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APPRECIATION PROGRAMME
ONSUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE
(JULY 2011)
A Drive against Climate Change Case
Study for Sustainable Transport
Project by:
Arpit Ludhiyani
Regn. No.: 097908222
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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I, Arpit Ludhiyani, a student of Appreciation Programme on Sustainability Science (APSS)
course (July 2011) hereby declare that the project titled A Drive against Climate Change
Case Study for Sustainable Transport is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another
person, except where due acknowledgement is made in this thesis.
I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my work,
except to the extent that assistance from others in the projects design and conception
or in the style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely acknowledge and extend my heartful gratitude to Mr. Yanglem Sharatchandra
Khuman for providing me an opportunity to work on this project. I thank him for
identifying and recommending a senior academician as the supervisor for my project.
I am grateful to my project supervisor, Ms. N. Ganga Vidya for her invaluable guidance
in conceptualizing and framing the project which has made the completion of this project
possible. Without her inputs it would not have been possible to structure the project in the
way it has been.
I also take this opportunity to express gratitude to my friends who contributed to this
project through their regular inputs and discussion on the subject.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page No.
A Preface 5
B Introduction 6C Objectives of the Study 7
D Methodology 8
1 Sustainable
Transportation as Part of
Overall Sustainable
Development
9
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 Historical Perspectives 10
1.2.1 History of Road
Transportation
10
1.2.2 History of Maritime
Transportation
11
1.2.3 History of Rail
Transportation
11
1.2.4 History of Air
Transportation
12
1.2.5 History of Spaceflight 12
1.3 What is Sustainable
Transportation and Howcan it be achieved
13
1.4 What is the Need for
Sustainable
Transportation
14
1.5 Conclusion 16
2 Towards Sustainable
Transportation: Efforts
by Governments
17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Steps Towards
Sustainable
Transportation
17
2.2.1 Case Study for New
Zealand
18
2.2.2 Case Study for Japan 19
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2.2.3 Case Study for Germany 20
2.2.4 Case Study for Australia 21
2.2.5 Case Study for Canada 23
2.2.6 Case Study for USA 24
2.2.7 Case Study for China 252.2.8 Case Study for India 25
2.2.9 Case Study for UK 26
2.3 Conclusion 27
3 Financial and Societal
Analysis of Sustainable
Transportation
28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Financial analysis of
Sustainable
Transportation
28
3.3 Societal Analysis of
Sustainable
Transportation
30
3.4 Challenges Facing
Sustainable
Transportation
32
3.5 Criticism of Sustainable
Transportation
33
3.6 Future of SustainableTransportation
33
3.7 Conclusion 34
E References 35
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PREFACE
From the very beginning of the existence of human beings on earth, transport has been
the engine of growth. Transport is essential for the overall development of human
Civilization since without it there can be no trade, no people to people contacts, no citiesand no civilization at all. Every big civilization concentrated on building efficient
transport system for them to thrive. Roman Empire was built on efficient highways,
without high seas navigation there would not have been a British empire and America
would have remained undiscovered and also there would not have been a alternate route
to India through Cape of Good Hope.
Modern economies could not work without the goods and services provided by cars,
trains, airplanes, etc. Transport determines the location of industries and cities and the
very prosperity of regions since often accessibility and mobility is equated with economicand social progress.
Though transport is inevitable it is often associated with the growing global warming.
Road transportation is the greatest contributor to global warming for the next 50 years
according to a recent study by NASAs Goddard Institute for Space Studies. A new study
says that 15% of the manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Earths atmosphere comes
from cars, trucks, airplanes, trains and ships.
While it can be seen that the transport sector is responsible for the growing share of
global emissions, many of the gases emitted by transportation arent covered by
regulations from the Kyoto Protocol. Thus this study reflects the urging need to transform
our transport sector from un-sustainability (traditional) to sustainability. Its not a matter
of choice but the need of the hour.
The project starts by explaining what exactly the sustainable transport is and why is there
a need to implement it in every part of the globe. It further makes a strong case in support
of sustainable transport by analyzing the steps taken by national governments in addition
to bringing the economic and social impacts of applying the same. It ends with a view on
the future scenarios for the sustainable transport.
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INTRODUCTION
According to the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987),
sustainable development is one that meets the needs of present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Daly (1991) defines sustainabledevelopment as one that satisfies three basic conditions:
The rate of use renewable resources does not exceed their rates of regeneration.
The rate of use of non-renewable resources does not exceed the rate at which
sustainable renewable substitutes are developed.
The rate of pollution emission does not exceed the assimilative capacity of the
environment.
Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, and mayfail to consider wider impacts. The real purpose of transport is to provide access for the
citizens to work, educate themselves, meet there family and friends and also to provide
goods and services. A Sustainable transport is one that provides access is accessible, safe,
environment friendly and affordable. Cities especially should improve the sustainability
of their transport networks to create more vibrant, livable and sustainable cities.
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Today Climate Change is becoming an existential threat to mankind, it is necessary to
make dramatic changes to the way we live. Inability to achieve this will lead to dire
consequences in the future. Climate change is not only a threat to present generation butto future generations as well. We owe the responsibility of securing a sustainable planet
for those generations yet to come. To counter the ill effects of climate change, one of the
ways is to move towards Sustainable Transport.
The study tries to develop a case in favor of Sustainable Transport by:
Underscoring the necessity of Sustainable transport.
Reviewing the recent development in this field.
Assessing current challenges and future directions.Analyzing the impacts to society in moving towards Sustainable transport.
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METHODOLOGY
A four pronged strategy has been applied to present a favorable case for the
implementation of Sustainable transportation. In the initial phase of this project depicts
the importance of sustainable transport. It highlights the implications of Sustainabletransport in every sector.
The subsequent part of the study takes an in-depth analysis of the steps taken by various
national governments to implement sustainable transportation.
The next phase involves the financial accounting of implementing sustainable
transportation as well as its impact on the society.
The final phase talks about the probable scenarios for sustainable transport and in turn
reducing the global greenhouse emissions.
This project involves study of a number of research papers, journals, articles etc.
published in this topic. It uses these studies to make a strong case in favor of sustainable
transport since it has a tremendous potential to transform the life of every living being
and also keep our earth safe from the threats posed by global warming.
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CHAPTER 1
Sustainable Transportation as part of overall
Sustainable Development1.1 IntroductionWe thrive and survive on planet Earth as a single human family. And one of our main
responsibilities is to leave to successor generations a sustainable future
- General Kofi A. Annan
According to the United Nations released Brundtland report in 1987, most widely used definition
on sustainable development says:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It consists of two main
concepts:
The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the worlds poor, to which
overriding priority should be given, and
The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and Social organization on the
environments ability to meet present and future needs.
To this regard United Nations (UN) developed Agenda 21 which was the outcome of the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in 1992. This document is a blue print of the action to be taken globally, nationally and locally
by organizations of the UN, governments and major groups of the related areas.
Its structure consists of 40 chapters divided into four main sections:
SECTION 1: Social and Economic Dimensions
It basically deals with curbing poverty and changing population with sustainable settlements.
SECTION 2: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
Atmosphere protection, controlling deforestation also putting breaks on air pollution.
