w- l ev e l c ros s -na -

t i ona l po l i t i c a l pa r t i c ipa t ion i s no t p rob lema t i c fo r c i t i z ensh ip and migh t

ev en he lp ex te nd libera l dem ocra cy in the w or ld (Por tes, 1999). H ow ever ,

Schuck (1998) d raw s the l ine a t le t t i ng na tu ra l i zed US c i t i zens enga ge in

h igh - l eve l ho m e la nd po li ti ca l ac tiv ity , imp ly ing tha t imm igran t s m us t have

a pr ima ry loyalty. O thers a rgue tha t na t io na l ly -de l im i ted c i t izenship i s an ach -

ronis t ic in a t ransnat ional world (Basch et a l . , 1994) .

O n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c i t i z e n s h i p e q u a t i o n , t h e r e i s d e b a t e a s t o

w he the r t r ansna t iona l pa r t ic ipa t ion i s he lp fu l fo r t he im m igran t s t hem se lves .

Of t en the app roach has been in l i ne w i th Po r t e s (1999) , who a rgues t ha t

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m u l t i p l e l o c a l i t i e s c a n a i d i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n

i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e i r n e w c o u n t r y o f r e s i d e n c e . T h u s , " p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t r ansna t iona l po l i t i c a l ac t i v i t i e s can empower immigran t s and inves t t hem

wi th a s ense o f pu rpose and se l f -wor th t ha t o the rwi se wou ld be absen t " (p .

471). G ene ra l pa r t ic ipa tion in t he ho m e coun t ry m igh t a lso he lp min or i t y

im m igran t ch i ld r en comba t d ow nw ard a s s imi l a to ry p re s su re s (Po rte s, 1999).Less op timis t ic , Jon es-C orrea (1998a) wo rr ies tha t the focus on t ran sna t io na l

space, a t t he expense o f c it iz ensh ip in t he h os t coun try , ma rg ina l ize s im m i -

g r a n ts i f t h e y a re le ft b e t w e e n t w o n a t i o n s . H e a r g u e s t h a t " t h e p r o b l e m

w ith th i s perspec t ive i s tha t i t doesn ' t t ake pol i t ics se r ious ly" as the resu l t in g

R e v u e d e l ' in t e g r a t io n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 29



BLOEMRAAD

u n b o u n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l c i t iz e n s h i p w o u l d b e " p a rt ia l, i n s u b s t a n t i a l, a n d

inse cu re" (pp. 1 97, 199).

Som e o f t he d i ff e rence be tw een these pos i t ions is a m a t t e r o f emp has i s

r a t h e r t h a n d e e p - s e a t e d t h e o re t ic a l a n d e m p i ri c al d i s a g r e e m e n t . J o n e s -

Co rrea (1998a) suppor t s dua l c i t i zenship as a m ean s of enab l ing full pol i ti -

cal c i t i zensh ip i n t he r ece iv ing coun t ry w i thou t en t a i l ing a l o ss o f i den t i t y

w i th the sen di ng country. Por tes (1999) pro m otes transn at iona l par t ic ipa-

t i o n i n t h e s e n d i n g c o u n tr y as a m e a n s t o i n te g r a te n e w c o m e r s i n t h e r e ce iv -

ing coun try . M ore empi r i ca l r e sea rch is n ee de d on p a r t ic ipa t ion an d t he

exe rc ise o f c i t i zensh ip i n d i f f e ren t loca l it ie s to d i s t i ngu i sh t o w ha t ex t en t

t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a i d s o r h u r t s i m m i g r a n t i n c o r p o r a t i o n , h e l p s o r h i n d e r s

the ho m e coun try , and s t r eng thens o r un de rm ines t he hos t socie ty . Such

ef fec t s m igh t d if fe r de pe nd ing on the coun t ry of or ig in , cou nt ry of recept ion ,an d the charac teris tics of indiv idual imm igrants . For examp le , Jone s-C orrea

