ACUTE COLD RESPONSES
GENERAL COMMENTS
• HEAT LOSS TO H2O IS 2-4X FASTER THAN AIR, ESPECIALLY DURING SWIMMING DUE TO INCREASED FORCED CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS
• THERMONEURTRALITY:
HEAT LOSS = METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION
FACTORS AFFECTING METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION
• BODY SIZE
• BODY COMPOSITIONIncreased LBW will increase metabolism (1.3 Kcal/kg LBW/hr)
• STATE OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEMThyroxin, epinephrine, & norepinephrine stimulate metabolism
FACTORS AFFECTING METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION
• AGE and GENDER• RACE• ACTIVITY • FOOD CONSUMPTION• ENVIRONMENT
Heat will increase metabolism and reliance on anaerobic metabolismCold will increase shivering thermogenesis
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE• TEMPERATURE BELOW WHICH ENERGY
METABOLISM INCREASES ABOVE RESTING LEVEL (35o C IN LEAN PERSON, 30o C OR LESS IN FAT PERSON)
• CRITICAL TEMPERATURE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO SUBCUTANEOUS BODY FAT
• REVIEW FIGURES:1. CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
HIGHER FOR H20 THAN AIR2. GREATER VARIABILITY IN AIR
THAN H20
• INCREASE IN METABOLIC RATE (HEAT CONSERVATION MECHANISM) MAY NOT BE ENOUGH TO MAINTAIN OR OFFSET HEAT LOSS WHEN TEMPERATURE FALLS BELOW CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
HEAT CONSERVATION MECHANISMS
• VASOCONSTRICTION
• SHIVERING METABOLISM- BOTH SUBMAXIMAL AND MAXIMAL SHIVERING VO2
ARE HIGHLY CORRELATED TO VO2MAX
- HIGHEST SHIVERING VO2 IS ABOUT 50% OF VO2MAX
- VO2MAX AS A DETERMINANT OF THERMOGENESIS DURING
SHIVERING MAY IN PART BE RELATED TO MUSCLE MASS AND/ OR THE
SPECIFIC METABOLIC LEVEL ATTAINED BEFORE THE ONSET OF
ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
• REMEMBER SWEATING RATE, NUMBER OF DAYS TO ACCLIMATE, AND STEADY-STATE CORE TEMPERATURE WERE ALSO RELATED T O MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE RATE IN A HYPERTHERMIC ENVIRONMENT.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO HEAT LOSS
1. EXTERNAL HEAT LOSS
A. WATER TEMPERATURE ANDDURATION OF
EXPOSUREB. MORPHOLOGY AND MASSC. SURFACE INSULATION
2. INTERNAL HEAT LOSS
A. REGIONAL HEAT FLOWB. BODY FATNESS
EXTERNAL HEAT LOSS WATER TEMPERATURE
AND DURATION OF EXPOSURE
WATER TEMPERATURE RAPIDLY AND PROFOUNDLY AFFECTS THERMAL RESPONSES COMPARED TO AIR
1. DECREASE IN H20 TEMPERATURE WILL DECREASE CORE
TEMPERATURE
2. INCREASE IN DURATION OF EXPOSURE WILL LOWER CORE TEMPERATURE, BUT NOT NECESSARILY LINEARLY AS CORE
TEMPERATURE HAS BEEN SHOWN TO STABILIZE IN TEMPERATURES AS COLD AS 5o C
EXTERNAL HEAT LOSSMORPHOLOGY AND
MASS
1. CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS IS PROPORTIONAL TO BODY
SURFACE AREA; INCREASED BSA, DECREASED CORE TEMPERATURE
FOR A GIVEN COLD EXPOSURE
2. ALSO, THE GREATER THE BSA TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO, THE GREATER THE DECREASE IN
CORE TEMPERATURE FOR A GIVEN COLD EXPOSURE; LOWER
BSA/BW RATIO RESULTS IN A LOWER HEAT LOSS POTENTIAL
NOTE: WHEN COMPARING INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME BODY WEIGHT, THE PERSON WITH LESS BODY FAT (I.E., LEAN PERSON) WILL HAVE A LOWER BSA TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO THAN A PERSON WITH MORE BODY FAT (I.E., FAT PERSON) SINCE FAT WEIGHT HAS A LOWER DENSITY THAN LEAN BODY WEIGHT. A FAT PERSON HAS A GREATER BSA/BW RATIO AND HENCE GREATER HEAT LOSS POTENTIAL IN A COLD TEMPERATURE THAN A LEAN PERSON, AT LEAST BASED ON THE BSA/BW RATIO.