SECTION 3: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
Includes the role of children and youth along with NGOs, businesses, workers, etc.
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SECTION 4:Means of Implementation
Implementation using science, technology transfer, education, other mechanisms.
Keeping up with the ideals of Agenda 21, there is an urgent need to transform our much needed
transport sector to more environment friendly sustainable transportation. Before going furtherinto the topic we should understand the historical background of our present transport sector and
then subsequently we should understand that what sustainable transport actually is and why there
is a pressing need to apply it in the present changing global scenario.
1.2 Historical PerspectiveTransport or transportation can be explained as the movement of people, animals and goods from
one place to another and the medium through which it is achieved is termed as modes of
transport, this includes air, rail, road, water, pipeline, space, etc. Proper transportation requires to
put three different things together into one mainly infrastructure, vehicles and operations. The
history of modern transportation can be divided into five broad categories namely history of
road, maritime, rail, air and spaceflight.
1.2.1History of Road transportationMost early forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over rough
paths. The most basic of improvements in road transport may have been the clearings of trees as
well as big stones from the path. Slowly and steadily with the increase in movement the tracks
were often flattened or widened to accommodate the growing traffic. During the Stone Age there
began an extensive usage of pet animals for transportation.
With the invention of wheel there was a revolution in transport sector. They were used to make
chariots, carts, etc. and thus speed-up transportation. With the arrival of wheels there was a need
for better infrastructure (roads) to support them. Romans are believed to build the first highways
for long distance transportation. The roads built in Baghdad, Iraq in the 8 th century were the early
tar-paved roads. With the states becoming richer, mainly in the renaissance period, the road
transport developed manifold and there were newer and newer ways discovered to better the
overall infrastructure.
A little over a hundred years ago the invention of internal combustion engine again
revolutionized the road transportation and resulted in the onset of an era which we can totallycall the modern transportation era. It made cars, bikes, buses, trucks, etc. possible so that humans
can extend the limits of speed again and again and can travel as fast as possible. Thus, in road
transportation, humans have travelled the millennias from using domesticated animals to using
wheels and to come to the stage of modern day transportation of internal combustion engine.
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1.2.2History of Maritime transportationIn ancient maritime history, the first boats are presumed to have been dugout canoes, developed
independently by various Stone Age populations and used for coastal fishing and travel. The
earliest seaworthy boats may have been developed as early as 45,000 years ago, according to one
hypothesis explaining the habitation of Australia. There have often been proposed theories ofpre- Columbian Trans oceanic contacts at various times, based on historical reports,
archaeological finds and cultural comparisons.
India, Arabia and northern European Vikings are attributed to start the age of navigation by
developing ocean going vessels. The invention of magnetic compass helped sailors a great deal
in their long sea voyages. Chinese and Arabs were in the lead in sea voyages in the early
medieval period. With the Renaissance period in Europe there started an age of discovery where
sailors were onto their journeys for finding newer and newer lands. Vasco Da Gama found an
alternate maritime route to India, Christopher Columbus discovered America and many sailors
found newer lands.
With the expansion of European empires across the world there was a need to develop larger and
newer ships specially using it for military purpose so that the nation who controls the sea will
ultimately control the land. English became the master at sea and thus the British Empire was
termed as the empire where Sun never sets.
Maritime transportation was essential in providing decisive victories to nations in many wars
including the two world wars. With the arrival of 21st century there are newer developments in
the maritime technologies such as the construction of stealth ships in order to avoid detection by
radar, sonar and infrared methods. We have come a long way in maritime transportation fromsmall coastal boats to large cruisers, aircraft carriers, etc.
1.2.3History of Rail transportationThe earliest evidence of a wagon way, a predecessor of the railways is the 6 to 8.5km long
Diolkos wagon way, which transported boats across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece since
around 600 BC. Railways started reappearing in Europe after the Dark ages. The earliest known
record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the minister of
Friburg in Breisgau dating back to 1350 AD.
Rail transport is considered to be much more efficient than road transport in terms of dense, bulk
goods such as coal and other minerals. That is why rail transport is often preferred over road
transport with the arrival of steam engine and its subsequent improvement by James Watt there
was a revolution in rail transport thus it developed the steam locomotives. On 21 st February 1804
the Worlds first railway journey took place in South Wales.
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Britain was quick to apply this newly developed technology all over the country and develop the
first railway network. It also built vast railway networks in its colonies such as India for better
political and economical control. France, USA and other countries soon follow the suite. The
development of railway brings newer technologies such as electric railways, diesel power, etc. In
the mid 20th Century came the high speed rail with the opening of the first Shinkansen line
between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964, high speed-rail with speed above 300kmph are currently
running in China, USA, UK, Japan and many other countries. With the ongoing threat of global
warming and energy shortages, high speed-rail is presumed to hold the key for the future
transportation in many countries.
1.2.4History of Air TransportationSince the man has seen the birds flying, it has always been his dream to fly. There are instances
of flying depicted in Indian Mythology such as Ramayana of Pushpak Vimana which belonged
to Ravana. Humans slowly developed the hot air balloons, kites and gliders but these were not
able to carry humans and have a controlled flight. There were many proposed flying models inhistory such as the one proposed by Leonardo Da Vinci.
It was only the genius of Wright brothers that the humans were able to fly as they developed the
machine that not only can fly but also can be controlled as well. Thus, there was a large scale
development in the aviation history with newer, larger and much more efficient airplanes being
used. Aviation industry totally changed the way wars were fought by adding the third dimension
(after land and sea) of air. After the first flight, nearly all the wars were being fought in air and
air superiority was vital for achieving decisive military victory.
There was newer and newer development in aviation sector all throughout the 20th
century withhelicopters, seaplanes, etc. Now we had reach the supersonic speed and journey across oceans
were now a matter of few hours. Now a whole new dimension is being added to military aviation
sector by removing the role of pilot by developing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles or UAVs. In
October 2003, the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a computer controlled
model aircraft occurred.
1.2.5 History of SpaceflightThe first rocket to reach space, an altitude of 100km, was the German V-2 rocket, on a test flight
in June, 1944. On the 4th of October, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, which became
the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. It started what is now called the space age. The first
human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, by the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin,
where he made one orbit around the Earth. In 1969, Neil Armstrong set foot on Moon and made
it possible for humans to travel to other heavenly bodies. Space age has come a long way as now
the humans are constructing settlements in space with the building of International Space Station
(ISS). There is call for going back to Moon and also find ways to go to Mars and beyond.
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1.3 What is Sustainable Transportation and how can it be achievedSustainable transport forms an inherent part of overall sustainable development; it is basically
used to describe modes of transport and systems of transport planning such that they are totally
consistent with sustainability. European Union Council of Ministers of transport defines
sustainable transportation system as one that:
Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and society to
be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and promotes
equity within and between successive generations.
Is Affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, and
supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development.
Limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them, uses renewable
resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable resources at or
below the rates of development of renewable substitutes, while minimizing the impact on
the use of land and the generation of noise.