(1998b) dem on s t r a t e s t h a t pa r t i c ipa ti on s t r a t eg i e s a r e d i f f e r en t fo r im m i -

g r a n t L a ti n o w o m e n a s c o m p a r e d w i t h L a ti n o m e n . W o m e n s e e t h e ir liv e s

g r o u n d e d t o a g r e at er d e g r e e in t h e U S , w h e r e t h e y a re w o r k i n g a n d r a i si n g

the i r fami l ies , an d thus they par ti c ipa te in loca l assoc ia tions an d groups . In

c o n tr as t, m e n w h o h a v e s u ff er ed d o w n w a r d e c o n o m i c m o b i l it y b e c a u s e o f

m igra t i on t o t he US a re mo re ap t t o pa r ti c ipa t e i n hom ela nd po li ti c s a s a

m ea ns o f ke ep ing s tatus . I t is poss ib le tha t par t i c ipa t ion d i ffe rences a l soexist across class and racial l ines.

Conclusion

To the extent tha t human r ights , mul t icu l tura l ident i t i es , and t ransnat iona l

par t ic ipa t ion re f lec t an d crea te n ew soc io-poli ti ca l com m uni t ies , n ew types

of ci t izensh ip m ig ht be ev olving. Tradit ional c i t izensh ip ideals that focus o n

m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e a r e b e i n g u n d e r m i n e d a c r o s s t h e v a r i o u sdim en s ion s of c i ti zenship . Im m igrants ' par t ic ipa tion in the i r h om e country,

i n o th e r i n t e rna t i ona l fo ra , an d i n g loba l econ om ic and cu lt u ra l ne two rks

crea tes n ew par t ic ipa tory spaces tha t t ranscen d the na t ion-s ta te . Rights pre-

v ious ly l i nked to s ta te m em ber sh ip no w inc reas ing ly a r e g r an t ed based on

pe rso nh oo d ir respec t ive of c i ti zenship . In t e rm s of identi ty , cha ng es in the

p a r t ic i p a ti o n a n d r ig h t s d i m e n s i o n s o f c it iz e n s h i p c o n c u r r e n t ly c h a l l e n g e

t r ad it iona l no t i ons o f na t i ona l comm uni ty . If co m m on en joym ent o f r igh t s

i s t o b e t h e b a s i s o f s h a r e d i d e n t i t y - - a s l i b e r a l s m i g h t s u g g e s t - - t h e n t h e

deco up l ing o f r i gh ts w i th t e rr it o ri al m em ber sh ip und e rm ines t er ri to r ia l i den -

tif ies. A d i sassoc ia tion a l so occurs w i th in the co m m uni ta r ian paradigm, but

fo r d i f f e r en t reasons : i f pa r t ic ipa t ion i s t he bas is o f co m m on iden t i ty , bu t

pa r t ic ipa t ion is bec om ing t ransna t iona l , t he n i den t it i e s m us t a l so p e r fo rce

bec om e t r ansna ti ona l, n o l onge r ove r l app ing w i th t he na t i on - s t a te .

H a s t h e l in k b e t w e e n c it iz e n sh ip a n d m e m b e r s h i p in a n a t i o n - st a t e b e e n

30 3o ur na i f International Migration and Integration



C1TIZENSHIPANDMMIGRATION:ACURRFNTREVIEW

d e c is i v el y b r o k e n ? N o . A l t h o u g h s t ro n g l y c h a l l e n g e d b y m y r i a d fo rc e s, t h e

n a t i o n - s t a t e r e m a i n s c r it ic a ll y l i n k e d t o c i t i z e n s h i p in a n u m b e r o f k e y a r e a s .

T h i s c a n b e s e e n c l e ar ly i n t h e m o s t b as ic d i m e n s i o n o f c i t i z e n s h ip , l eg a l

s t at u s. O n l y s t a t e s - - a n d i n a l im i te d s e n s e s o m e s p e c ia l s u p r a n a t i o n a l b o d i e s

s u c h a s t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n - - a c c o r d l e g a l c i t i z e n s h i p w i t h t h e f u l l p o w e r o f

l a w b e h i n d it. W h e n a n i m m i g r a n t s e e k s n a t u r a l i z a t io n a n d a s ta t e a c c o rd s

c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e d i r e c t l i n k b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d n a t i o n - s t a t e i s r e i n -