3. SHAPE OF BODY
ENDOMORHPIC (ROUND SHAPE) AND MESOMORPHIC (RECTANGULAR SHAPE)- BETTER COLD TOLERANCE
ECTOMORPHIC (LINEAR SHAPE) - POORER COLD TOLERANCE
4. BODY COMPOSITION
GREATER LEAN BODY WEIGHT =• INCREASED HEAT PRODUCTION• LOWER BSA/BW RATIO• BOTH ENHANCE COLD TOLERANCE
GREATER FAT WEIGHT =• INCREASED INSULATION (increased cold tolerance)• GREATER BSA/BW RATIO
(decreased cold tolerance)
EXTERNAL HEAT LOSSSURFACE INSULATION
LAYER OF WATER ADHERES TO SKIN AT THE WATER-SKIN INTERFACE THAT
PROVIDES AN INSULATORY EFFECT AGAINST CONVECTIVE (C) HEAT LOSS
FACTORS AFFECTING INSULATORY EFFECT
1. WATER MOVEMENT WILL DECREASE INSULATION AND MAY INCREASE
CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS, ALTHOUGH THIS IN PART MAY BE OFFSET BY THE FACT THAT THE WATER MOVEMENT WILL LOWER SKIN TEMPERATURE AND THEREFORE DECREASE THE GRADIENT BETWEEN SKIN AND WATER TEMPERATURES
2. DECREASE IN WATER TEMPERATURE WILL INCREASE OVERALL CONVECTIVE HEAT
LOSS
3. EXERCISE TENDS TO INCREASE CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS BY
INCREASING HEAT LOSS BY FORCED CONVECTION (TURBULENT
CIRCULATING MEDIUM); ALSO, EXERCISE TENDS TO REMOVE THE BOUNDARY LAYER OF INSULATORY WATER AS DISCUSSED UNDER #1 ON THE PREVIOUS SLIDE
NOTE:
EXECISE ALSO DECREASES VAOCONSTRICTION DUE TO INCREASED VASODILATION, WHICH ALSO INCREASES CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS
EXERCISE HOWEVER INCREASES METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION
“IS THE INCREASE IN HEAT PRODUCTION GREATER THAN THE INCREASE IN HEAT LOSS WHEN EXERCISING OR MOVING IN THE WATER?”
INTERNAL HEAT LOSS
1. REGIONAL HEAT FLOW
• VASOCONSTRICTION OF PERIPHERAL AND EXTREMITY VASCULATURE PREVENTS HEAT LOSS, WHICH DECREASES THE INTERNAL
EFFECTIVE SURFACE AREA FOR HEAT TRANSFER
• HEAT FLOW VARIES WITHIN THE BODY: AT REST, HEAT LOSS FROM THE
ABDOMINAL/TRUNK AREA IS GREATER THAN FROM THE EXTREMITIES, PROBABLY DUE
TO DECREASED BLOOD FLOW TO THE EXTREMITIES; AREAS OF GREATEST HEAT LOSS ARE THE HEAD (50%+), NECK, LATERAL THORAX, UPPER CHEST, & GROIN
2. BODY FATNESS
• FAT PROVIDES A GREATER INSULATION THAN MUSCLE
AND SKIN; INCREASED CORE AND SUBCUTANEOUS
FAT WILL INCREASE THE CONSERVATION OF HEAT
• HOWEVER, INCRESED LEAN BODY WEIGHT WILL INCREASE
