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Through this research I set out to explore the need, use, and effectiveness of past, present,
and proposed water conservation technologies and the inherent evolution of regulation that has,
and will continue to occur within the United States. This study will (1) succinctly touch on the
global history of water shortages, (2) identify the effects they have had on ancient societies, and
(3) identify the current international demand for water conservation technologies to set up the
evolutionary pattern of industrialized nations. The main objective of this research is to gain a
deeper understanding of how both past and present water shortages have influenced the United
States present day regulation and product offerings and the effect they have had on water supply
throughout the nation. In this study, I have conducted lab studies on (3) three dissimilar water
closets in an attempt to ascertain the true effectiveness of new vs. old fixture technologies.
Researchers have said that overcrowded cities, water shortages and electricity
brownouts in 21st century California, India and Brazil are ominous reminders of the fate of
ancient Rome, Babylon and the Maya Empire (SD Tribune 2001). Vernon Lee Scarborough, an
American anthropologist and archeologist who has performed extensive research on the ancient
societies, believes that the trigger event of the collapse was over population coupled with a
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1. Research Purpose:
2. A Brief History on Water Shortage:
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long drought beginning about 840 A.D. (SD Tribune 2001). Unfortunately this same scenario
can be recognized in many parts of the world today. Population experts estimate that by the year
2015, there will be 28 "megacities," each containing more than 10 million people (SD Tribune
2001). It is currently estimated that the Greater Tokyo region is home to a staggering 32-35
million people (wiki answers 2009). Studies show that Bombay India, is expected to grow from
18 million to 26 million; Los Angeles from 13.1 million to 14.1 million; and New York City
from 16.6 million to 17.4 million (SD Tribune 2001).
In a conference titled, The Collapse of Complex Societies, Vernon Scarborough
explained that, Intensive agriculture and excessive irrigation led to the salinization of the
Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq (SD Tribune
2001). He went on further to point out that, These actions ultimately damaged the very
landscape these societies were striving to improve" (SD Tribune 2001).
According to the director of PISDES in Oakland and statistics pulled from the 2006
United Nations Human Development Report, nearly 850,000,000 1,000,000,000 people lack access
to safe water supplies, which ultimately amounts to approximately one in every eight people
worldwide (Water.org 2009 and SD Tribune 2001). Research shows that less than 1% of the
worlds fresh water is readily accessible for direct human use (Water.org 2009). It has been
claimed that The water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through disease than any war
claims through guns and that at any given time, half of the worlds hospital beds are occupied by
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3. Water Facts and Current Global Shortages:
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patients suffering from a water-related disease (Water.org 2009). Peter Gleick, Author of the
report The Worlds Water 2000-2001 asserts that Water-borne diseases kill 10,000 to 20,000
children every day(SD Tribune 2001).
Studies that result in statements like these bring astonishment to most people living in
industrialized nations. Many families in the United States cannot even begin to fathom this
reality. It is estimated that the daily requirement for sanitation, bathing, and cooking needs, as
well as for assuring survival, is about 13.2 gallons per person (Water.org 2009). When this
figure is calculated into the U.S. population, it becomes obvious that we too are staring at a water
shortage though out many portions of the U.S. Reality struck many lawmakers in the early
1960s as these shortages began to take a toll on U.S. cities.
In the early 19th and 20th century much of the western hemisphere viewed the Unites
States of America as the land of opportunity, with real estate fortune at the forefront of the
agenda. This perception shared by many foreigners coupled with returning soldiers brought an
influx of people to many developing cities throughout the U.S. Along with this surge in
population came a great demand for housing. It was in the mid 1960s that housing production
began to take on the shape of a standardized product. This was in response to tighter government
regulation, the establishment of building code, and advances in lending practices (ULI 127-169).
Houses were being built all over the country and with those houses followed a spike in water
consumption.