f o r c e d . T h i s l in k is a b o v e a ll l e g al a n d p o l it ic a l. A l t h o u g h m a n y r i g h t s a re

b e i n g d i s a s s o c i a t e d f r o m c i ti z e n sh i p , p o l it ic a l r i g h ts r e m a i n t h e m o s t s t r o n g l y

b o u n d w i t h l e g a l c i ti z e n s h i p . T h e e x e rc i s e o f p o l i t ic a l r i g h t s in t u r n r e i n -

f o rc e s th e l in k b e t w e e n t h e i n d iv i d u a l a n d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e , b e c a u s e m a n y

o f t h e p o l i ti c a l s p a c e s w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s p a r t ic i p a t e a r e d e l i m i t e d b y t h e

g e o - p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e . I f o n e b e l i e v e s t h a t a n a t i o n a lc o m m u n i t y a n d i d e n t i ty c a n b e c re a te d t h r o u g h t h e s h a r e d p o s s e s s i o n a n d

u s e o f p o l it ic a l r ig h t s , t h e p o s s i b i l it y ex i s ts o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l c i t i z e n s h i p

w i t h i n c u r r e n t n a t i o n - s t a t e s . C i t i z e n s h i p t h u s c o n t i n u e s to l in k i n d i v i d u a l s

a n d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e , a l t h o u g h t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is i n c r e a s i n g l y u n d e r s i eg e .

W e m i g h t e x p e c t n e w f o r m s o f m e m b e r s h i p o t h e r t h a n c i t i z e n s h ip t o a r is e i n

t h e f u t u r e .

G i v e n t h e b r e a d t h o f i s s u e s r a is e d b y b o t h t h e l e g a l r e a l it y o f c i t iz e n s h i p

a n d i t s p o w e r a s a n a n a ly t ic a l c o n c e p t , t h e g r o w t h i n t h is f ie l d is n o t s u r p r i s -i ng , n o r s h o u l d w e e x p e c t i n te r e s t to w a n e . F u t u r e r e s e a rc h w i ll n e e d t o b e

g r o u n d e d i n th e e m p i r ic a l re a li ti e s o f i m m i g r a n t s ' l iv e s a n d b e t h e o r e t i c a l ly

i n n o v a t i v e in o r d e r to c a p tu r e n e w g l ob a l t r a n s f o rm a t io n s . B e c a u s e o f t h e

d y n a m i s m o f c i ti z e n s h ip i n t o d a y 's w o r ld , a n a n a ly t i ca l a p p r o a c h t h a t c o n -

s i d e rs b o t h t h e a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e s t r u c t u r i n g a c ti v i-

t ie s o f s t a t e s i s c ri ti ca l. I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l e n s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s o n e m e t h o d

o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h is i n t e r a c t i o n b e c a u s e i t s p a n s t w o k e y p a r t s o f t h e c i ti z e n -

s h i p e q u a t i o n : t h e in d i v i d u a l m i g r a n t a n d t h e s o c i o -p o l i t ic a l c o m m u n i t y

t h a t g r a n t s m e m b e r s h i p .

Notes

1 J e r o m e B la ck a n d Y a s e m i n S o y s a l h e l p e d g e n e r a t e a n u m b e r o f i d e a s d e v e l o p e d h e r e . I

w o u l d a l s o l ik e to t h a n k t w o a n o n y m o u s r e v i ew e r s fr o m t h i s j o u r n a l fo r th e i r c o m m e n t s a n d

sugges t ions .

"- O n e c o u l d s t u d y c i t iz e n s h i p su b s t an t iv e l y, a s k i n g h o w c i t iz e n s h i p is h e l d a n d e n j o y e d b y

d i v e r s e r a c i a l g r o u p s o r s e x e s , o r a l t e r n a t iv e l y it c o u l d b e s t u d i e d a s a t e m p o r a l p r o c e s s , a s

M arsha l l (1964) theo r ize d wi th h i s p rog re ss ion o f c iv ic , po l i t ica l , and soc ia l r igh ts .

T h u s t h e d i ff e r en c e b e t w e e n a v is i to r a n d a n i m m i g r a n t i s u s u a l l y d e f in e d i n t e m p o r a l t e r m s .

