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7/14/2019 Zipf 1932 Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language
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SELECTED STUDIES OF
T HE PRINCIPLE OF RELAT IVEF R E Q U E N C Y I N L A N G U A G E
B Y
G E O R G E K I N G S L E Y 2 I P F
I N S T R U C TO R . I N G E R M A N A T H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y
H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R ES S
C A M B R I D G E , M A S S A C H U S E T T S
1 9 3 2
7/14/2019 Zipf 1932 Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language
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7/14/2019 Zipf 1932 Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language
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C O P Y R I C H T , 1 9 3 a
BY THE PR ESIDENT AND FELLOWS O r HARVARD COLLEGE
PRINTED AT THE HARVARD ONIVEASITY P RES i
CAMBRIDGE, MASS. , O . 3 .A .
/ y /
7/14/2019 Zipf 1932 Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language
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I N T R O D U C T I O N
T H E p r e s e n t p a p e r , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e r e s u l t s o f s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s u b v e n e d b y l i b e r a l g r a n t s
f r o m t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s , d e a l s w i t h t h e
Principle of Relative Frequency, a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e firs t a d v a n c e d p u b l i c l y b y m e i n
1 9 2 9 . 1 T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y , w h i c h b e g a n s o m e y e a r s b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1 9 2 9 , h a d
e v e n b y t h a t t i m e r e a c h e d s u c h p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t i n t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e I c o u l d i n c l u d e o n l y s u c h
m a t e r i a l a s I d e e m e d e s p e c i a l l y s a l i e n t f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e n e w h y p o t h e s i s . S i n c e t h e n ,
t h e m a t e r i a l h a s a g a i n i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , n o t o n l y f r o m m y o w n i n d e p e n d e n t r e s e a r c h , b u t
l i k e w i s e f r o m t h e c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s k i n d l y t e n d e r e d b y c r i t i c s b o t h h e r e a n d a b r o a d .
H e n c e a g a i n , m y s p a c e c o m p e l s o n l y s e l e c t e d s t u d i e s , a s e l e c t i o n w h i c h i s d e s i g n e d i n p a r t t o i n -
c r e a s e t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , i n p a r t t o p e n e t r a t e f u r t h e r i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h a t m a t e r i a l , a n di n p a r t t o e x t e n d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e v e r y t h e o r y it s e l f . T h e c a r e f u l l y d e l i b e r a t e d a r r a n g e m e n t i s,
h o w e v e r , s u c h t h a t I h o p e t h e r e a d e r c a s u a l l y p e r u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s w i l l s e n s e t h e f u n d a -
m e n t a l o r g a n i c u n i t y of th e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c ip l e . T h e u n i t y of th e Principle of Relative Fre-
quency, i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s a n d s c o p e , i t s b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y o f Gestalt Psychology o n t h e o n e h a n d
a n d t h e t h e o r y o f Psychoanalysis o n t h e o t h e r , a n d i t s g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b o t h l i n g u i s t i c a n d
o t h e r w i s e , I a i n a t p r e s e n t c o m b i n i n g i n t o a m o d e s t v o l u m e t o a p p e a r in t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e .
I t i s b e c a u s e o f th i s v o l u m e t h a t I n o w i n c l u d e a s a p p e n d i c e s a l l t h e e s s e n t i a l s o u r c e m a t e r i a l
u p o n w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s i s b a s e d . O n l y a f t e r t h e m o s t c a r e f u l d i s c u s s io n
o f t h e m a t t e r w i t h c o l l e a g u e s a n d w i t h t h e C h a i r m a n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o -
p r i a t i o n w a s i t d e c i d e d t o p r i n t th i s u n w i e l d l y e v i d e n c e . I f , a s t h e y s a y , t h e C h i n e s e p h o n e t i c
t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e a p p e n d i x a n d t h e l i s t s o f t h e C h i n e s e w o r d s a n d s y l l a b l e s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d -
i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e p r o v e t h e m s e l v e s o f i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e t o th o s e w o r k i n g o n g r a m -
m a r s , r e a d e r s , o r s t e n o g r a p h i c s y s t e m s i n C h i n e s e , a n d i f t h e l i s t o f a l l w o r d s o c c u r r i n g i n f o u r o f
P l a u t u s ' p l a y s , a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a r d s w i t h l i n e
r e f e r e n c e s f o r e a c h w o r d ( d e p o s i t e d i n t h e H a r v a r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ) s h o u l d p r o v e of v a l u e f o r o n e
w o r k i n g o n P l a u t u s , a l l o f t h a t i s i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n h e r e . P e r h a p s t h a t i s
m o r e t h a n a s u f f i c i e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I h o w e v e r i n c l u d e t h e m s o l e l y t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o
d o u b t a s t o t h e m e t h o d u s e d f o r t h e r e s u l t s a n d a s t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , f o r
t h e s e r e s u l t s o f f e r o v e r w h e l m i n g p r o o f s o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h o u g h t h e e v i -
d e n c e t h e y g i v e r e p r e s e n t s b u t a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e , y e t i t i s o f s u c h
a n a t u r e a s t o e s t a b l i s h a t l e a s t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e t h e o r y b e y o n d a s h a d o w o f a d o u b t .