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4. Water shortage Hits the United States:
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The larger cities developed in the U.S. were typically located in close proximity to major
transportation routes, many of which were waterways. This natural resource offered irrigation to
the farmlands, a means of transportation for watercraft, and domestic water supply (ULI 145-
169). Indoor plumbing was a new concept in the early to mid 20th century, and its unanticipated
impact on water supply was not realized until the housing boom.
Realization struck when water levels began to dwindle and sanitary sewer systems began
to reach full capacity. Droughts in the northeast and western states coupled with expanding
populations caused strain on the existing infrastructure, thus stretching the capacity of the
developing cities. As a result, construction moratoriums were instituted, which in essence,
halted construction and economic activity. Suffering real estate developers and builders turned
to the government for help. Through government studies, it was quickly recognized that the key
contributor to the excessive water consumption was water closets, which at the time, amounted
to nearly 50 percent of all water consumed within a residential structure (P & M Magazine
2004). It was in fact ascertained that water closets were the largest consumer of water outside of
industrial and agricultural use (P & M Magazine 2004). Federal, state, and local governments
quickly reacted with changes to the building standards.
Development regulations are a set of constantly evolving minimum specifications that
developers and builders must meet to comply with local municipalitys comprehensive plan.
Studies are always being performed as changes in population and development density occur.
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5. Changing Standards:
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Analyzing the cyclical booms and busts in the U.S. real estate industry offers a clearer picture of
where we stand today in the struggle against water shortages.
The Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC) was among the first
government agencies to act on the severe capacity and supply shortages (P & M Magazine 2004).
Recognizing in the early 1960s that the toilet was a major consumer of their limited commodity,
the WSSC mandated that all water closets installed thereafter within their jurisdiction must not
consume more than 3-1/2 GPF (P & M Magazine 2004). Other communities with supply and/or
treatment capacity shortages quickly followed the WSSCs lead.
Figure 1 illustrates the evolution of water closets over the past 50 years, and the
significant strides manufactures have made in the conservation of water. From the one-piece 12
GPF units of the early 1960s to the 1 GPF units sold in the 21st century, it appears obvious that
through advancements in hydro-technology, we have produced better, more efficient fixtures.
This process of water reduction technology was not a result of simple advances in technology,
but rather a combination of regulation and technology attained through many trials and
tribulations.
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Figure 1. Water Closet Trends over 50 yrs.
Many early models of water conservation water closets like the 3-1/2 GPF American
Standard Cadet Watersaver boasted of their 36 percent water reductions. Unfortunately the
new watersaver did not work very well. Early attempts to conservation design resulted in
added partitions in conventional 5 GPF tanks or reduced size tanks with little or no adaption to
the bowl. This most often resulted in an inadequate siphon thus creating the need for double and
even triple flushes to extract (P & M Magazine 2004). The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) recognized the need for minimum performance requirements in addition to
consumption limits. It established extraction and drain line carry pass/fail tests in its A112.19.2
version.
Later in 1984, Mansfield Plumbing introduced its revolutionary pressure-flush water
closet. This was a first of its kind and seemed to be the answer to all the current issues faced in
the water closet industry. Its 1.5 GPF was a large leap from the next competitor, but brought
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with it new cons that had not been experienced before. Its modern appearance was far different
than the traditional design of all preceding water closets and it had a small water-spot which
resulted in skid marks and clogs (P & M Magazine 2004). ANSI reacted with an updated 1990
edition of requirements containing the following:
1. Recognition of the new six liter water closet classification called Low Consumption
2. Refined the extraction tests contained within the earlier version
Innovations over the subsequent years like the 3-inch flush valve and slot rim design led
to higher velocity flushes and cheaper design, making the 1.6 GPF gravity toilets tolerably
acceptable to Americans (P & M Magazine 2004). Gradually over the second half of the
century, the largest consumer of water in the house, the water closet, had reduced its impact by
over 80 percent, or at least as demonstrated by past independent studies (P & M Magazine 2004).