4 I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i n t h e U S , a p re v i o u s p e r io d o f i n t e n s e p u b l ic a g o n i z i n g a b o u t t h e

m e a n i n g o f A m e r i c a n c i t i z en s h i p a ro s e a t t h e s a m e t i m e m a s s i v e w a v e s o f n e w i m m i g r a n t s

w e r e l a p p i n g A m e r i c a n s h o r e s ( H i g h a m 1 98 8).

s T h e s i t u a t io n f o r w o m e n h a s v a r i e d w i d e l y i n d i f fe r e n t c o u n t r ie s o v e r t im e . O n o n e h a n d ,

n a t u r a l i z a t i o n w a s o f t e n e as y. F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e U S p r i o r t o t h e C a b l e A c t o f 1 92 2, m o s t

foreign-born wo m en w ho w ere m arried to an Am erican cit izen (native-born or naturalized)automaticallybecam e a cit izen as well . The fl ip side to this"easy"naturalization,however ,was that wom en h ad no independ ent control over their ci t izenship status. Indeed, und er

Revuede rint/~grationet de In m igratio n nternat-ionale 3



B L O E M R A A D

t h e 1 90 7 Ex p a t ri a tio n Ac t , a n Am e r ic a n wo ma n wh o ma r r i e d a f o r e ig n e r lost her c i t izensh ip ,

even i f she w asA m er ic an- bo rn (Bredbenner , 1998). This occur red i r respec tive of the fac t

th a t h e r h u s b a n d ' s c o u n t r y mig h t n o t g r a n t h e r c i ti z e n sh ip , r e n d e r in g th e w o m a n & f a c t o

s ta te less .

In C anada , fo r exam ple , leg is la t ionwa s in t r o d u c e d in 1 99 9 to t ig h te n r e s id e n c y r e q u i r e -me n ts . Pu b l i c p r e s s u r e f o r ce d th e e l im in a t io n o f c e rt a in o th e r p la n n e d p r o v i s io n s in c lu d in g

s t r ic t e r l a n g u a g e r e q u i re me n ts .

7 For exam ple , Bernard (1936) and Neice (1978) re ly heav i ly on s imp le c ross - tabula t ions .

So m e r e s e a r c h e r s in th e l a t e 19 70 s a n d e a r ly 1 9 80 s b e g a n u s in g O r d in a r y Le a s t Sq u a r e d ( OLS)

l in e a r re g r e s sio n , b u t a s Ev a n s ( 19 88 ) h a s n o te d , OLS i s a n in a p p r o p r ia te s t r a t e g y w h e n th e

d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le i s d ic h o to mo u s ( b e in g a n a tu r a l i z e d c i ti z e n o r n o t ). Lo g i t mo d e l s a r e

pre fe rab le .Both Evans (1988) andYan g (1994) m ake the im por t an t d is t inc t ion tha t the pos i t ive

r e la t io n s h ip b e twe e n En g l i s h - l a n g u a g e a b i l i ty a n d p r o p e n s i ty to n a tu r a l i z e o n ly h o ld s f o r

th o s e wh o s e f ir s t l a n g u a g e i s n o t En g l is h .

As Ky ml ic k a a n d No r m a n ( 19 94 ) p o in t o u t r e g a r d in g th e g e n e r a l fi e ld o f c it i z en s h ip ,s c h o la r s h a v e b e e n m o r e a p t to d e b a te a n d s u g g e s t c o n c r e te p o l ic i e s c o n c e r n in g th e r ig h t s

a t ten dan t wi th c i t izensh ip than the ob l iga t ions ha t fo llow. This charac te r iza t ion s a lso t rue

in th e c a s e o f imm ig r a t io n a n d c i t i z en s h ip , h e n c e th e f o cu s h e r e o n r ig h t s r a th e r th a n

r e s p o n s ib i l i ti e s . Th e o b l ig a t io n s o f c it i z e n sh ip a r e mo s t ly d i s c u s s ed wi th r e g a r d to th e i s s u e

of dua l c i t izensh ip , such as the conf l ic ts tha t cou ld a r ise if im m igran ts a re ca l led upo n to

f igh t fo r two d if fe ren t coun tr ies (Ham mar , 1989).