HEAT PRODUCTION (1.3 Kcal/kg LBW/hr)
EXERCISE AND HEAT LOSS
EXERCISE AND HEAT LOSS
EXERCISE IN AIR, CORE TEMPERATURE CAN BE SUSTAINED IN TEMPERATURES AS
LOW AS -30oC
IN COLD H2O, HEAT LOW IS 2-4 TIMES GREATER; THUS, THE PRESENCE OF H2O
AND MOVEMENT OF H2O FROM EXERCISE MAY INCREASE HEAT LOSS AND
DECREASE TC AS HEAT PRODUCTION FROM EXERCISE IS LESS THAN THE HEAT
LOSS FROM CONVECTION
• EXERCISE IN AIR, CORE TEMPERATURE CAN BE SUSTAINED IN TEMPERATURES AS LOW AS -30o C (- 22o F)
• IN COLD WATER, HEAT LOSS IS 2-4 TIMES GREATER; THUS, THE PRESENCE OF WATER AND MOVEMENT OF WATER FROM EXERCISE MAY INCREASE HEAT LOSS AND DECREASE CORE TEMPERATURE AS HEAT PRODUCTION FROM EXERCISE IS LESS THAN THE HEAT LOSS FROM CONVECTION
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT LOSS DURING
EXERCISE
1. INCREASED TRANSFER OF HEAT FROM THE TRUNK AND CORE TO THE EXTREMITIES VIA INCREASED BLOOD FLOW
2. INCREASED EFFECTIVE SURFACE AREA FOR HEAT TRANSFER AS BLOOD FLOW IS
REDISTRIBUTED FROM THE TRUNK TO THE EXTREMITIES
3. INCREASED HEAT PRODUCTION IN THE EXTREMITIES VERSUS TRUNK
WHEN COMPARED TO NON-EXERCISING CONDITION
4. INCREASED MOVEMENT OF EXTREMITIES WILL DECREASE INSULATORY BOUNDARY OF
WATER AT THE SKIN-WATER INTERFACE
5. SUBCUTANEOUS BODY FAT, PARTICULARLY IN THE EXTREMITIES AS BLOOD FLOW IS REDISTRIBUTED FROM THE TRUNK TO THE EXTREMITIES; IN ELDERLY PEOPLE, THE TRANSLOCATION OF BODY FAT FROM THE EXTREMITIES TO THE ABDOMINAL/TRUNK AREA MAY MAKE THEM PARTICULARLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO HEAT LOSS IN COLD ENVIRONMENTS
6. NOTE: INCREASED BODY FAT = DECREASED HEAT LOSS
6. TYPE OF EXERCISE (REVIEW FIGURES)
HEAT LOSS IS GREATER WITH ARM EXERCISE THAN LEG EXERCISE IN COLD TEMPERATURES DUE TO LESS EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION OF HEAT WITH ARM EXERCISE BECAUSE:
A. LESS INSULATION (I.E., LESS SUBCUTANEOUS FAT
IN ARMS)OR
GREATER BSA/BW RATIO IN THE UPPER EXTREMITIES
(DEPENDS ON THE INDIVIDUAL)
B. LEG EXERCISE MAY BE MORE EFFECTIVE IN TRANSFERRING
HEAT PRODUCTION TO THE ABDOMINAL/TRUNK CORE
C. IF PERFORMING THE SAME ABSOLUTE WORKLOAD, THE RELATIVE WORKLOAD IS GREATER DURING ARM EXERCISE (VO2MAX OF ARMS IS ABOUT 60-70% OF VO2MAX OF LEGS); THEREFORE, GREATER RATES OF