The first mode of transport i.e. walking is also the most sustainable transport. Other transport
system that can be called sustainable are public bus that date back to 1662, passenger tram which
began operation in 1807, pedal bicycles date back to 1860s. After the World War II, there was an
increase in overall wealth and people became more affluent thus a need arise of faster modes of
transportation which resulted in present unsustainable modes of transport such as cars, bikes,
scooters, etc. But the rising greenhouse gases have brought back humans to think about
transportation systems that are more sustainable.
The environment impacts of transport can be countered by increasing use of walking, cyclingand enhancing the role of public transport, especially electric rail. Increased usage of green
vehicle or environment friendly vehicles can reduce greenhouse gas emissions effectively. Green
vehicles are basically road motor vehicle that is less harmful to the environment by using
alternative fuels such as electric power, biodiesel and ethanol fuel. It results in fuel economy,
better use of transportation in the most cost-effective way to improve energy efficiency and
reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector. Thus, as part of their contribution to sustainable
transport, environment friendly vehicles reduce air pollution and green house gas emissions and
contribute to energy independence since it lessens the usage of conventional (oil) fuel. An
efficient public transport based on traditional diesel buses use less fuel per passenger than private
vehicles, this greatly reduce the usage of petroleum products. Green public transport vehiclesincluding electric trains, trams and electric buses combine the advantages of green vehicles with
those of sustainable transport choices. Other transport choices with very low environmental
impact are cycling and other human-powered vehicles, and animal powered transport. The most
common green transport choice, with the least environmental impact is walking.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_powered_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_powered_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bus8/3/2019 A Drive against Climate Change Case Study for Sustainable Transport
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Another way of achieving an efficient sustainable transportation is by excessive use of transit -
oriented development (TOD). A transit-oriented development (TOD) is a mixed-use residential
or commercial area designed to maximize access to public transport, and often incorporates
features to encourage transit ridership. A TOD locality has basically a center which has a transit
station/stop (train, metro, tram, bus) surrounding by relatively high-density development with
progressively lower-density development spreading away from the center.
TODs generally are located within a radius of one-quarter to one-half mile (400 to 800 m) from a
transit stop, as this is considered to be an appropriate scale for pedestrians.
Many of the new towns created after World War II in Japan, Sweden, and France have many of
the characteristics of TOD communities. TODs have 450 to 500 attached town homes and
detached homes. Vibrant mix of uses includes residential, retail, office, commercial, institutional,
etc. There are carefully designed public/community spaces. They are basically pedestrian
friendly to decrease the use of vehicles.
Benefits associated with TODs are:
Increase transit ridership and reduce number of automobile trips generated
Improve air quality
Provide opportunities for neighborhood connections
Increase sense of community
Reduce household fuel costs associated with heavy auto use
Promote attractive, safe, walk able mixed-use neighborhoods
Increase value and income for property owners
Expand markets and increase revenues for businessesEnhance tax revenues for local governments from rising land values
Increase development and business transactions in areas near transit
1.4 What is the need for Sustainable Transportation?There is an urgent need to switch to sustainable modes of transport. The transport sector is the
single biggest contributor to green house gas emissions, according to the World Resources
Institute (2005), it account for 24.1% of CO2 emissions worldwide but its a necessary evil since
its importance in local commuting, linking and global system of cities and overall socio-
economic development cannot be negated. A study conducted in the transport sector making the
observations for USA has made the following important points which show the urgency to
transform our transport sector:
Despite significant progress in the development of cleaner gasoline- and diesel-burning
vehicles over the last 30 years, the impacts of expanded vehicle use in the US have
eclipsed environmental gains. Every three seconds, another new car is sold. Americans
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-use_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_townhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_townhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-use_development8/3/2019 A Drive against Climate Change Case Study for Sustainable Transport
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account for less than 5% of the world's population, but they drive more than 32% of its
vehicles. The average American drove nearly twice as far by auto in l995 than in l970.
This results in much of the air pollution over America.
Asthma rates are rising. Research conducted by the Pew Environmental Health
Commission found that, between 1980 and l994, asthma rates rose by 75% overall and by
160% among children under age four. The commission predicted that the number of
asthma victims would more than double within 20 years, from 14 million in 2000 to 29
million by 2020. Not all the reasons for this epidemic are known, but it is clear that the
very fine particles in diesel exhaust and the smog created by diesel emissions irritate the
lungs and are a major trigger of asthma attacks.
Minority and economically underprivileged communities suffer disproportionately.
According to the President's Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks
to Children, the death rate of African-American children from asthma is over four times
that of white children. A ground-breaking study conducted at the Mount Sinai School of
Medicine found that asthma hospitalization rates for children from poor, minorityneighborhoods in New York City were up to 21 times higher than those for children from
affluent neighborhoods. The study concluded that diesel exhaust was a major contributing
factor in poor communities, where bus and truck traffic is heavy and the majority of
diesel-fueled bus depots are located.
According to the US EPA and California's Air Resources Board, diesel exhaust contains
more than 40 toxic substances, including known human carcinogens, probable human
carcinogens, and reproductive toxins.
Reliance on oil from politically volatile regions is already having broad national and
international security implications. Operation Desert Storm, undertaken in part if not
primarily to protect US oil supplies in the Middle East, involved 670,000 Americans and
a cost of $60 billion. America's oil addiction continues to influence relations with oil-
producing countries.
Fossil fuels, formed over the course of 65 million years, are now being burned 100,000
times faster than the rate at which they can be regenerated by natural processes.
The conventional automobile is only about 12% efficient in delivering the energy
released from combustion to the wheels. It is one of the most wasteful, as well as one of
the largest, consumers of the world's most limited fossil fuel.
These are the findings for the transport sector taking USA as the source of observation, it more
than justifies the need to raise voice in favor of sustainable transportation since the practices are
more or less same everywhere in the world. Thus the solution for keeping up international,
national, regional, and local interactions while fostering sustainable development has yet to be
found; no strategy for sustainable transportation systems agreed to by all stakeholders across
countries so far exists.
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While the urgency of planning for sustainability has increased over the years, concrete solutions
accepted internationally have been slow to emerge. Each country is constrained by its individual
setting and hence faces unique hurdles in moving towards sustainability. Despite these hurdles
and other international challenges, moves towards sustainable development are evident. Across
the globe researchers are seeking to develop, and cities are trying to implement, sustainable
policies. Planning for sustainable transportation systems is a complex task that involves multiple
options and uncertainties. Government seeks an optimal package of policies that is willingly
accepted by all affected groups. An ideal implementation strategy would allow for easy transition
from the way people formerly travelled to the new system.1.5 ConclusionGlobal warming has indeed become a threat to the living beings on earth and if the current
practices are not altered than it is not hard to predict what the future holds for us. The change
starts from one person and then slowly and steadily becomes a mass movement. We humanshave the responsibility to save this earth and its life forms from extinction since we are
responsible for the current threat on greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable development is the
only answer to the global climate change problems since it is the development which does not
hamper the prospects of future generations. Mahatma Gandhi once said that the world has
enough to fulfill every man needs but not enough to fulfill every mans greed, thus following a
path where greed is put aside and focus is on needs and fulfilling those needs by sustainability
will help save this planet. Sustainable transportation is the part and parcel of overall sustainable
development has been seen in this chapter, we have also seen that why there is so pressing need
to implement it in every part of the globe. Thus the choice is ours that we want the continuation
of current unsustainable policies of mankind or take a leap towards sustainability and preserve
the ecological balance of our mother Earth.