10 Fem inis t theor is ts have c r i t ic ized M arsha l l ' s m ode l fo r r e f lec t ing on ly th e exper iences o f

me n . Emp iri ca lly, wo r k s u c h a s th a t o f Sk o c p o l (1 9 92 ) d e mo n s t r a te s th a t in th e U S wo m e n

we r e g iv e n s o c ia l b e n e f i t s b a s e d o n th e i r r o le a s mo th e r s b e f o r e th e y g a in e d s u f fr a g e rig h t s

a n d b e f o r e mo s t m e n h a d a n y s o c ia l r igh t s .u On Au g u s t 2 2 , 19 96 P r e s id e n t C l in to n s ig n e d in to l a w th e Pe r s o n a l Re s p o n s ib i l i ty a n d W o r k

Op p o r tu n i ty Re c o n c i l ia t io n Ac t ( th e "W e l f ar e Re f o r m Ac t" ) . Sw e e p in g c h a n g e s w e r e m a d e

to th e d i s t r ib u t io n o f p u b li c b e n e f it s fo r a l l r e s id e n t s o f th e US , b o th c i t iz e n s a n d n o n -

c i ti z e ns . Th e c h a n g e s f o r n o n - c i t i z e n imm ig r a n t s we r e th e mo s t d r a ma t ic : a s o f Au g u s t 2 2 ,

1 99 7 m o s t n o n - c i t i z e n s wo u ld b e d e n ie d Su p p le me n ta l Se c u ri ty I n c o me (SSI) a n d f o o d

s tam ps , wh i le s ta tes could dec ide to re fuse them M edica id and w elfa re as wel l. In July 1997 ,

th e B u d g e t Ag r e e m e n t r e s to r e d SSI to th o s e r e s id in g in th e US o n Au g u s t 2 2, 1 9 96 , a n d in

1 99 8 a s imi la r c h a n g e w a s m a d e f o r th e f o o d s t a m p p r o g r a m. Be n e fi ts we r e n o t r e s to r e d f o r

l e g a l imm ig r a n t s e n te r in g th e c o u n t r y a f t er Au g u s t 2 2, 1 9 96 e x c e p t in c e r t a in s p e c ia l c a se s .

12 Eu r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s th a t a l lo w n o n - c i t i z e n s l imi te d v o t in g r ig h t s in c lu d e S we d e n , No r wa y ,

a n d th e Ne th e r l a n d s ; o th e r c o u n t r i e s of fe r l imi te d r ig h t s to p e o p le o f c e r ta in n a t io n a li t i e s,

s u c h a s to C o m mo n w e a l th a n d I r is h c i ti z e n s in Gr e a t Bri ta in . P r io r to W o r ld W a r I, a n u m b e r

o f US s ta te s g a v e v o t in g r ig h t s to n o n - c i t i z e n s wh o h a d d e c la r e d th e i r in te n t io n to n a tu r a l -

ize (Raskin, 1993; Rosbu rg, 1977) , w hile Brit ish cit izens w ere a llow ed to vote in C an adi an

e lec t ion s pr io r to 1977.

References

Alvarez , R. (1987) . A P rof ile o f the Ci t izensh ip Process A m on g Hispan ics in the U ni ted S ta tes .

In ternational Migrat ion Review 21 (2): 327-351.

An d e r s o n , B .R ( 19 91 ). Ima gined com mu nit ies: Ref lec t ions on the or ig in and spread o f nat ionalism

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36 Jo ur na l f InternationalMigrationand Integration



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h a v e n o r ig h t t o c i t iz e n s h i p

9 5 y e a r r e s i d e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t

. f e e i s $ 5 0 U S

9 m u s t s h o w o r a l a n d w r i t t e n E n g l is h a b i l it y

, m u s t s h o w k n o w l e d g e o f U S h i s t o r y & g o v ' t

- m u s t h a v e n o s e r i o u s c r i m i n a l r e c o rd , a n d

d e m o n s t r a t e " g o o d m o r a l c h a r a c t e r "