Meteorologist and climatologist have been studying weather patterns since the 18th
century, with breakthroughs in weather forecasting techniques occurring in the 19 th and 20th
century. Both historic and current weather data have proven the existence of drought conditions
throughout many areas of the U.S. (See Figure 2).
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Figure 2. Drought Index from the NOAA
As illustrated in the water closet example, regulation evolution plays a major role in the
advancement of fixture technology. Drought data has been the focal point of numerous
municipalities revisions to building code. The enactment of the California Green Building
Code is an excellent example of this process.
Green regulation began in California as an incentive program, but with the relentless
drought the state has endured over the past decade, lawmakers have turned to strict development
regulations that now demand compliance. On Feb. 27, 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger
declared a state of emergency after the state's three year drought (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009). He
urged the urban water agencies to reduce water use by 20 percent through the enactment of
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conservation plans (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009). Just one month later the governor instituted
mandatory water reductions. This was the first time since 1991 that the state enforced such a
regulation (Simi-Valley Acorn 2009).
Another article published by Simi-Valley Acorn points out that Simi Valley, at the
request of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, began looking into similar
ordinance that would encourage water conservation through incentives, but could also restrict
activities that contribute to water waste. The Water Conservation Initiative included an
expanded Challenge Grant Program which provided competitive grants for water marketing and
conservation projects. This enabled the continued funding of water reuse and recycling projects
as well as extended tax credits for adaptations to landscapes which consume less water (USBR
2009 and AWE 2009). Much like the aforementioned Simi Valley examples, this regulation
eventually evolved from incentive based ordinance, to mandated compliance.
The culmination of local ordinances like these gradually formed the foundation for the
present day California Green Building Code. The CGBC is the nations first green building
code to be instituted in the inventory of any states statutes and is expected to be the mandatory
code of the future. Much like the transitions we have seen in the past, from the loosely regulated
early pioneer days of the late 1800s to the industrial era of the mid 1900s, the California Green
Building code will be sure to usher in a new age of acceptable building practices with major
concentrations on sustainability, efficiency, and conservation of the limited yet vital resources
the world shares today.
The California Green Building Code was created by the California Building Standards
Commission based on studies and data produced by the International Code Council. In it you
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will find a series of specifications, descriptions, identification of regulating bodies, and measures
that mainly concentrate on conservation and efficiency with the main goal of building
sustainably (CBSC 08). California regulators recognize the fact that there is a transition period
to be expected so they have stipulated that year 2009 will be a voluntary period, and starting in
2010 the code will be mandatory on all new buildings (CBSC 08). It will reach even further in
2011 where it will impose mandatory residential standards (Ecohome09). The new code calls for
a 20% improvement in water use efficiency, 50% increase in water conservation, and 15%
reduction in energy consumption in all new construction (GlobeST 09).
Other states with water shortages have enacted similar regulation, like Washingtons
Municipal Water Supply - Efficiency Requirements Act which became effective January 22,
2007. Water use efficiency elements of this plan include planning requirements, distribution
leakage standards, water use efficiency goal-setting, and performance reporting (MRSC of
Washington 2008).
On a larger scale, President Obama has organized committees that will begin working
toward a multifaceted conservation plan for the future. On October 5, 2009, the White House
issued an executive order that set sustainability goals for Federal agencies with one of its focuses
being water efficiency (AWE 2009). Through the creation of the so called 2020 Plan, the
federal government aims at achieving a 26% improvement in water efficiency (AWE 2009).
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7. The Methods and Products of Water Conservation:
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Many companies throughout the U.S. and beyond have thrived on the recent demand for
high efficiency green construction products and sustainable processes. As with the water
closet fiasco of the mid-20th century, the development of newer technologies has been achieved
through a series of trials and tribulations. Some new product offerings like waterless urinals and
composting toilets have achieved water conservation, but have brought new cons that had not
been experienced before. The thought of periodically removing waste from a composting toilets
storage reservoir, or the inevitable smell of aging urine in a waterless urinal is a reality not to be
desired by most industrialized nations population.