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CHAPTER 2
Towards Sustainable Transportation: Efforts by
Governments
2.1 Introduction
An efficient and well planned sustainable transport system cannot be implemented if the
government of that region, state or country does not take steps in this direction. Though change
starts from one person, for better sustainable transportation a comprehensive and sound
government policy is needed. The role of governments is of utmost importance since their
planning of infrastructure and developments with regard to sustainability if not ensured than the
movement cannot become a mass movement. It is important to note here that government should
plan new townships, cities, etc. with keeping in view that there should be sustainable modes of
transportation, which will help for overall sustainable development of the region.
Though governments world over are making changes in their energy policies by developing
renewable sources of energy, they are still to take a holistic approach towards sustainable
transportation. In case of India, the government has made a ministry in the name of alternative
sources of energy but it does not have immediate master plan for the development of sustainable
transportation across the cities in India, which is badly needed since India is speedily rising
through the ranks of nations which are responsible for the emission of the most greenhouse
gases.
2.2 Steps towards Sustainable Transportation
Though world over the steps in the direction of sustainable transportation are in the nescient
stage but are enough to take note of. Here is the study of the number of steps taken by various
governments to implement the policy with respect to the sustainable modes of transportation.
2.2.1 Case study for New Zealand
Motor vehicle use is New Zealands fastest growing and today it is the least controllable major
source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Road motor vehicles produce over 11 million tones
of CO2 emissions and 15% of GHG emissions. Land transport is the second largest source of
GHG emissions in New Zealand and is also the fastest growing, accounting for 18% of the
growth of GHG emissions over the 1990-2001 periods. Aviation, by comparison, contributes
only 1% of GHG emissions and 1.5% of the growth. Nevertheless, air travel still produces many
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times more GHG emissions per person kilometer of travel than cars, and is thus much less
sustainable than car travel on a per person kilometer basis.
In November 2003 the Land Transport Management Act (LTMA) was passed. It attempts to
provide a more balanced approach to land transport projects, and places increased emphasis on
multi-modal transportation systems and solutions. New objectives for Transfund New Zealand
(Transfund) and Transit New Zealand (Transit) are to allocate resources, and operate the state
highway system, to achieve an integrated, safe, responsive and sustainable land transport
system.
The LTMA allows regional councils to fund, and both own and operate public transport
infrastructure and services unless prohibited by Order-in-Council. Future work will look to make
it easier for public road controlling authorities to work together. The LTMA also modifies the
purpose of Regional Land Transport Strategies, which set out an integrated approach to
managing land transport in each region, to be consistent with achieving a land transport system
that is integrated, safe, responsive and sustainable.
The New Zealand Transport Strategy5 (December 2002) also moves New Zealand in the
direction of sustainability in transportation. This strategy outlines the government's vision for
transport: that New Zealand has an affordable, integrated, safe, responsive, and sustainable
transport system. The strategy also notes that:
Economic development, social cohesion and environmental improvements must be progressed
in parallel. Transport decisions will need to reflect the wider government commitment to
sustainability.
To ensure that transport is underpinned by the principles of sustainability and integration,transport policy will need to focus on improving the transport system in ways that enhance
economic, social and environmental well-being, and that promote resilience and flexibility. It
will also need to take account of the needs of future generations, and be guided by medium- and
long-term costs and benefits.
2.2.2 Case study for Japan
Japan has fully realized the need to control the air pollution and implement policies that controls
the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). Japan has taken a number of measures in this regard.
It has taken a four point strategy to curb the GHG emissions. These are as follows:
a) Regulatory measuresi. Automobile NO2 /PM Law (Special measures for air pollution in metropolitan areas)
The main targeted areas of this law are Nagoya, Osaka and Kobe. This plan states that
there should be total emission reduction master plan by local governments; there will be
restrictions of outdated vehicles renewed registration. It further says that automobiles not
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applied of emission standards of NO2/PM in specified area cannot be used. Thus the goal
of this law was to comply with Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) by 2010.
ii. Tokyo Metropolitan Ordinance on Environment preservationIt bans operation of diesel powered automobiles that fail to comply with particulate matter (PM) emission
standards. It Mandates enterprises to report by vehicle emission reduction plan. Also
dealers will be responsible to give environmental information to customers at the time of
sales.
b) Support to business and private sectori. Diffusion of Low Emission Vehicles (LEVs) such as fuel cell vehicles, Hydrogen
vehicles, Dimethyl Ether (DME) vehicles.
ii. Promotion of Public TransportationConference on Promotion of Public Transportationis an active body whose activities are to promote the use of public transportation by
cooperation of traffic enterprises (supply side) and industry (demand side). It also gives
its support to mobility management programs. It favors the use of large scale informationsystem for transfer buses-trains.
c) Leading activities in local areasi. Diffusion of Bio-fuelsIt is important to achieve the Kyoto Protocol target. For transport
though biomass is not utilized previously but the target for 2010 was of 500,000 kl.
ii. EST (Environmentally Sustained Transport) model project - Innovating communitieswhich aim to realize environmentally sustainable transport are solicited. The concerned
ministries and agencies, departments and bureaus will extend intensive supports in a
cooperative manner.
d) Regional Cooperationi. Eco Action Partnership for Asia It consists of six strategy to tackle climate change
mainly environmental crisis information systems in Asia, Asian solar campaign, Asian
biomass campaign, Global resource strategy, fostering human resources for the era of
environment, Asian eco life-style innovations.
ii. Transport policy dialogue It aims at an ASEAN Japan transport partnership whichpromotes public transport and reduce emissions from road transport.
2.2.3 Case study for Germany
Germanys transport, land use, housing, and taxation policies at all government levels have
increasingly promoted sustainability since the 1970s. The German federal government has
provided the framework for more sustainable transport, but cities and states have played a crucial
role in developing and implementing innovative policies.
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The southwestern city of Freiburg has been Germanys leader in sustainable transport and land-
use. Many policies pioneered in Freiburg have spread to other cities in Germany and worldwide.
Today, Freiburg is considered Germanys environmental capital and its most sustainable city.
Over the last three decades, Freiburgs coordinated transport and land-use policies have tripled
the number of trips by bicycle, doubled transit ridership, and reduced the share of trips by car
from 38% to 32%. Since the early 1990s, the level of motorization has leveled off, and per-capita
CO2 emissions from transport have fallen, in spite of strong economic and population growth.
