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LanguageLanguage

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Study of LanguageStudy of Language

LinguisticsLinguistics: study of the internalized : study of the internalized knowledge of a language – the rules for knowledge of a language – the rules for producing languageproducing language

PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics: The study of : The study of language as it is used and learned by language as it is used and learned by people.people.

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Defining LanguageDefining Language

LanguageLanguage: Language is a shared : Language is a shared symbolic system for communication.symbolic system for communication.

Language is a subset of communication Language is a subset of communication usually seen as having 3 defining partsusually seen as having 3 defining parts Use of symbolsUse of symbols A system of symbols are used by all speakers A system of symbols are used by all speakers

of the languageof the language It enables communicationIt enables communication

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Universals of LanguageUniversals of Language

SemanticitySemanticity: Language exhibits Semanticity, which : Language exhibits Semanticity, which means that language conveys meaning.means that language conveys meaning.

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness: There is no inherent connection between : There is no inherent connection between the units (sounds, words) used in a language and the the units (sounds, words) used in a language and the meanings referred by those units.meanings referred by those units.

Flexibility of symbolsFlexibility of symbols: Language systems demonstrate : Language systems demonstrate tremendous flexibility; that is, because tremendous flexibility; that is, because the connection the connection between symbol and meaning is arbitrary, we can between symbol and meaning is arbitrary, we can change those connections and invent new oneschange those connections and invent new ones..

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Universals of Language (cont.)Universals of Language (cont.) NamingNaming: We assign names to all the objects in : We assign names to all the objects in

our environment, to all the feelings and emotions our environment, to all the feelings and emotions we experience, and to all the ideas and concepts we experience, and to all the ideas and concepts we conceive of.we conceive of.

DisplacementDisplacement: The ability to talk about : The ability to talk about something other than the present moment.something other than the present moment.

ProductivityProductivity: Language is a productive and : Language is a productive and inherently novel activity; we generate sentences inherently novel activity; we generate sentences rather than repeat them.rather than repeat them.

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Animal Communication Animal Communication SystemsSystems

Beyond the level of arbitrariness, no animal Beyond the level of arbitrariness, no animal communication system seems to exhibit the communication system seems to exhibit the characteristics that appear to be universally true characteristics that appear to be universally true of—and vitally important to—human language.of—and vitally important to—human language.

In the wild, at any rate, there appear to be no In the wild, at any rate, there appear to be no genuine languages.genuine languages.

In human cultures, genuine language is the rule, In human cultures, genuine language is the rule, apparently with no exceptions.apparently with no exceptions.

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Teaching animals languageTeaching animals language

A great deal of disagreement on whether the great apes A great deal of disagreement on whether the great apes can learn languagecan learn language

Cannot learn speech as their vocal tract cannot produce Cannot learn speech as their vocal tract cannot produce needed speech soundsneeded speech sounds

Research has shown that many of the great apes can Research has shown that many of the great apes can learn and use symbols for objects and some actionslearn and use symbols for objects and some actions

Difficulties seem to involve displacement and noveltyDifficulties seem to involve displacement and novelty

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Teaching animals language (cont)Teaching animals language (cont)

Most accepted conclusion is that Most accepted conclusion is that nonhumans are capable of nonhumans are capable of comprehending language and are capable comprehending language and are capable of complex sign of complex sign communicationcommunication

They appear to acquire and use aspects of They appear to acquire and use aspects of language very differently than humans language very differently than humans

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Five Levels of Analysis of Five Levels of Analysis of LanguageLanguage

Grammar operates at three levels: Grammar operates at three levels: • Phonology of language deals with the sounds of language;Phonology of language deals with the sounds of language;• Syntax deals with word order and grammaticality;Syntax deals with word order and grammaticality;• And semantics deals with accessing and combining the separate And semantics deals with accessing and combining the separate

word meanings into a sensible, meaningful wholeword meanings into a sensible, meaningful whole

GrammarGrammar: The grammar of a language is the complete : The grammar of a language is the complete set of rules that will generate or produce all the set of rules that will generate or produce all the acceptable sentences and will not generate any acceptable sentences and will not generate any unacceptable, ill-formed sentences.unacceptable, ill-formed sentences.