. m u s t s w e a r a n o a t h o f a l le g i a n c e

. c h i ld r e n o f i m m i g r a n t s b o r n o n A m e r i c a n

s o i l a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y U S c i ti z e n s

, t h o s e n a t u r a l iz e d m a y n o t h a v e d u a l

c i t i zensh ip

N a t u r a l i z a t io n R e q u i r e m e n t s ,

J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 0 0 * *

. 3 y e a r r e s id e n c e r e q u i re m e n t

9 e e is $ 2 0 0 C N D ( a b o u t $ 1 4 0 U S )

9 o n l y o r a l a b i l i t y in F r e n c h o r E n g l i s h

9 m u s t s h o w k n o w l e d g e o f C a n a d i a n

h i s to r y , g o v e r n m e n t a n d g e o g r a p h y

9 n o s e r i o u s c r i m i n a l r e c o r d

9 m u s t s w e a r a n o a t h o f a l l e g ia n c e

9 c h i ld r e n o f i m m i g r a n t s b o r n o n C a n a d i a n

s o i l a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y C a n a d i a n c i t i z e n s

9 d u a l c i t iz e n s h i p a l l o w e d

9 5 y e a r s r e s i d e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t9 e e is u p t o 3 0 0 0 F F ( a b o u t $ 4 5 0 U S ) ,

d e p e n d i n g o n i n c o m e a n d c a n b e w a i v e d

9 m u s t h a v e ' s u f f ic i e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' o f

F r e n c h

9 n o o t h e r k n o w l e d g e r e q u i re m e n t s

9 s h o w a s s i m i la t i o n i n t o F r e n c h c o m m u n i t y ,

h a v e g o o d m o r a l s , a n d l a c k a s e r i o u s

cr im ina l record

9 m u s t s w e a r l o y a l t y to F r a n c e

9c h i l d re n o f i m m i g r a n t s b o r n o n F r e n c h s o i l

g a i n c i t iz e n s h i p a t m a j o r i t y i f t h e y l i v e d i n

F r a n c e a t l e a s t 5 y e a r s a n d h a v e n oc d m i n a l r e c o r d

. 8 y e a r r e s i d e n c e re q u i r e m e n t

9 e e is 5 0 0 D M ( a b o u t $ 2 5 0 U S )

9 a d e q u a t e c o m m a n d " o f G e r m a n

9 m u s t h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f a n d s t a t e l o y a l t y t o

G e r m a n y ' s f r e e d e m o c r a t ic o r d e r

9 m u s t b e a b l e t o s u p p o r t o n e s e l f w i t h o u t

w e l f a r e b e n e f it s o r u n e m p l o y m e n t

a s s i s t a n c e

- n o c r im i n a l r e c o r d o r h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n

a c t i v i ti e s h o s t i le t o t h e G e r m a n

cons t i tu t i on9 c h i ld r e n o f i m m i g r a n t s b o r n o n G e r m a n s o i l

a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y Ge r m a n c i t i z e n s h i p i f

t h e p a r e n t s r e s i d e d i n Ge r m a n y 8 y e a r s ;

m u s t o p t f o r G e r m a n c i ti z e n s h ip f o r m a l l y

b y a g e 2 3

9 n o d u a l c i t iz e n s h i p

9 5 y e a r r e s id e n c e r e q u i re m e n t

, f e e i s $ 2 2 5 U S

9 m u s t s h o w o r a l a n d w r i t t e n E n g l i s h a b i l i t y

9 m u s t s h o w k n o w l e d g e o f U S h i s t o ry & g o v ' t

9 m u s t h a v e n o s e r i o u s c r i m i n a l r e c o r d , a n d

d e m o n s t r a t e " g o o d m o r a l c h a r a c t e r "

9 m u s t s w e a r a n o a t h o f a l l e g ia n c e

9c h i l d re n o f i m m i g r a n t s b o r n o n A m e r i c a n

s o i l a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y U S c i t i z e n s

9 h o s e n a t u r a li z e d m a y n o t h a v e d u a l

c i t i zensh ip

* Sources: Bruba ker (1989:126-127), de Rh am [F rance an d Germ any] (199(} : 162-174), and N or th (1985) [Canada] .