© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College
C H A P T E R 178th Ed
Blood
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Composition 2
• Blood: a fluid connective tissue composed of
• Plasma
• Formed elements
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)
• Leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs)
• Platelets
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Blood Composition 3
• Hematocrit
• Percent of blood volume that is RBCs
• 47% ± 5% for males
• 42% ± 5% for females
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.1
1 Withdrawblood and placein tube.
2 Centrifuge theblood sample.
Plasma• 55% of whole blood• Least dense componentBuffy coat• Leukocytes and platelets• <1% of whole bloodErythrocytes• 45% of whole blood• Most dense component
Formedelements
4 Figure 17.1 pg. Page 635
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Physical Characteristics and Volume 5
• Color scarlet to dark red
• pH 7.35–7.45
• 38C
• ~8% of body weight
• Average volume: 5–6 L for males, and 4–5 L for females
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Functions of Blood 6
1. Distribution of
• O2 and nutrients to body cells
• Metabolic wastes to the lungs and kidneys for elimination
• Hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
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Functions of Blood 7
2. Regulation of
• Body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat
• Normal pH using buffers
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Functions of Blood 8
3. Protection against
• Blood loss
• Plasma proteins, fibrinogen and platelets initiate clot formation
• Infection
• Antibodies
• Complement proteins
• WBCs defend against foreign invaders
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Blood Plasma 9
• 90% water
• Proteins are mostly produced by the liver
• 60% albumin
• 36% globulins
• 4% fibrinogen
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Blood Plasma 10
• Nitrogenous by-products of metabolism—lactic acid, urea, creatinine
• Nutrients—glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids
• Electrolytes—Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl–, HCO3–
• Respiratory gases—O2 and CO2
• Hormones
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Formed Elements 11
• Only WBCs are complete cells
• RBCs have no nuclei or organelles
• Platelets are cell fragments
• Most formed elements survive in the bloodstream for only a few days
• Most blood cells originate in bone marrow and do not divide
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.2
Platelets
Neutrophils Lymphocyte
Erythrocytes Monocyte12 Fig.17.2
Pg. 637
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Erythrocytes 13
• Biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially no organelles
• Filled with hemoglobin (Hb) for gas transport
• Contain the plasma membrane proteins
• Provide flexibility to change shape as necessary
• Are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.3
2.5 µm
7.5 µm
Side view (cut)
Top view
14 fig. 17.3
Pg. 637
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Erythrocytes 15
• Structural characteristics contribute to gas transport
• Biconcave shape—huge surface area relative to volume
• >97% hemoglobin (not counting water)
• No mitochondria; ATP production is anaerobic; no O2 is used in generation of ATP
• 4.3 million -5.8 million / cubic mm
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Erythrocyte Function 16
• RBCs are dedicated to respiratory gas transport
• Hemoglobin binds reversibly with oxygen
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Erythrocyte Function 17
• Hemoglobin structure
• Protein globin: two alpha and two beta chains
• Heme pigment (molecule) bonded to each globin chain (4)
• Iron atom in each heme can bind to one O2 molecule
• So, each Hb molecule can transport four O2
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.4
Hemegroup
(a) Hemoglobin consists of globin (two alpha and two beta polypeptide chains) and four heme groups.
(b) Iron-containing heme pigment. Globin chains
Globin chains
18 Fig. 17.4; pg. 638
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Hemoglobin (Hb) 19
• O2 loading in the lungs
• Produces oxyhemoglobin (ruby red)
• O2 unloading in the tissues
• Produces deoxyhemoglobin or reduced hemoglobin (dark red)
• CO2 loading in the tissues
• Produces carbaminohemoglobin (carries 20% of CO2 in the blood) (carbonmonoxide)
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Hematopoiesis 20
• Hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis): blood cell formation
• Occurs in red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur
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Hematopoiesis 21
• Hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells)
• Give rise to all formed elements
• Hormones push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development
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22 Figure 17.5 pg. 639
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.5
Stem cell
HemocytoblastProerythro-blast
Earlyerythroblast
Lateerythroblast Normoblast
Phase 1Ribosomesynthesis
Phase 2Hemoglobinaccumulation
Phase 3Ejection ofnucleus
Reticulo-cyte
Erythro-cyte
Committedcell
Developmental pathway
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Fate and Destruction of Erythrocytes 24
• Life span: 100–120 days
• Old RBCs become fragile, and Hb begins to degenerate
• Macrophages engulf dying RBCs in the spleen
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Erythrocyte Disorders 25
• Anemia: blood has abnormally low O2-carrying capacity
• A sign rather than a disease itself
• Blood O2 levels cannot support normal metabolism
• Accompanied by fatigue, paleness, shortness of breath, and chills
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Causes of Anemia 26
2. Low hemoglobin content
• Iron-deficiency anemia
• Secondary result of hemorrhagic anemia or
• Inadequate intake of iron-containing foods
• Impaired iron absorption – folic acid
• Hemorrhaging: Ulcers
• Black stool vs. frank blood
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Causes of Anemia 27
• Sickle-cell anemia
• Defective gene codes for abnormal hemoglobin (HbS)
• Causes RBCs to become sickle shaped in low-oxygen situations
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 146
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 146
(a) Normal erythrocyte has normal hemoglobin amino acid sequence in the beta chain.
(b) Sickled erythrocyte results from a single amino acid change in the beta chain of hemoglobin.