Comprehension operates at 2 levels – next weekComprehension operates at 2 levels – next week Conceptual Conceptual Belief Belief

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A Critical DistinctionA Critical Distinction

CompetenceCompetence: The internalized knowledge : The internalized knowledge of language and the rules that fully fluent of language and the rules that fully fluent speakers of a language have.speakers of a language have.

PerformancePerformance: The actual language : The actual language behavior a speaker generates, the string behavior a speaker generates, the string of sounds and words that the speaker of sounds and words that the speaker utters.utters.

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Whorf’s HypothesisWhorf’s Hypothesis

Linguistic Relativity HypothesisLinguistic Relativity Hypothesis: The : The language you know shapes the way you think language you know shapes the way you think about events in the world around you.about events in the world around you.

Eskimos think different about snow as Eskimos think different about snow as indicated by them having many more words indicated by them having many more words for snow than English speakersfor snow than English speakers

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Challenges to Whorf’s HypothesisChallenges to Whorf’s Hypothesis

Issues about how many words do Eskimos have Issues about how many words do Eskimos have for snowfor snow

Language of the Dani tribeLanguage of the Dani tribe

Study of Navajo speaking childrenStudy of Navajo speaking children

Conclusion: Language can influence thought, Conclusion: Language can influence thought, but not control it.but not control it.

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Does language depend upon Does language depend upon thought?thought?

Aristotle’s hypothesis – categories of thought Aristotle’s hypothesis – categories of thought determine categories of languagedetermine categories of language

Human thought or cognition appeared before Human thought or cognition appeared before language in evolution and during developmentlanguage in evolution and during development

Nonhumans show complex cognitive ability Nonhumans show complex cognitive ability without languagewithout language

Most likely language developed as a tool to Most likely language developed as a tool to communicate thoughtcommunicate thought

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PhonologyPhonology

PhonologyPhonology: The sounds of language and the : The sounds of language and the rule system for combining them.rule system for combining them.

PhonemesPhonemes: The basic sounds that compose a : The basic sounds that compose a language.language.

English has 45-46 phonemes.English has 45-46 phonemes. Categorization of phonemes:Categorization of phonemes:

• For consonants, three variables are relevant: place of For consonants, three variables are relevant: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.

• Vowels differ on two dimensions: placement in the mouth, Vowels differ on two dimensions: placement in the mouth, and tongue position in the mouth.and tongue position in the mouth.

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Categorization of phonemesCategorization of phonemes

Categorical PerceptionCategorical Perception: All the sounds : All the sounds falling within a set of boundaries are falling within a set of boundaries are perceived as the same, despite physical perceived as the same, despite physical differences among them.differences among them.

The use of voice onset time to set The use of voice onset time to set phonetic boundariesphonetic boundaries

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Speech Perception and ContextSpeech Perception and Context

Theory of acoustic invariance – our perception of Theory of acoustic invariance – our perception of phonemes is provided by the consistent or phonemes is provided by the consistent or invariant acoustic cues of the phonetic featuresinvariant acoustic cues of the phonetic features

Basic problems with this data driven theory:Basic problems with this data driven theory: We produce phonemes too fast to process this wayWe produce phonemes too fast to process this way Spoken sounds are not invariant; they change Spoken sounds are not invariant; they change

depending on what sounds precede and follow in the depending on what sounds precede and follow in the word.word.

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Speech Perception and ContextSpeech Perception and Context

How do we tolerate variability and still How do we tolerate variability and still decipher the changeable, almost decipher the changeable, almost undependable spoken signal? undependable spoken signal?

The answer is The answer is contextcontext or or conceptually conceptually driven processingdriven processing..

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Speech Perception and Context Speech Perception and Context (cont.)(cont.)

Evidence points toward a combination of data-Evidence points toward a combination of data-driven and conceptually driven processing in driven and conceptually driven processing in speech recognition, a position now called the speech recognition, a position now called the integrative or interactive approach. integrative or interactive approach.

This approach claims that a variety of This approach claims that a variety of conceptually distinct language processes conceptually distinct language processes operate simultaneously, each having the operate simultaneously, each having the possibility of influencing the ongoing activity of possibility of influencing the ongoing activity of other processes.other processes.