In Germany, the federal government encourages more sustainable transport through a series of
policies and programs. Federal taxes and regulation make car use more expensive and thus
encourage the production and purchase of less polluting vehicles. At the same time, the federal
government provides dedicated funding and subsidies for public transport investments. Certain
federal transport funds are flexible and can be used for walking and cycling infrastructure that
increases the safety and convenience of non-motorized modes. Federal regulations also guide the
land-use planning process by requiring cooperation among all levels of government anddiscouraging suburban sprawl. Finally, the federal government provides strategic leadership and
integration of transport and land-use policies on and across all levels of government, starting at
the federal level with the consolidated Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban
Affairs. There is a great lesson to learn from the German experience of sustainable transport,
certain points to note are:
Implement Controversial Policies in Stages
Plans Should be Flexible and Adaptable over Time to Changing Conditions
Policies Must be Multi-Modal and Include Both Incentives and Disincentives
Fully Integrate Transport and Land-Use Planning
Citizen Involvement Must be an Integral Part of Policy Development and Implementation
Support From Higher Levels of Government is Crucial to Making Local Policies Work
Sustainable Transport Policies Must be Long Term, with Policies Sustained Over Time,
for Lasting Impact
2.2.4 Case study for Australia
For almost all Australians, cars have become the most favored urban transport option, largely
because they save time and are highly convenient. However, over time this has led to adependence on cars, which is environmentally unsustainable. In terms of annual greenhouse gas
emissions in Australia, the transport sector is the third largest and second fastest growing. Of all
transport related greenhouse gas emissions, cars account for approximately 50%. Australia's
dependence on cars is also economically unsustainable, and motorists have already seen
evidence of this: since 2003, average world oil prices have increased every year, and 2007 prices
were almost double 2003 prices in real terms. In the absence of a global depression, this trend is
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set to continue as world peak oil nears. Sooner than one might expect, petrol will be
unaffordable. Also, traffic congestion is becoming a serious problem in some cities, particularly
Melbourne and Sydney, and these conditions are said to be responsible for a decline in
productivity. This is the reason that there is a strong need for policies in direction of sustainable
transport in Australia.
The Australian Government is one of few to adopt a sustainable transport strategy (others include
the UK and NZ). The main functions of the strategy are to: inform consumer choices, work with
industry to improve vehicle efficiency, and explore and develop the use of alternative fuels. Most
notably omitted from this list is a specific initiative to improve public transport.
Federal funding for road projects is generally only provided if matching funds are also provided
by the state government. As a result, state governments can be required to direct a significant
portion of their transport expenditure to road projects that are jointly funded by the federal
government. In effect, the current federal transport funding framework not only starves public
transport of federal funding, it also reduces the share of state funding that is available for
improving public transport.
This imbalance needs to be addressed, as the building of more roads will only increase car usage
and dependence. Clearly, there is an opportunity to redirect federal and state government funds
away from new roads and toward public transport infrastructure.
The Government also has the ability to use pricing signals to encourage the uptake of sustainable
urban transport, and Green Left (2007) makes a strong case for free public transport, pointing out
that the loss of Government revenue from fares would be more than offset by substantial gains
elsewhere. Aside from the obvious and substantial benefits of reduced car use, free public
transport would also improve the quality and efficiency of the service itself e.g. faster boarding
times, and removal of the need for ticket equipment and personnel. Free public transport already
exists in Australia, but its provision is restricted to certain areas, certain times, and certain
people. If public transport was to be made free for all people, in all areas, and at all times, then
infrastructure must be able to cope with increased demand. A trial period would be useful in
assessing and projecting the demand for free public transport.
2.2.5 Case study for Canada
There are number of agents responsible for implementing sustainable transportation across
Canada, they are listed as follows:
1. Federal, Provincial and Municipal Governments All the levels of governments inCanada plays a vital role in implementing sustainable transport practices in Canada. The
government of Canada takes steps in this direction by providing the available funding to
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implement greener transportation along with making laws, master plans etc. which
greatly helps in improving the Canadian transportation.
2. Public Interest GroupsNumber of public interest groups have been formed over past 30years their activities include undertaking research, education and advocacy tasks in the
interests of users of the walk, cycle, bus-rail transit and train modes. In addition, their
mission may include seeking and promoting ways to reduce the role of private motor
vehicle in the movement of people or freight. As a result, these groups may participate in
a variety of civic activities, including those associated with land use planning,
transportation system planning, health programs, public safety issues etc.
3. Vested Interest Groups - Thousands of business entities in Canada are financially affectedby the extent and rate that sustainable transport practices are implemented. The following
types of firms are among those which stand to gain from implementation of sustainable
transport practices.
Firms that deal in goods and services used to meet the needs of persons who walk, cycle,
and/or use transit (buses, street cars, light rail, trains).
Firms that deal in goods and services used to move freight in ways that minimize
resource consumption and negative externalities, while maximizing the societal return on
public investments in road and rail infrastructure.
Telecommuting firms that deal in goods and services which allow the physical transport
of people and things to be replaced by the electronic transmission of data/information.
The second group of vested interests includes entities that stand to lose financially assustainable transport practices are implemented. This is a large and wide-ranging set of
industries and firms, with numerous inter-connections and inter-dependencies. These
groups are automotive industry, retail industry, petroleum industry etc. These take the
necessary steps so that their losses are minimized and thus help for sustainable
transportation implementation in Canada.
4. Professional Associations Planners and engineers are the professional groups mostlyassociated with transportation matters. Examination of the planning literature and
especially the municipal planning documents reveals that planners in Canada have long
been interested in the concepts associated with sustainable transport. As for the
engineering profession, it plays a central role in both the rail and road domains, and is
involved in such tasks as selecting rights-of-way, designing and specifying
infrastructures, making recommendations about modal choices, and overseeing system
expansions and operations. This helps the cause of greener transportation to a great deal
if the engineers as well as the planners associated with the infrastructure projects favor
the sustainability issue.
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5. Academia - Universities, colleges and schools at all levels in Canada foster discoveriesand discussions involving sustainability, including the sustainable transport aspect.
Principals and teachers at high schools and elementary schools, on the other hand, have
been very successful in promoting the adoption of practices by local governments, police,
and school boards that support and promote sustainable transport, and particularly the
walking and cycling modes. These achievements include initiatives to slow down
speeding traffic in school zones, restrict vehicular movements in the vicinity of schools,
implement traffic calming measures, increase the police/enforcement presence on
regional roads, improve the safety, comfort and convenience that sidewalks provide for
children walking and cycling to and from school, recruit crossing guards to ensure safe
passage by children across streets, and modify intersection designs and markings to serve
and promote the needs of children who walk or cycle between home and school.\
6. Citizens - The citizens of Canada are far and away the most important group affecting theextent and rate that sustainable transport practices are achieved at the local, regional, and
national levels. Simply put, if citizens drive millions of private motor vehicles per day,
make multi-millions of trips per day, make the vast majority of work, shop, recreation,
school, etc. trips by private motor vehicle, have a propensity to drive that overwhelms the
inclination to walk, cycle, or use transit, or they choose to locate their residences in the
outer reaches of metropolitan regions, then attempts by the other groups to implement
sustainable transport practices are doomed to fail.
2.2.6 Case study for USA
I. Initiatives of the Federal governmentIn 2001, the transport accounted for 26.8% of all energy used in the USA. With the declining
energy resources there is urgent need for solutions in this vital area, also the growing air
pollution related to transport sector is of great concern. US being one of the top producers of
greenhouse gases (GHG) has the moral responsibility to curb its emissions. Thus, one nation
which needs policies towards sustainable transportation is the USA. GHG emissions in the USA
rose by 1.2 percent per annum from 1980 to 1990 and by 1.4 percent per year from 1990 to 2002.