BLOOD FLOW ARE NECESSARY AS EVIDENCED BY HIGHER HEART
RATES DURING ARM EXERCISE
SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN
1.NON-SHIVERING THERMOGENESIS
A. INCREASED RATE OF METABOLISM OF BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE (?)
B. CIRCULATING EFFECTS OF HORMONES
COLD EXPOSURE STIMULATES THE SNS INCREASING CATECHOLAMINE RELEASE WHICH HAS A
CALORIGENIC EFFECT, ESPECIALLY WHEN THYROXIN IS PRESENT
IN AN UNADPATED PERSON, INCREASED GLUCOCORTICOID RELEASE IN THE COLD MAY INHIBIT THYROXIN RELEASE AND
DECREASE THE CALORIGENIC EFFECT
2. SHIVERING THERMOGENESIS
DURING COLD EXPOSURE, SHIVERING MAY CONTRIBUTE UP TO 36% OF THE
INCREASED HEAT LIBERATION
3. VASOCONSTRICTION OF THE CUTANEOUS VASCULATURE
(NOREPINEPHRINE FROM THE SNS IS A STRONG VASOCONSTRICTOR); THUS, BLOOD IS SHUNTED TO THE CORE
EXERCISE IN COLD AIR
1. IN CONTRAST TO COLD WATER, EXERCISE IN COLD AIR ALWAYS
INCREASES HEAT PRODUCTION ENOUGH TO MAINTAIN THERMAL BALANCE
2. REGULATES REGIONAL TEMPERATURE BY INCREASING BLOOD FLOW, WHICH
DECREASES INJURY POTENTIAL, PARTICULARLY IN THE
EXTREMITIES
3. ALTHOUGH HEAT LOSS VIA VENTILATION MAY INCREASE UP
TO AS MUCH AS 9%, THIS EXERTS MINIMAL AFFECT ON CORE TEMPERATURE
BODY FAT AND COLD AIR EXPOSURE
1. INCREASED BODY FAT PROTECTS FROM COLD AIR
INCREASED SUBCUTANEOUS FAT WILL INCREASE
INSULATION, PARTICULARLY IN EXTREMITIES AND TRUNK/ABDOMEN
CORE TEMPERATURE DURING COLD AIR EXPOSURE TENDS
TO BE LINEARLY RELATED TO PERCENT BODY FAT
2. SUBCUTANEOUS FAT REDUCES LOWERING OF CORE TEMPERATURE
IN COLD AIR BY PROVIDING RESISTANCE OF HEAT TRANSFER FROM CORE TO SKIN BY CONDUCTION AND SKIN TO ENVIRONMENT BY CONVECTION
ALSO, CONVECTION OF HEAT FROM THE SKIN TO ENVIRONMENT IS REDUCED BY THE DECREASE IN SKIN
BLOOD FLOW DUE TO VASOCONSTRICTION OF THE PERIPHERAL VASCULATURE
(TRUE FOR AIR AND WATER)
EFFECTS OF COLD ON PERFORMANCE
1. CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE
2. STRENGTH AND POWER
3. MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE
1. REDUCED VO2MAX AND MAXIMAL EXERCISE PERFORMANCE
A. DECREASED MAXIMAL HEART RATE AND HENCE,
DECREASED CARDIAC OUTPUT
B. HEMOGLOBN-O2 DISSOCIATION CURVE SHIFTS TO LEFT
WHICH DECREASES THE AMOUNT OF O2 UNLOADED FROM HEMOGLOBIN
AT THE MUSCLE TISSUE LEVEL AND HENCE, O2
EXTRACTION IS DECREASED
C. DECREASED PLASMA VOLUME WHICH DECREASES OXYGEN TRANSPORT TO THE MUSCLE TISSUE
DECREASED PLASMA VOLUME DUE TO:
• INCREASED DIURESIS
• SWEATING
NOTE: HYPOHYDRATION CAN OCCUR IN COLD AS WELL AS HOT ENVIRONMENTS AND HENCE, FLUID REPLACEMENT IS CRITICAL IN BOTH ENVIRONMENTS
2. REDUCED SUBMAXIMAL EXERCISE PERFORMANCE AND AN EARLIER ONSET OF FATIGUE
A. DECREASED CORE TEMPERATURE ELEVATES METABOLIC RATE
(VO2) THUS REQUIRING A PERSON TO WORK AT A HIGHER
PERCENT OF MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE RATE
- GLYCOGEN DEPLETION- INCREASED LACTATE
PRODUCTION, WHICH INTERFERES WITH
CONTRACTILE PROCESSES
B. BLOOD FLOW TO MUSCLE TISSUE MAY BE REDUCED IN COLD, PARTICULARLY IN UNADAPTED PERSON
- DECREASED O2 DELIVERY TO MUSCLE
TISSUE AS RELEASE OF NOREPINEPHRINE FROM SNS CAUSES VASOCONSTRICTION