I t i s n e e d l e s s t o s a y t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e f o r m e t o g a t h e r t h e e n s u i n g m a t e r i a l
w i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f l o y a l a s s i s t a n t s . T h e t e d i o u s n e s s a n d n e e d o f a c c u r a c y o f t h e w o r k c a l l e d f o r
a l m o s t s u p e r h u m a n p a t i e n c e . O n e w h o h a s n e v e r a t t e m p t e d s u c h a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l n e v e r
u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n o r m o u s d e b t o f t h a n k s I o w e t o M r . K a n Y u W a n g , M r . H . Y . C h a n g , M i s s
D o r o t h y P r i e s t , M i s s M a r y C a m p b e l l , a n d m y w i f e f o r th e i r a s s i s t a n c e , a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d
h a v e b e e n m a i n l y i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e g e n e r o u s s u b v e n t i o n o f t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s
A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s .
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
January 6, 1932
1 G. K. Zipf, "Relat ive Frequency as a Determinant of Phonet ic Change," Harvard Studies in Classical Phi-lology, Vol. X L (1929), pp. 1-95.
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C O N T E N T S
P A R T I . R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y i n R e s p e c t t o C h i n e s e P h o n o l o g y I
P A R T I I . R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y , A b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d S e m a n t i c C h a n g e 8
A P PE N D IX A . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s i n P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, Mostellaria, Pseu-
dolus, a n d Trinummus 3 1
A P PE N D IX B . P h o n e t i c T r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o f t h e D i a l e c t o f
M o d e r n P e k i n g P l a t e s 1 - 5 0
A P P E N D IX C . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e o f W o r d s in t h e 20 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o f
A p p e n d i x B P l a t e s 1 0,-5 0.
A P P EN D I X D . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e of S y l l a b l e s i n t h e 2 0 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o fA p p e n d i x B P l a t e s 1 6 - 7 6
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P A R T I
The Principle of Relative Frequency in Respect to
Chinese Phonology
T H E p r e s e n t p a p e r s e t s f o r t h t h e r e s u l t s o f a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n c h i e f l y t o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e r o r n o t th e m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r o f P e k i n g , C h i n a , a g r e e s w i t h I n d o - E u r o p e a n t o n g u e s i n
s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h a t a n o r i e n t a l l a n g u a g e w o u l d o f f e r v a l u -
a b l e a n d f in al e v i d e n c e w a s a p p a r e n t l i k e w i s e t o o t h e r s . 1 A n d t h a t o f t h e m a n y o r i e n t a l
l a n g u a g e s , C h i n e s e , o r , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e d i a l e c t o f m o d e r n P e k i n g , w o u l d b e t h e m o s t i d e a l
f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y a n g l e , I h o p e t o m a k e c l e a r i n t h e e n s u i n g p a r a g r a p h s .
B u t b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , i t w o u l d b e w i s e t o r e v i e w i n b r i e f t h e m a i n p o i n t s o f
t h e t h e o r y w h i c h t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s t o s u p p o r t . F o r t h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency, u n l i k e
e v e r y o t h e r l in g u i s t i c t h e o r y , d o e s n o t l o o k f o r t h e c a u s e s o f l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e s i n c l i m a t e , g e o g -
r a p h y , v o c a l o r g a n s , c h i l d h o o d m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , a n d s o o n , b u t s i m p l y m a i n t a i n s t h a t a n y
c h a n g e in a g i v e n l a n g u a g e i s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e of t h a t l a n g u a g e i t s e l f .
T h e g i s t o f t h e t h e o r y is t h a t a n y e l e m e n t o f s p e e c h w h i c h o c c u r s i n s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e -
q u e n t l y t h a n s o m e o t h e r s i m i l a r e l e m e n t d e m a n d s l e s s e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s t h a n t h a t
o t h e r e l e m e n t w h i c h o c c u r s m o r e r a r e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t i s e x p e c t e d d o e s n o t n e e d o r r e -
c e i v e t h e e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l es s e x p e c t e d . A f e w e x a m p l e s w i l l p e r h a p s
m a k e t h i s c l e a r e r .