Fossil fuel conservation has been achieved through the creation of alternative bio-fuels
like corn ethanol yet creates unanticipated negative impacts on water and food supply. Another
great example of unanticipated impacts is the effect solar harvesting has had on water supply in
the western U.S. Lawmakers have found themselves scrambling to enforce new regulation
which will stipulate acceptable water usage for such operations.
In the midst of these trials and tribulations are other innovative manufactures who are
achieving the goals of water conservation through revolutionary design. Advancements in storm
water collection and reuse systems, drip irrigation and low-flow fixtures design have produced
homes that are more than 50 percent more efficient than the standard home built to code in many
parts of the U.S.
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8. Performance Test of 3 Water Closets:
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Ferguson Enterprises, the U.S. operating company of the Wolseley group, is getting ready
to launch a Niagara Conservation .8 GPF Stealth water closet. Through a generous offer from
Ferguson Enterprises, I have been afforded the opportunity to conduct some studies on the water
closet to make a direct comparison to others offered in the past decade. The other two sample
models I have chosen are the Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF and the Niagara 1.28 GFP Flapperless.
The Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF was very common fixture installation throughout the
1990s and even today, can be found in stock at many plumbing supply and home improvement
stores throughout the U.S. (See Figure 3). One of the biggest complaints associated with the
Mansfield standard, and the many like it, are the all too common leaking flappers, which must be
replaced multiple times during the lifetime of the fixture.
Figure 34. Mansfield Standard 1.6 GPF Figure 4. Niagara 1.28Flapperless WC
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Government funded housing and buildings have found a special interest in the 1.28 and
1.6 GPF Niagara Flapperless water closets because of their water trough design. This design is
claimed to increase flush power and remove the maintenance hassle of replacing leaky flappers,
which as you know contributes to water waste and expensive maintenance if connected to a
septic system. It has been utilized for a few years though out the U.S. and continues to be a
popular choice today (See Figure 4). Among the few complaints gathered through surveys on
the flapperless design are the rare sticking / leaking trough, and the need for a second flush.
The Niagara Conservation Stealth .8 GPF is the most advanced water closet to be
launched on the market (See Figure 5 and 6). Its pressure flush technology (See Figure 7) allows
it to use less water per flush and its modern design (See Figure 5) is sure to appeal to a wide
consumer market.
Figure 5. Niagara Conservation Stealth .8 GPF Figure 6. NiagaraConservation Stealth .8 GPF
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Figure 7. Stealth Flush Technology
I conducted a 1 week test on each of the 3 aforementioned water closets. I gathered data
from the specification sheets on each water closet and usage data from my household which I
assume to represent a standard house hold of 3 people. With the 3 water closets installed at my
house, I tested one water closet per week. In my data I tracked the frequency of use and how
many flushes were required per use. After testing each water closet for a full week, I compiled
the data into a table and graphed the results (See Figures 8 and 9). The testing produced the
following comments and results:
1. The Mansfield 1.6 GPF Standard: upheld near 100% reliable flushinga. Leak detecting dye exposed a small seep at the flapper mechanism
2. The Niagara 1.28 GPF Flapperless: performed poorly, requiring frequentdouble flushes
a. The double flushes in essences turned the 1.28 to a 2.56 GPF for solids3. The Niagara .8 GPF Stealth: performed near perfect.