- INCREASED RELIANCE ON ANAEROBIC
ENERGY PRODUCTION AND HENCE, INCREASED BLOOD LACTATE PRODUCTION
C. DECREASED RELEASE OF OXYGEN FROM HEMOGLOBIN TO MUSCLE TISSUE
D. DECREASED PLASMA VOLUME WHICH DECREASES OXYGEN TRANSPORT TO THE MUSCLE TISSUE
REMEMBER:
VO2 = Q X O2 EXTRACTION
• Q = SV X HR• OXYGEN EXTRACTION =
ARTERIAL MINUS VENOUS OXYGEN DIFFERENCE
V02 = (SV X HR) X A - V 02 DIFFERENCE
ALSO:Q = PRESSURE GRADIENT / RESISTANCE
STRENGTH AND POWER
1. REDUCED STRENGTH (PEAK TORQUE), PARTICULARLY
AT FASTER VELOCITIES
2. DECREASED PERFORMANCE IN POWER, SPRINTING, AND
JUMPING EVENTS
MECHANISMS:
1. INCREASED TIME FOR MUSCLE TO REACH PEAK (MAXIMAL) TENSION
2. THE RATE AT WHICH CROSSBRIDGES FROM MYOSIN BREAK AND
REATTACH TO ACTIN IS DECREASED (SLOWS DOWN)
3. INCREASED FLUID VISCOSITY IN SARCOPLASM INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO MOVEMENT OF
THE CROSSBRIDGES AND ACTIN4. ENZYMES AND CHEMICAL
REACTIONS SLOW DOWN AND ATP UTILIZATION DECREASES AT LOW MUSCLE TEMPERATURES
5. NERVE CONDUCTION DECREASES AND MOTOR UNIT
RECRUITMENT PATTERNS ARE IMPAIRED
MUSCULAR ENDURANCE• MUSCULAR ENDURANCE IS REDUCED
BY THE COLD PRIMARILY DUE TO REDUCED NERVE CONDUCTION AND THE RECRUITMENT OF FEWER MOTOR UNITS (MUSCLE FIBERS), ESPECIALLY THOSE NEAREST THE MUSCLE SURFACE
• OTHER MECHANISMS DISCUSSED UNDER STRENGTH AND POWER MAY ALSO AFFECT MUSCULAR ENDURANCE AS MUSCULAR ENDURANCE IS RELATED TO STRENGTH
COLD TOLERANCE IN OLDER ADULTS
IN ADDITION TO THE PREVIOUSLY DISCUSSED FACTORS RELATED TO AGING AND THERMOREGULATION, OLDER ADULTS HAVE POORER COLD TOLERANCE (I.E., LOWER CORE TEMPERATURE IN THE COLD) DUE TO:
• DECREASED VASOCONSTRICTION IN RESPONSE TO THE COLD
• LESS OF AN INCREASE IN RMR IN RESPONSE TO THE COLD
• ALSO, LOSS OF MUSCLE MASS DUE TO AGING RESULTS IN A LOWER RMR
• LOWER RMR RESULTS IN LOWER METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION
• REDISTRIBUTION OF BODY FAT FROM EXTREMITIES TO ABDOMINAL AREA
DRESSING FOR WINTER EXERCISE
1. REVIEW HAND-OUTON DRESSING FOR WINTER
EXERCISE
2. REVIEW PREVIOUS LECTURE MATERIAL
FROM EARLIER IN THE SEMESTER REGARDING FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE INSULATIVE VALUE
OF CLOTHING
3. COMMENTS REGARDING CLOTHING FOR COLDER CLIMATES
A. LAYER CLOTHING TO INCREASE THE AIRTRAPPED FOR INSULATION
B. OUTER LAYER SHOULD BE WIND AND WATER RESISTANT
GORTEX - WIND AND H2O RESISTANTLYCRA - WIND RESISTANT
3. MIDDLE LAYER SHOULD TRAP AIR
GOOSE DOWN
POLYESTER
POLYOLEFRIN
D. INNER LAYER SHOULD WICK AWAY MOISTURE FROM THE SKIN AND
PROTECT SKIN FROM THE COLD
POLYPROPYLENE - HELPS RETAIN NEEDED BODY HEAT, BUT WILL
PASS EXCESS BODY HEAT TO THE SURFACE
SILK - EXPENSIVE AND LESS DURABLE
WOOL - ICHYCOTTON - COMFORTABLE AND DURABLE, WICKS AWAY SWEAT BUT DRIES SLOWLY
NOTES:
• WET CLOTHING AND FATIGUE ARE TWO FACTORS WHICH GREATLY INCREASE THE RISK OF HYPOTHERMIA
• REMEMBER TO COVER THE HEAD AND TRUNK DURING PROLONGED COLD EXPOSURE
COLD INJURIES
COLD EXPOSURE RISKS
• KNOW THE SYMPTOMS, CONTRIBUTING FACTORS, TREATMENT, AND PRECAUTIONS FOR FROSTBITE, HYPOTHERMIA, EXERCISE-INDUCED BRONCHOSPASM, AND DEHYDRATION SUMMARIZED ON THE HAND-OUT