T h e e v e r r e c u r r i n g e n d i n g s o f a w o r d d o n o t g e n e r a l l y n e e d a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s t h e r o o t ; t h e
v e r b a l au x i l ia r i e s , b e i n g m o r e f r e q u e n t , u s u a l l y d o n o t d e m a n d o r r e c e i v e a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s
t h e m a i n v e r b ; s o t o o t h e a r t i c l e l e s s t h a n i t s n o u n . T h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n ,
s y n c o p e , t o w a r d t h e f u s i o n of e n d i n g s , s u f f i x e s , p r e f i x e s , a u x i l i a r i e s , a r t i c l e s , a n d p a r t i c l e s o f f e r s
f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o o f . I n f a c t t h i s s e e m s t o m e t h e v e r y c r u x o f Satzphonetik, a s I h o p e w i l l
b e a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a d e r i n P a r t T w o o f t h i s p a p e r . I f o n e g o e s d e e p e r t h a n t h e w o r d , h o w e v e r ,
a n d t a k e s a p a r a d i g m w h i c h h a s s o m e e n d i n g s rigidly a c c e n t e d a n d o t h e r s r e g u l a r l y w i t h o u t
a c c e n t , o n e w i l l f i n d t h a t a c c e n t i s c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e r a r i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e , w h i l e l a c k o fa c c e n t i s i n v a r i a b l y l i n k e d w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . 2
I n t h e l i g h t o f a l l t h i s , I f o r m u l a t e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency: T h e a c c e n t o r d e g r e e o f
c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a n y w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -
q u e n c y o f t h a t w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d , a m o n g i t s f e l l o w w o r d s , s y l l a b l e s , o r s o u n d s i n t h e s t r e a m
o f s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . A s a n y e l e m e n t ' s u s a g e b e c o m e s m o r e f r e q u e n t , i t s f o r m t e n d s t o b e c o m e l e s s
a c c e n t e d , o r m o r e e a s i l y p r o n o u n c e a b l e , a n d vice versa.
1 Cf. Ed. Hermann, Philologische Wochenschrift, Vol. 51 (1931), p. 602.* For a detailed discussion of supporting evide nce, cf. Zip f,o £. ct<., pp . s ff . In supp ort of these view s, cf. EUse
Richter Archivfür das Studium der neueren Sfrachen, Vol. 157 (193 0), pp . 291 ff. Ag ains t these views cf. Ed. He r-man, op. cti., pp . 599 ff. A s I expect soon to be able to poi nt out, the e-o gradation in the o-declension and them atic
verbs is the answer to Professor Hermann's shrewd question.
m
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T h i s p r i n c ip l e b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n r e s p e c t t o s o u n d s ( p h o n e m e s ) .1 F o r s t r a n g e l y
e n o u g h s o u n d s , a s w e s h a l l s e e, d i f f e r d e c i d e d l y i n d e g r e e o f c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s . T h e v o i c e d a s p i r a t e
dh f o r e x a m p l e i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s , b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y , t h a n th e m e d i a d t s i n c e i t
h a s e v e r y t h i n g t h e d p o s s e s s e s , p l u s t h e a d d i t i o n a l increment of aspiration. B e c a u s e o f t h i s a d d i -
t i o n a l increment of aspiration, t h e dh i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n a d a n d , l i k e w i s e , m o r e
a u d i b l e t o t h e h e a r e r : i n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .
S o t o o a l e n i s o r a f o r t i s d i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l e n is o r f o r t i s t e n u i s
s i n c e t h e d p o s s e s se s e v e r y t h i n g t h e t h a s , p l u s t h e increment of voice. I n a l i k e m a n n e r , t h e a f f r i -
c a t e ts i s p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a t, b e c a u s e in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i t
h a s a f o l l o w i n g s p i r a n t . B u t w e c a n s a y n o t h i n g i n r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a
s p i r a n t , f o r e x a m p l e t h e p. F o r t h o u g h t h e p l a c k s t h e increment of explosiveness o f t h e t e n u i s , i t
c a n m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h i s l a c k b y a p r o l o n g e d d u r a t i o n ( e . g . ppp). O b v i o u s l y t h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e d e n t a l s c a n b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e x t e n d e d t o l a b i a l s , p a l a t a l s , v e l a r s , o r i n d e e d
t o a n y o t h e r o r e v e r y o t h e r s o u n d w h i c h w i l l s i m i l a r l y a d m i t o f a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s .