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a. The single documented double flush was noted to be marginallyunwarranted
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Date # of Flushes Date # of Flushes Date # of Flushes
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 2 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 110/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 2 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/23/2009 1 10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/30/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 11/13/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1
10/24/2009 2 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/24/2009 1 10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/31/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/14/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/1/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/2/2009 2 11/15/2009 1
10/25/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
11/4/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/6/2009 1 11/15/2009 1
10/26/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/16/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 2 11/16/2009 1
10/26/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/16/2009 1
11/2/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/2/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
10/27/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/17/2009 1
11/3/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/3/2009 1 11/18/2009 2
10/28/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/18/2009 1
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 2
10/28/2009 1 11/4/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
10/29/2009 1 11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
11/5/2009 1 11/19/2009 1
Avg. Flush: 1.025 Avg. Flush: 1.12195122 Avg. Flush: 1.024390244
Mansfield Standard
1.6 GPF
Niagara Cons. Flapperless
1.28 GPF
Niagara Cons. Stealth
.8 GPF
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Figure 8. Chart Data Collected From Tejeda Household WC Usage 10/09 11/09
Figure 9. Graphical Representation of Data Collected From Tejeda Household WC Usage10/09 11/09
The results of my personal studies are yet another reminder of what is to be expected in
the advancement of technologies. We see, in just the span of a decade, a product that became
standard and widely accepted (the 1.6), an attempt to incorporate new technologies to reduce
water waste with unanticipated effects (the 1.28), and an ancillary improvement upon a concept
that eventually produced a well designed and effective product (the .8). There will continue to
be a cycle of refinement in the future that will undoubtedly produce some poor products all with
the aim of solving the worlds water crisis. The struggle between competing green
technologies should be a major focus of the scientists and innovators who at times seem to be
solving problems with blinders on. Solving one crisis at the expense of another makes no sense
and should be closely monitored in the development of future technologies.
Future Regulation, as we have seen in the past decade, will continue to be geared toward
sustainability and high efficiency. Through the states copious 2020, 2030, and LEED integrated
plans, the near future will continue to undergo steadfast changes in local ordinances and
development regulations all in an attempt to attain the essential stringent goals put forth. The
high goals of aforesaid plans coupled with the reality of todays usage data will continue to put a
great deal of pressure on the developers and builders of tomorrow.
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Works Cited
1. NOAA: National Weather service Drought map 2009; http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/
2. The San Diego Union 2009, History Threatens to repeat itself;
http://www.carryingcapacity.org/ancienthistory.html
3. Water.org, Water Facts 2009; http://www.water.org
4. Plumbing and Mechanical, The history of water conservation in American Toilets 2004;
http://www.pmmag.com/CDA/Archives/964140b2520d7010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0
5. Real Estate Development, Principles and Process Third Edition; Mike E. Miles, Gayle Berens, Marc A.
Weiss; Urban Land Institute 2003
6. The United States Environmental Protection Agency; http://www.epa.gov/nps/chap3.html
7. Earth Easy, 25 Ways to Conserve Water at Home and Yard2009;
http://eartheasy.com/live_water_saving.htm
8. Alliance for Water Efficiency, The White House Sets Sustainability Goals for Federal Agencies 2009;
http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/obama-exec-order.aspx
9. The United States Department of the Interior, Water Conservation Initiative2009; http://www.usbr.gov/wci/
10.Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington, Water Conservation Measures 2008;
http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Environment/water/wc-measures.aspx
11.Simi Vally Acorn, Water Conservation Laws Trickle Down 2009;http://www.simivalleyacorn.com/news/2009-03-
13/Front_Page/Water_conservation_laws_trickle_down.html
12.Californias green building code seen as a good balance for builders, Jennifer Goodman; Ecohome 2009,
august 17, 2009
13. California Green Building Code Harbinger for the Future, Debra Hazel; GlobeST.com, august 2, 2009.
14.Green Building Standards Code, California code of regulations title 24 part 11, California building
standards commission 2008.
15.My Green home blog, The low down on low flow 2007; http://mygreenhomeblog.com/2007/11/30/the-
down-low-on-low-flow/
16.Niagara Conservation, Ecologic water closet 2009; http://www.niagaraconservation.com/Ecologic.html
17.Ferguson Enterprises, Product Offerings 2009; http://www.ferguson.com
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