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Combining Phonemes Into WordsCombining Phonemes Into Words

Phonemic CompetencePhonemic Competence: The extensive : The extensive knowledge of the rules of permissible knowledge of the rules of permissible sound combinations for a specific sound combinations for a specific languagelanguage

These rules are not taught but implicitly These rules are not taught but implicitly learned as languages developlearned as languages develop

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Perceptions of wordsPerceptions of words

There is almost no consistent relationship There is almost no consistent relationship between pauses and the ends of words. If between pauses and the ends of words. If anything, the pauses we produce while anything, the pauses we produce while speaking are longer within words than speaking are longer within words than between words.between words.

Segmenting speech sounds into words is Segmenting speech sounds into words is learnedlearned

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Rules for combining words and Rules for combining words and phrases togetherphrases together

Prescriptive rules: constraints on how we ought Prescriptive rules: constraints on how we ought to speak based upon how certain authorities to speak based upon how certain authorities think a language should soundthink a language should sound

They usually involve dialects or variations of a They usually involve dialects or variations of a particular languageparticular language

Usually prescribed by the dominant group in a Usually prescribed by the dominant group in a society. Sentences not following the rules are society. Sentences not following the rules are considered inferior regardless of whether the considered inferior regardless of whether the meaning is clearmeaning is clear

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Descriptive Rules or SyntaxDescriptive Rules or Syntax SyntaxSyntax: The arrangement of words as elements in a : The arrangement of words as elements in a

sentence to show their relationship to one another; or sentence to show their relationship to one another; or sentence structure.sentence structure.

Word OrderWord Order Beth asked the man about his headachesBeth asked the man about his headaches About the Beth headaches man asked hisAbout the Beth headaches man asked his

Phrase OrderPhrase Order Bill told the men to deliver the piano on MondayBill told the men to deliver the piano on Monday Bill told the men on Monday to deliver the pianoBill told the men on Monday to deliver the piano

Number Agreement - subject verb agreementNumber Agreement - subject verb agreement

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Chomsky’s Transformational Chomsky’s Transformational GrammarGrammar

Language exists at least 2 levelsLanguage exists at least 2 levels Deep structure - an abstract syntactic representation Deep structure - an abstract syntactic representation

of the sentence being constructedof the sentence being constructed Surface structure – the external structure; the actual Surface structure – the external structure; the actual

speech sounds and words in a sentencespeech sounds and words in a sentence

Phrase structure grammar –rules that specify the Phrase structure grammar –rules that specify the word groupings and phrases that make up the word groupings and phrases that make up the whole utterance and the relationships among whole utterance and the relationships among those constituents.those constituents. We have basic sentence structures into which we We have basic sentence structures into which we

insert wordsinsert words

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Problems with phrase structure Problems with phrase structure grammar grammar

Exact meaning of a sentence may not be Exact meaning of a sentence may not be accurately expressed by the surface structure – accurately expressed by the surface structure – ambiguityambiguity ““I saw a man eating fish”I saw a man eating fish” ““The shooting of the hunters was terrible”The shooting of the hunters was terrible”

Sentences with completely different surface Sentences with completely different surface structure can have the same deep structurestructure can have the same deep structure ““Patrick bought a fine French wine”Patrick bought a fine French wine” ““A fine French wine was bought by Patrick”A fine French wine was bought by Patrick”

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Chomsky’s Transformational Chomsky’s Transformational GrammarGrammar

Transformational RulesTransformational Rules: These convert : These convert the deep structure into a surface structure, the deep structure into a surface structure, a sentence ready to be spoken.a sentence ready to be spoken.

They allow us to covert deep structure They allow us to covert deep structure ideas into different surface structures that ideas into different surface structures that state the same thought with a different state the same thought with a different emphasisemphasis

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Limitations of the Transformational Limitations of the Transformational Grammar ApproachGrammar Approach

In the late 1960s, psychology became In the late 1960s, psychology became increasingly dissatisfied with this linguistically increasingly dissatisfied with this linguistically motivated approach.motivated approach.