The USA is responsible for nearly quarter of the global GHG emissions. Since about 1970,
governments at every level in US have implemented a wide range of innovative policies to
reduce the environmental impact of transport. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
and the Clean Air Act of 1970 were good examples. Since then, transport projects have been
subject to increasingly strict environmental standards. Every major transport project is subject to
a thorough examination by means of the required Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). The
standards are so high that hundreds of projects have been greatly delayed. Also many of the
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requirements for Environmental Impact Assessments in the EU are based on the American
experience.
The already considerable US federal government support for public transport, cycle and walk
was greatly reinforced by the highly innovative transport laws passed in 1991 (Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act US Department of Transportation, 2004a) and 1998(Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century US Department of Transportation, 2004b).
Both of these major transport laws further codified environmental protection provisions in other
federal laws, and also provided substantial new funding for public transport, walking, and
cycling. For example, federal funding for the mostsustainable modes, walking and cycling, rose
from only $6 million in 1990 to $422 in 2003 (U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, 2004). In addition, increased funding for projects exclusively intended
for walking and cycling, every highway project must now include provisions to accommodate
pedestrians and cyclists. Similarly, federal funding for public transport rose from about $3 billion
in 1990 to $8 billion in 2003 (U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit
Administration, 2003).
II. Initiatives of the state and local governmentsWith the initiative of Federal environment and transport legislation from 1969 to 1998, state and
local governments became increasingly active in environmental protection policies. California
has been in the forefront of sustainable transport policies enforcement for example, even as early
as 1970s, Californias vehicle emission standards were more stricte r than those of the Federal
government, forcing auto manufactures to produce special California cars to meet the higher
standards. The laws of California today are still stringent and Californias legislature even passeda law requiring a set percentage of new cars to be zero-emission vehicles. Several states in the
Northeastern USA (such as New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Connecticut) have been
considering adopting the California emissions standards to reduce air pollution in their urban
areas.
State and local land use policies affecting transport have involved more actual change, with
greater enforcement power through both positive and negative incentives. Especially on the West
Coast and in the Northeast, several states and metropolitan regions have established land use
plans that call for curbing low-density sprawl, preservation of open space and farmland,
protection of ecologically sensitive areas, and concentration of new development in existing
urbanized areas. Such policies are variously referred to as smart growth or growth management.In some states, they are purely suggestive, with no actual implementation power. In other states,
the land use guidelines are actually reinforced through a range of measures. Perhaps the most
celebrated case of sustainable transport and land use planning in the USA is Portland, Oregon.
Not only does it have an urban growth boundary, but is has implemented a range of policies
promoting public transport, walking, cycling, and inner city revitalization.
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2.2.7 Case study for ChinaChina is the most populous country in the world with one-fifth of humanity being Chinese. China
endorsed the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 after it exempted developing countries from mandatory cuts
of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. China has now surpassed USA by becoming the highest
emitter of GHGs thus, putting its government in ethical dilemma of choosing betweenunsustainable development to that of sustainable development. The government in this regard
has taken some steps to improve transport sector. Its automobile fuel-efficiency standards, are
now ahead of those in most countries, most notably the USA. In 2009, in the context of
international talks on combating climate change, the government of China announced its target to
reduce GHG emissions 40-45% per unit of GDP by 2020 from 2005 levels. It cannot fulfill this
ambitious target without choosing sustainable transportation over unsustainable one.
The PRC plans to spend about 120 billion dollars to nearly double the country's high speed rail
network to 42 lines by 2012, as part of an ambitious program to expand the national train system.On these lines, passenger trains would be able to travel at a maximum speed of 346 km/hour
while fast freight trains would be able to move at 185 km/hour. It currently has 6,920 km of
high-speed lines in operation, but the governments envision expanding the network to cover
16000 km by 2020 and provide access to more than 90 percent of population (Financial Times
2010). Recently PRC has successfully launched the high-speed train between Beijing and
Shanghai with a speed over 300 km per hour. These are some of the steps towards sustainable
transportation in China but it is essential that PRC takes many more steps to remove its tag of the
most polluted country in the world.
2.2.8 Case study for India
India has a large and diverse transport sector that fulfills the needs of its 1.2 billion people. In
2007, this sector contributed about 5.5 percent to the nations GDP, with road transportation
contributing the lions share. In 2007, Indian railway carried almost 90 percent of the countrys
passenger traffic and 65 percent of its fright.
Mckinsay Global Institute (2010) estimates that as the Indian urban sector expand, it will
generate nearly 70 percent of the countrys GDP. Environmental impact of this growth is quite
substantial. Successive governments have been aware of the need to create more economical andenergy efficient modes of transportation to cater to the needs of a growing population. During the
Copenhagen summit in December 2009, India declared its intention to reduce the Countrys
GHG emissions by 20-25 percent of GDP from the 2005 level by 2020. In July 2010, Indias
ministry of urban development launched Rs. 1400 crore green urban transport project called
Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP) with the support from the Green Environment
Facility (GEF), the World Bank and the UNDP.
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In general, the project deals with Sustainable Urban Transport (also called sustainable mobility).
It mainly structures its work in terms of the following six key areas:
Institutional and policy orientation (such as, urban transport and urban policy, and
economic instruments);
Land use planning and transport demand management;
Transit, walking and cycling (e.g. public transport improvements, mass transit, bus rapid
transit, non motorized transport, and car free development);
Vehicles and fuels (such as, CNG and roadworthiness);
Environmental and health impacts;
Social issues of urban transport and resources (SUTP 2010);
The project aims to promote environmentally sustainable and economically efficient modes of
transport, such as public transport, walking and non-motorized transport, as alternatives to carsand motorcycles. Further, it promotes the integration of public transport with other modes in the
overall urban sector. Good integration in this context not only means well established timetables,
convenience in transfer from one mode to another and one-stop-shop information systems but
also integrated fares (without need to validate a new ticket when changing modes) and
integration with land-use concepts. The issue of fuel and vehicle technologies is also crucial to
any sustainable urban transport policy framework, but this issue already receives a high profile in
existing initiatives involving information dissemination such as the Clean Air Initiative. The
issue of modal shifts is also closely related to issues of equity, traffic congestion, efficiency of
short trips, and general urban livability.
2.2.9 Case study for UKThe UN conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, June 1992
(The Rio Earth Summit) was perhaps the turning point for action in the direction of sustainable
development. The importance of sustainable development is such that it is now included in most
UK and EU legislation and it find favor from citizens as well.
The 2007 Budget included a range of measures that impact on sustainable transport through:
Increases in fuel duty;Increases in car vehicle excise duty rates over the next 3 years with the most polluting
cars being penalized the most;
Support biofuels;
Rise in climate change levy in line with inflation;
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The Budget statement also recognized that all intervention by the Government to meet
environmental aims must take account of the impact of any action on its wider economic and
social objectives, including macroeconomic stability, business competitiveness, and social
inclusion and reducing fuel poverty.