T h a t t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a s o u n d i s o n l y d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i v e t o a n o t h e r s o u n d h a s s e e m e d
t o s o m e c r i t ic s o f t h i s t h e o r y u n f o r t u n a t e . B u t i n s p i t e of t h e b r i l l i a n t w o r k o f m o d e r n e x p e r i -
m e n t a l p h o n e t i c s , p h o n e t i c i a n s h a v e n o t y e t d i s c o v e r e d a n y m e t h o d w h i c h c a n g i v e f o r a n y
s o u n d , l e t a l o n e f o r e v e r y s o u n d , e i t h e r t h e a c t u a l a b s o l u t e a m o u n t o f e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r i t s p r o -
n u n c i a t i o n , o r a n a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e e it h e r o f it s a u d i b i l i t y o r i t s p s y c h i c c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s . A n d i t i s
d o u b t f u l t h a t s u c h a m e a s u r e w i l l e v e r b e f o u n d . F o r t h is c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s d e p e n d s t o a l a r g e d e -
g r e e u p o n t h e a m p l i t u d e o r l o u d n e s s , a t h i n g w h i c h v a r i e s g r e a t l y i n w o r d s , a n d t h e r e f o r e i n
s o u n d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o o d o r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f t h e s p e a k e r . B u t i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i v e
c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a s o u n d , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f dh t o d, d t o / , a n d ts t o t i s s a t i s f a c t o r y . F o r r e -
g a r d l e s s o f h o w l o u d l y o r s o f t l y a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s , a l e n i s o r f o r t i s d t l e t u s s a y , w i l l b e b o t h
m o r e a u d i b l e a n d m o r e d i f f ic u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y le n i s o r f o r t i s / .
A n d n o w , if w e c a n s a y t h a t a le n i s o r f o r t i s m e d i a i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l yl e n i s o r f o r t i s t e n u i s , a n a l y s i s o f l a n g u a g e s h o u l d s h o w , i f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency b e
c o r r e c t , t h a t t h e l e s s c o n s p i c u o u s t e n u i s s h o u l d o c c u r i n c u r s i v e l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e
1 i k I P 4Bulgarian 7- 5 4 % 3-55 % 2 . 9 8 % 1 . 4 6 % 2.82 % 1-32 %En glish . . . 7-13 4-Ji 2.71 •74 2.04 1.81Russian 7.49 3-42 3-49 1.10 2.19 1.76Ital ian 4-74 3 6 3 •41 2.7S .89S w edish 76 4 5.48 3- S2 2.so 1.20 1.32H ung ar ian 7.18 3-3° S-72 2.45 1J34German , . 3-75 2.24 1.84 '•34F r ench . . . . 6 . 2 8 3-S5 4.81 •76 3-54 >•39Caech 5.60 3-73 3-93 •IS 3-S» r.86S panish . . . . 4.2J 5.20 3.S2 .07 2.64 2.05Sanskrit . . . . . 6 . 6 5 =.8S 1.99 .82 2.46 .46Gr eek . . . . 7 . 5 8 2.87 4.07 1.74 3.38 •49L a t i n 7-72 3-41 3-71 .96 2-OJ 1.40
1 For the sake of those who prefer the word phoneme, an extremely useful philological term which does not yetenjo y the frequen cy of usage i t deserves, let me say that the older and more general ly used word sound which X shalladhere to in this paper m ay be replaced throughout th is pape r by th e word phoneme without modifying my meaningin the slightest degree. B y sound changes I m ean, as practical ly ever y investigator of this ¿eld now means, phoneme
changes. For the meaning of phoneme see Leonard Bloomfield, "A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language,"
Language, Vol . II (1926), 157. In addit ion one m ay profitably consult Ed war d Sapir , "Soun d Patterns in Lan-g u a g e , " Language > Vol. I (1925), 37.
c » :
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m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s m e d i a . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t i n c o u n t i n g t h e s o u n d s o f a r e a s o n -
a b l y l o n g p i e c e o f c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e t o fin d b y a c t u a l c o u n t t h e t e n u e s m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e i r
c o r re s p o n d in g m e d i a e — m o r e i 's t h a n d 's , m o r e k's t h a n g ' s , m o r e p's t h a n b's.
T h e t a b l e o n p a g e 2 , r e p r i n t e d f r o m tn y o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h i s i s s t r i k i n g l y t r u e . 1
A n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e t a b l e a r e c l e a r .