Primary reason – the linguistic emphasis on Primary reason – the linguistic emphasis on structure relegated meaning as a secondary structure relegated meaning as a secondary factorfactor

Since linguistic approach didn’t adequately deal Since linguistic approach didn’t adequately deal with meaning it was difficult to apply this theory with meaning it was difficult to apply this theory to the actual use of languageto the actual use of language

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Chomsky’s ExampleChomsky’s Example

““Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” Grammatically acceptableGrammatically acceptable Makes no senseMakes no sense

Since Chomsky’s theory was competency Since Chomsky’s theory was competency based, knowledge of the rules of syntax, it based, knowledge of the rules of syntax, it could not transformed into a performance could not transformed into a performance based theory of how we use languagebased theory of how we use language

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The psychological purpose of The psychological purpose of syntaxsyntax

To help the listener figure out meaningTo help the listener figure out meaning

To minimize the processing demands of To minimize the processing demands of comprehending languagecomprehending language

Syntax helps listeners determine meaning Syntax helps listeners determine meaning and speakers convey meaningand speakers convey meaning

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Lexical and semantic factors: The Lexical and semantic factors: The third level of analysisthird level of analysis

Involves the meaning of languageInvolves the meaning of language

Mental lexicon – the mental dictionary of words and their Mental lexicon – the mental dictionary of words and their meaningsmeanings

Morpheme – the smallest unit of language that has Morpheme – the smallest unit of language that has meaningmeaning

Free morphemes – can stand alone – car, run, legalFree morphemes – can stand alone – car, run, legal Bound morphemes – are bound to free morphemes – s, est, unBound morphemes – are bound to free morphemes – s, est, un

Words can be made up of 1 or more morphemesWords can be made up of 1 or more morphemes

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The lexical representation of a wordThe lexical representation of a word

Includes much more than what the word meansIncludes much more than what the word means

Textbook example: chase – to run after or Textbook example: chase – to run after or pursuepursue

Also connected to other information – run, Also connected to other information – run, involving speed, etc.involving speed, etc.

We also know what kinds of things can be We also know what kinds of things can be chased and what kind of things can chasechased and what kind of things can chase

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Case grammar – a psycholinguistic Case grammar – a psycholinguistic approach approach

Case grammarCase grammar: An approach in : An approach in psycholinguistics in which the meaning of a psycholinguistics in which the meaning of a sentence is determined by analyzing the sentence is determined by analyzing the semantic roles or cases played by different semantic roles or cases played by different words, such as which word names the overall words, such as which word names the overall relationship and which names the agent or relationship and which names the agent or patient of the action.patient of the action.

Semantic CasesSemantic Cases: The roles played by the : The roles played by the content words in sentences (also called case content words in sentences (also called case roles).roles).

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Case grammarCase grammar The key will open the doorThe key will open the door The janitor will open the door with the keyThe janitor will open the door with the key

Key has 2 grammatical roles in 1Key has 2 grammatical roles in 1stst sentence – sentence – not important to meaningnot important to meaning

A semantic analysis shows key as having the A semantic analysis shows key as having the same semantic role - an instrument that opens a same semantic role - an instrument that opens a doordoor

Other roles: door is the recipient of the action Other roles: door is the recipient of the action open; janitor is the agent of openopen; janitor is the agent of open

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Interaction of syntax and semanticsInteraction of syntax and semantics

Semantic focus: the highlighted or most Semantic focus: the highlighted or most important idea in a sentence. Usually important idea in a sentence. Usually indicated by word order (syntax).indicated by word order (syntax).

I’m going downtown with my sister at 4 o’clockI’m going downtown with my sister at 4 o’clock It’s at 4 o’clock that I’m going downtown with my sisterIt’s at 4 o’clock that I’m going downtown with my sister It’s my sister I’m going downtown with at 4 o’clockIt’s my sister I’m going downtown with at 4 o’clock

The focus in each sentence is different as a The focus in each sentence is different as a different phrase begins each sentencedifferent phrase begins each sentence

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Semantic Knowledge Can Semantic Knowledge Can Overpower SyntaxOverpower Syntax

Sometimes we comprehend what we expect to Sometimes we comprehend what we expect to hear instead of what we actually hearhear instead of what we actually hear

Fillenbaum (1974) – ordered and disordered Fillenbaum (1974) – ordered and disordered sentencessentences

Don’t print that or I’ll sue youDon’t print that or I’ll sue you John had a bath and put on his clothesJohn had a bath and put on his clothes