At local authority level, the Budget refers to a best value
energy efficiency indicator, which will force authorities to address their own energy
consumption. Action plans concerning sustainable transport policy focus on road and private car
use, rather than looking at vehicles used by the public sector, other than incentives for fleet or
company cars.2.3 ConclusionWe have seen in great detail the steps taken by the important nations with respect to achieving
the target of global sustainable transportation which can be a handy weapon in our drive against
Climate Change. Though many steps have been taken by countries such as USA, Australia,
India, China, etc. in transforming their transport sector, which accounts for the major share of the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, there is huge amount of potential still left to take newer and
newer steps to make this sector a more sustainable one, since the global warming is becoming a
big threat to the human existence on this planet. We have seen that some of the major steps taken
by major countries have been to increase the use of public transportation, making people aware
of benefits associated to switching to greener transport medium such as walking, cycling, using
natural fuels or hybrid fuels in their vehicles, etc. These steps are positive steps taken by the
governments the world over in fulfilling the dream of sustainable transportation.
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CHAPTER 3
Financial and Societal Analysis of Sustainable
Transportation3.1 Introduction
Any change cannot be effective if its financial and societal impacts are not assessed. Sustainable
transport can only be incorporated effectively if and only if people are conveyed its positive
effects on both their economy as well as whole society. Though we can say that the initial cost
associated with sustainable transportation or in turn sustainable development can be somewhat
higher than the initial cost on building the unsustainable transportation systems but the positive
effects it has on the environment and atmosphere repays the cost initially incurred. It is also a
boon to our society as a godsend opportunity to grab and save our earth as well as wholehumanity from extinction.
3.2 Financial Analysis of Sustainable Transportation
To start a major change it is important to garner financial support. Thus, it is important to
understand the sources of financial flows towards sustainable transportation. Official
development assistance (ODA) is available in the magnitude of billions of dollars. Sources of
climate finance such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Global Environment
Facility (GEF).
There are many ways of categorizing financial flows relevant to transport, some are listed below:
Domestic Public Funding - Domestic public finance is a dominant source of financing for
many aspects of transport, including infrastructure construction and maintenance, and
public transport provision. Public spending is generally categorized into capital versus
revenue funding. The former is responsible for the provision of fixed assets such as
infrastructure, whereas the latter covers recurring costs such as maintenance and
operation. In most developing countries much of the transport outlays are focused
towards supporting motorized private transport in the form of intercity highways, urban
ring roads, and flyovers.
International Public Flows - Resources provided to developing countries from external
sources (foreign industrialized country governments or multilateral finance institutions)
also play a major part in shaping transport patterns. Such flows include Official
Development Assistance (ODA) and Export Credits. The OECD defines ODA as: Flows
of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and
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welfare of developing countries as the main objective, and which are concessional in
character with a grant element of at least 25 percent. A major characteristic of the
majority of ODA in transport (both multilateral and bilateral) is the focus on road
building, including intercity highways, flyovers and ring roads in urban areas. The focus
of ODA is still placed on economic development and poverty reduction in recipient
countries. In comparison, carbon emissions and environmental sustainability are still
given lower priority, and remain mostly unanalyzed. There has traditionally been little
appetite from recipient countries for low-carbon transport.
The OECD defines export credits as: government financial support, direct financ ing,
guarantees, insurance or interest rate support provided to foreign buyers to assist in the
financing of the purchase of goods from national exporters. By reducing the risk, and
increasing the returns on investments in developing countries, export credits play a major
role in catalyzing private financial flows into those countries, typically expressed as
foreign direct investment (FDI).
Private Finance - Perhaps the most underestimated, yet largest type of financial flow
surrounds private actors, ranging from large international construction firms to individual
(and often informal) providers of transport services. In most market-based economies, the
private sector accounts for the majority of economic activity, measured, for example, in
value added. Hence, understanding how to redirect financial flows towards supporting
sustainable, low-carbon transport becomes a central concern. Currently, the majority of
private money is directed towards supporting a motorized pattern of transport.
Climate Finance - Climate finance, whose main purpose is to provide resources tosupport climate mitigation (or adaptation) actions, has grown rapidly over the past
decade. Most of these instruments can be classified as either:
a. Climate Funds funded by voluntary contributions from member countries, providefinancial resources (in the form of grants or concessional loans) for capacity building,
technology transfer or investments in activities contributing to the mitigation of and
adaptation to climate change. Examples of these funds are the Global Environment
Facility (GEF) Trust Fund and the Climate Investment Funds (CIF).
b. Carbon market mechanisms It channels an incentive to reduce GHG emissions bymeans of creating a market for emissions allowances and credits. The carbon market
channels financial resources to low-carbon investments through, inter alia, project-
based mechanisms such as the CDM and joint implementation (JI). The allocation of
emission rights and the ensuing financial flows are enabled by trading schemes like the
European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS).
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Pricing practices - The previous four sections highlight how current financing patterns
create a supply of unsustainable transport patterns. Yet, this only provides half of the
story on the development of unsustainable transport patterns. This section explores
pricing which will be shown to be a major driver for the demand for unsustainable
transport. The importance of efficient pricing has long been argued, whereby transport
prices should include external costs imposed on society through congestion, accidents,
infrastructure wear and tear, air pollution, noise and climate change (World Bank 2001)
Despite this, most transport activities remain underpriced. For example:
i. Fossil fuels are subsidized, leading to excessive use.ii. Infrastructure, and to some extent vehicles, are not charged at the point of use, leading to
irrational decisions on when/how much to use them.
iii. The price for vehicle purchase, ownership and use are not linked to their environmentaland social consequences.
iv. Pricing instruments, such as road user-charges, parking charges, distance-basedinsurance, vehicle and fuel taxes that can be designed to reflect at least some of theexternal costs onto the users, are seldom used, or their introduction is met with public
opposition, particularly from those who perceive possible financial losses from their
introduction. The same applies to regulatory instruments such as vehicle fuel efficiency
standards.
As a result, private motorized transport remains cheap for users but inflicts large societal costs,
some of which will be borne by future generations. So it is important to change the mindset
driving finance towards unsustainable transport mediums.
3.3 Societal Analysis of Sustainable Transportation
Along with the economic/financial analysis of sustainable transportation medium it is also
important to analyze its societal impacts so that we can find out if the society is able to
accommodate the huge change efficiently or not. Sustainable transport and mobility is
underpinned by three values and principles namely equity, accessibility and mobility. All these
are aimed at improving the services levels of transport goods and services in a society.
Transport equity principle and value focuses on making sure that the socio-economic
benefits emanating from transport interventions is inclusive in meeting the needs of allsegments of the society with particular emphasis on those with special needs.
Accessibility principle and value is defined as the ease of reaching a place, destination,location or facility.
Accessibility versus Mobility: Accessibility should not be confused with mobility.
Mobility refers to physical movement, but in general, increased mobility tends to increase
accessibility.