28 Fig. 17.8 pg. 642
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Leukocytes 29
• Make up <1% of total blood volume
• Can leave capillaries via diapedesis
• Move through tissue spaces by ameboid motion and positive chemotaxis
• Leukocytosis: WBC count over 11,000/mm3
• Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.9
Formedelements
Platelets
Leukocytes
Erythrocytes
DifferentialWBC count(All total 4800 –10,800/l)
Neutrophils (50 – 70%)
Lymphocytes (25 – 45%)
Eosinophils (2 – 4%)
Basophils (0.5 – 1%)
Monocytes (3 – 8%)
Agranulocytes
Granulocytes
30 Fig. 17.9 pg.644
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Granulocytes 31
• Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
• Cytoplasmic granules stain specifically with Wright’s stain
• Larger and shorter-lived than RBCs
• Lobed nuclei
• Phagocytic
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Neutrophils 32
• Most numerous WBCs
• Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
• Fine granules take up both acidic and basic dyes
• Give the cytoplasm a lilac color
• Granules contain hydrolytic enzymes or defensins
• Very phagocytic—“bacteria slayers”
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Eosinophils 33
• Red-staining, bilobed nuclei
• Red to crimson (acidophilic) coarse, lysosome-like granules
• Digest parasitic worms that are too large to be phagocytized
• Modulators of the immune response
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Basophils 34
• Rarest WBCs
• Large, purplish-black (basophilic) granules contain histamine
• Histamine: an inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodilator and attracts other WBCs to inflamed sites
• Are functionally similar to mast cells (histamines & heparin)
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.10 (a-c)
(a) Neutrophil; multilobed nucleus
(b) Eosinophil; bilobed nucleus, red cytoplasmic granules
(c) Basophil; bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytoplasmic granules
35 Fig. 17.10 a b c pg. 644
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Agranulocytes 36
• Agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes
• Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
• Have spherical or kidney-shaped nuclei
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Lymphocytes 37
• Large, dark-purple, circular nuclei with a thin rim of blue cytoplasm
• Mostly in lymphoid tissue; few circulate in the blood
• Crucial to immunity
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Lymphocytes 38
• Two types
• T Cells: Regulatory T’s: identify antigens
Killer T’s: Kill identified cells
• B cells produce humeral immunity – protein antibodies circulating in the blood
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Monocytes 39
• The largest leukocytes
• Abundant pale-blue cytoplasm
• Dark purple-staining, U- or kidney-shaped nuclei
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40 Monocytes PHYSIOLOGY - SKIP
• Leave circulation, enter tissues, and differentiate into macrophages
• Actively phagocytic cells; crucial against viruses, intracellular bacterial parasites, and chronic infections
• Activate lymphocytes to mount an immune response
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41
Never let monkeys eat bananas
Neutrophils-Lymphocytes-Monocytes-Eosinophils-Basophils
Let monkeys are agranulocytes
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42 fig. 17.10 a & b
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43. Fig 17.10 c page 644
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.10d, e
(d) Small lymphocyte; large spherical nucleus
(e) Monocyte; kidney-shaped nucleus
44 fig. 17.10; pg. 644
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16.2 (1 of 2)
45 Table 17.2; pg. 645
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16.2 (2 of 2)
46 Table 17.2; pg. 645
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Leukopoiesis 47
• Production of WBCs
• Stimulated by chemical messengers from bone marrow and mature WBCs
• All leukocytes originate from hemocytoblasts
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.11
Hemocytoblast
Myeloid stem cell Lymphoid stem cell
Myeloblast Myeloblast MonoblastMyeloblast Lymphoblast
Stem cells
Committedcells
Promyelocyte PromyelocytePromyelocyte Promonocyte Prolymphocyte
Eosinophilicmyelocyte
Neutrophilicmyelocyte
Basophilicmyelocyte
Eosinophilicband cells
Neutrophilicband cells
Basophilicband cells
Developmentalpathway
Eosinophils NeutrophilsBasophils
Granular leukocytes
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)Monocytes Lymphocytes
Agranular leukocytes
Some becomeSomebecome
48
Table 17.11; page 645
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Leukocyte Disorders 49
• Leukopenia
• Abnormally low WBC count—drug induced
• Leukemias
• Cancerous conditions involving WBCs
• Named according to the abnormal WBC clone involved
• Myelocytic leukemia involves myeloblasts
• Lymphocytic leukemia involves lymphocytes
• Acute leukemia involves blast-type cells and primarily affects children
• Chronic leukemia is more prevalent in older people
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Platelets 50
• Small fragments of megakaryocytes
• Formation is regulated by thrombopoietin
• Blue-staining outer region, purple granules
• Granules contain serotonin, Ca2+, enzymes, ADP, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
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Platelets 51
• Form a temporary platelet plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels
• Circulating platelets are kept inactive and mobile by NO and prostacyclin from endothelial cells of blood vessels
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.12
Stem cell Developmental pathway
Hemocyto-blast Megakaryoblast
PromegakaryocyteMegakaryocyte Platelets
52 Figure: 17.12; pg. 648
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Diagnostic Blood Tests 53
• Hematocrit
• Hemoglobin: 14g – 20g/100ml of blood
• Blood glucose tests
• Microscopic examination reveals variations in size and shape of RBCs, indications of anemias
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Diagnostic Blood Tests 54
• Differential WBC count
• Prothrombin time and platelet counts assess hemostasis
• SMAC, a blood chemistry profile
• Complete blood count (CBC)