Don’t print that or I won’t sue youDon’t print that or I won’t sue you John put on his clothes and had a bathJohn put on his clothes and had a bath

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Evidence for the Semantic Evidence for the Semantic Grammar ApproachesGrammar Approaches

Two predictions of this approach:Two predictions of this approach: Listeners (readers) begin to analyze the sentence immediately as soon Listeners (readers) begin to analyze the sentence immediately as soon

as words beginas words begin This analysis is a process of assigning each word to a semantic role that This analysis is a process of assigning each word to a semantic role that

contributes to the overall comprehension of the sentencecontributes to the overall comprehension of the sentence

Garden Path SentenceGarden Path Sentence: A sentence in which the early part of the : A sentence in which the early part of the sentence sets you up so the latter phrases of the sentence don’t sentence sets you up so the latter phrases of the sentence don’t make sense given the way you assigned case roles in the 1make sense given the way you assigned case roles in the 1stst part. part.

For example: For example: ““After the musician played the piano was moved off the stage.”After the musician played the piano was moved off the stage.” ““The grounds man chased the girl waving a stick in her hand”The grounds man chased the girl waving a stick in her hand” ““The old train the young”The old train the young”

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Brain and Language - AphasiaBrain and Language - Aphasia AphasiaAphasia: The disruption of language caused by : The disruption of language caused by

a brain-related disorder.a brain-related disorder.

Broca’s AphasiaBroca’s Aphasia: Characterized by severe : Characterized by severe difficulties in producing speech; it is also called difficulties in producing speech; it is also called expressive or production aphasia.expressive or production aphasia.

Wernicke’s AphasiaWernicke’s Aphasia: Comprehension is : Comprehension is impaired, as are repetition, naming, reading, and impaired, as are repetition, naming, reading, and writing, but the syntactic aspects of speech are writing, but the syntactic aspects of speech are preserved.preserved.

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Broca’s area and Wernicke’s areaBroca’s area and Wernicke’s area

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Other forms of AphasiaOther forms of Aphasia Conduction AphasiaConduction Aphasia: Patients are unable to repeat what they : Patients are unable to repeat what they

have just heard.have just heard.

Anomia or anomic aphasiaAnomia or anomic aphasia: A disruption in word finding, an : A disruption in word finding, an impairment in the normal ability to retrieve a semantic concept and impairment in the normal ability to retrieve a semantic concept and say its name.say its name.

AlexiaAlexia: A disruption of reading without any necessary disruption of : A disruption of reading without any necessary disruption of spoken language or aural (hearing) comprehension.spoken language or aural (hearing) comprehension.

AgraphiaAgraphia: The patient is unable to write.: The patient is unable to write.

Pure word deafnessPure word deafness: A patient cannot comprehend spoken : A patient cannot comprehend spoken language, although he or she is still able to read and produce language, although he or she is still able to read and produce written and spoken language.written and spoken language.

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Generalizing from AphasiaGeneralizing from Aphasia The very different patterns of behavioral impairments in The very different patterns of behavioral impairments in

Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia, resulting from different Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia, resulting from different physical structures in the brain, suggest that these physical structures in the brain, suggest that these physical structures underlie different aspects of physical structures underlie different aspects of language.language.

These selective impairments and different brain locations These selective impairments and different brain locations also suggest that syntax and semantics are two also suggest that syntax and semantics are two separable but interactive aspects of normal language.separable but interactive aspects of normal language.

An inference from these studies is that specialized An inference from these studies is that specialized cerebral regions signal an innate biological basis for cerebral regions signal an innate biological basis for languagelanguage

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Language in the intact brainLanguage in the intact brain

2 important terms: necessary and sufficient2 important terms: necessary and sufficient

Broca’s area is necessary for normal speech production, Broca’s area is necessary for normal speech production, but not sufficient. The damage of other areas can also but not sufficient. The damage of other areas can also cause speech deficitscause speech deficits

Lesions in different areas can lead to different amounts Lesions in different areas can lead to different amounts of aphasia depending upon the gender of the personof aphasia depending upon the gender of the person

There are great individual differences in where and how There are great individual differences in where and how different people process and produce language.different people process and produce language.