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Transport can be a source of social exclusion and reinforce structural socio-economic poverty inseveral respects:
i. Physical exclusion: This can be through the existence of physical barriers to accessingtransport and other services.
ii. Geographical exclusion: Simply stated the lack of transport provision and services in thegeographical area in which the user resides can inhibit a person from participating inmainstream socio-economic livelihood opportunities available.
iii. Exclusion from facilities: Lack of access to facilities because of lack of access totransport services may reinforce the cycle of poverty. This may be reflected through
inappropriate transport design and technologies that do not incorporate universal design
elements such as access of public transport vehicles and buildings to the disabled.
iv. Economic exclusion: It is important to realize that someone can be unable to travelbecause they cannot afford the cost/fare or tariffs associated with utilizing any existing
transport mode system available. In addition the lack of access to transport can cause
income poverty, preventing the user from accessing socio-economic employment ortraining.
v. Time-base exclusion: Indeed people can be excluded from both travel and other activitiesbecause of the time that it takes to travel, or because of the hour of day or night they want
or need to travel.
vi. Fear-based exclusion: There exists exclusion of transport, and, consequently, activitiesrequiring travel because of fear of using transport. This can be because of taxi wars, labor
action, poor public transport interior designs or gender targeted sexual harassment in
specific transport modes etc.
Travel patterns and transport needs of men and women in the rural and urban social setting are
different. In urban areas, for example womens essential trips are more dispersed in time and
location while in rural areas trips are short (mostly local), frequent and usually involve carrying
heavy loads. Some of the transport constraints women faces include:
Greater distance between home and employment opportunities which reduces the
compatibility between household and non-household activities.
Irregularity of services on off-peak and non-radial routes.
Most urban transport systems are not designed to respond to womens needs to combine
multiple trips, many at off-peak hours and off the main transport routes.
The pursuit of sustainable social transport and mobility presents a challenge. Actions are needed
to limit the environmental and other costs of traffic movements. Yet these must be reconciled
with aspirations for economic growth and social demands for access to services and leisure
activities. Indeed social transport dimension to transport mobility is an essential social
development dimension. Integrating the needs of the captive users of transport facilities,
pedestrians and bicyclists on the highways as well as urban areas is recognizing the social
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dimension of transport planning. The understanding of differential needs of the urban and rural
poor, transport strategies and programs can be designed to provide the poor with better physical
access to employment, education, and health services. Therefore a balance must be struck. The
solution is widely perceived to lie in an integrated approach, combining economic instruments,
regulations, new technologies, infrastructure investment and other policy actions.
3.4 Challenges facing Sustainable Transportation
There can be no doubt that sustainable transport give us enormous benefits but there are number
of challenges faced to fully convert to sustainable transport mediums and they are:
A. Infrastructure Gap - We should not forget that the present infrastructure that we have wasmade for the conventional sources of transportation and to switch towards efficient and
sustainable sources of transportation we have to change the infrastructure in its favor. To
start with we have to expand the width of the roads so that it can accommodate betterpath for pedestrians, than only we can encourage people to walk instead of using their
vehicles. Secondly we have to change railway lines so that it can be used for high speed
trains which are more efficient and faster modes of transportation then the present
railway system. Also we have to increase public transportation so that people find it
easier to travel through them. This and many more changes in our transport infrastructure
before we can make a giant leap towards greener sources of transport.
B. Rising world population Though many changes are made in direction towardssustainability the growing world population is only making it harder and more
troublesome to achieve the target of sustainable growth. Since earth has a limited
carrying capacity it can only be hypothesized what the situation may turn out when our
numbers will rose to nearly 9 billion people in the year 2050. So there is a need to put
breaks on the rising population of world so that governments can make better
transportation policies for its citizens.
C. Technological Gap Technology is another hurdle towards our goal of sustainabledevelopment, since in case of transportation there is not enough choice and comfort to
people regarding hybrid vehicles also number of public transport models derived often
require high initial investments which are hard for developing nations like India to
finance.
D.
No consensus reached among nations
Though every nation agrees to the dangersassociated with climate change scenario but there is still a consensus to be reached on
how to fight to danger. Developed nations say that every nation should have mandatory
cuts in their GHG emissions, on the other hand developing nations say that they will not
compromise on their development which is proving a stumbling block in the fight against
climate change.
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3.5 Criticism of Sustainable Transportation
Though we have seen many positives associated with sustainable transport, but the picture is not
all that bright as it seems. There are some negative sides also associated to sustainable
transportation like often the term sustainable transport is used as an eyewash marketing
technique for products which are not proven to make a positive contribution to environment
sustainability though such claims can be legally challenged. The Australian Competition and
Consumer Commission (ACCC) describes green claims on products as very vague, inviting
consumers to give a wide range of meanings to the claim, which risks misleading them. In 2008
the ACCC forced a car retailer to stop its green marketing of Saab cars, which was found by the
Australian Federal Court as misleading. There are some more points raised by the critics of
sustainability which are important to note here:
Skeptics often put the whole theory of Climate Change as an incomplete theory based on
insufficient scientific data.
Critics also say that the proposed models to fight Climate Change often forget the ability
of society to accommodate those models.
Sustainability is criticized for being such a broad and indefinite concept that it tends totake people from conventional sources to other sources of energy which were neverbefore applied.
Often the sustainable development or other sustainable options such as sustainable
transportation is criticized for curbing the development of developing countries who are
already facing many other problems as hunger, poverty, illiteracy, etc.
Objectives to reduce automobile use are criticized in particular as being unrealistic andinequitable if they deprive lower-income consumers of their preferred mode of transport.
3.6 Future of Sustainable Transportation
No matter how much we criticize sustainable transportation systems or for that matter
sustainability on a whole, we cannot change the reality of the situation which looks rather dark
and scary. It is not a matter of choice but a question of either live or get perished. Sustainable
transportation is beginning to become an important part of our life and it can be safely said that it
is only going to expand in the near future and a number of points support it:
We are near Peak Oil situation or maybe we have crossed that mark, this means oil in thenear future will be either hard to get or might not get at all. This situation will make
people think of opting for more sustainable modes of transportation.
The economic benefits associated with the greener transportation in the long term may
change the mind of an ordinary consumer to switch there modes of transportation.
The positive societal impacts which we have seen might also favor the switching towards
greener modes of transportation.
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The steps taken by nearly all the national governments in this direction are only to
increase in future as governments the world over become aware of the threats of climate
change faced by earth.
The usage of public transports in all the major cities of the world is increasing which is a
positive sign.
People are becoming aware of using cycles, walking, hybrid fuel cars, etc. this in all
possibility may rise in the future.
The increasing oil prices are forcing those people, to use greener transport medium who
earlier were opposed to it.
3.7 Conclusion
Sustainable transportation planning raises a number of issues regarding the definition of
sustainability and sustainable transportation, how goals and objectives are defined and evaluated,
and the type of decision-making process that should be used. Sustainability requires more
comprehensive and integrated planning, which accounts for a broad set of economic, social and
environmental impacts, including those that are difficult to measure. Sustainability planning
requires adequate involvement to allow diverse perspectives and preferences to be incorporated.
Sustainability tends to support transportation planning and market reforms that result in more
diverse and economically efficient transportation systems, and more compact land use patterns
that reduce automobile dependency. These reforms help increase economic efficiency, reduce
resource consumption and harmful environmental impacts, and improve mobility for non-drivers.
Although it is relatively easy to define the general type of policy changes that support sustainable
transportation, it may be difficult to define exactly what degree of change is needed.
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