W h e n , e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f c h a n g e o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e o f w o r d s i n t h e f o l k v o c a b u l a r y , o r
b e c a u s e o f t h e a d d i t i o n o f n e w o r t h e d e l e t i o n o f h i t h e r t o f a m i l i a r w o r d s , t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f
a s o u n d in c r e a s e s , t h e s o u n d t e n d s t o b e c o m e l e s s c o n s p i c u o u s , e i t h e r b y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e c o n -
s p i c u o u s n e s s o f o n e o r m o r e o f i t s i n c r e m e n t s , o r b y a b a n d o n i n g o n e o r m o r e o f i t s i n c r e m e n t s
e n t i r e l y . S o a f o r t i s d m a y b e c o m e a l e n i s d, o r e v e n a t. A n d c o n v e r s e l y , i f t h e s o u n d b e c o m e s
r e l a t i v e l y r a r e r , i t m a y a d d t o i t s i n c r e m e n t s . I n t h i s f a s h i o n a i m a y b e c o m e a d, a ih , o r a is; o r
a len i s d m a y b e c o m e a f o r t i s d o r a dh . I n t h i s f a s h i o n s o u n d s h i f t s t a k e p l a c e .
T h e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b a re . e x a m p l e s o f t h e f o r m e r . H a v i n g b e c o m e m o r e f r e q u e n t
t h a n p, a s o u r t a b l e s h o w s , th e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b h a v e w e a k e n e d i n b o t h t h e i r i n c r e -
m e n t o f v o i c e a n d e x p l o s i v e n e s s , a n d h a v e b e c o m e a s o u n d n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s o f t l y v o i c e d
E n g l i s h p. S p a n i s h l i k e w i s e e x h i b i t s a s i m i l a r c h a n g e w i t h i t s d, w h i c h , b e c a u s e o f i t s e x c e s s i v ef r e q u e n c y , h a s i n m o s t p o s i t i o n s l o s t i t s increment of explosion a n d b e c o m e a n 3 " . H e n c e i t h a p p e n s
t h a t t h e s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l s o u n d s i n v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s m a y v a r y i n d e g r e e o f e x p l o s i v e n e s s ,
a m o u n t o f a s p i r a t i o n , o r v o i c e . S o m e c r i t i c s b e l i e v e t h i s v a r i a t i o n v i t i a t e s t h e Principle of Rela-
tive Frequency. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t w o u l d b e h i g h l y o d d , a s w i l l a p p e a r b e l o w , if t h i s v a r i a t i o n
w e r e n o t t h e re . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e t a b l e I m u s t h o w e v e r r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o
t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e . L e t u s t u r n n o w t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o t h e t a b l e , i n a s -
m u c h a s t h e p r e s e n t C h i n e s e d a t a a r e i n t e n d e d t o a n s w e r m o s t , if n o t a l l , o f t h e m .
T h e f irs t o b j e c t i o n i s b y f a r t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t , n a m e l y t h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t
p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s . T o t h i s m a y I s a y a g a i n t h a t t h e f ig ur es i n t h e t a b l e f o r s o m e o f t h e
l a n g u a g e s d o r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; f o r s o m e o f t h e m o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e p h o -
n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; a n d f o r s o m e , n o t a b l y t h o s e f o r t h e d e a d l a n g u a g e s , i n c o n s i d e r i n g l e t t e r s a s
s o u n d s , c o m e a s cl o s e to a p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n a s w e s h a l l e v e r o b t a i n . I t i s c o m m o n p l a c e t o
s a y t h a t o u r a l p h a b e t s a r e n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y e x a c t . B u t , i n s o s a y i n g , l e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t o u r a l -
p h a b e t s i n g e n e r a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e g a r d t o c o n s o n a n t s , d o n o t a l w a y s u t t e r l y a n d c o m p l e t e l y d i s -
r e g a r d p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g , a s i t w e r e , n o e a r t h l y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a c t u a l p r o -
n u n c i a t i o n . S a n s k r i t , a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i s s o e x a c t i n i t s a l p h a b e t t h a t o n e m i g h t s a f e l y s a y t h a t
i t i s t r u l y a p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f t h e r e a d e r is n o t i m p r e s s e d b y t h e i n c o n -
t e s t a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e p e r c e n t a g e s i n t h e t a b l e , h e m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e t a b l e o n w h a t e v e r
g r o u n d s h e w i s h e s . B u t h e m a y n o t d i s c a r d t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s o n t h e g r o u n d o f p h o n e t i c
t r a n s c r i p t i o n , f o r t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s r e p r e s e n t c a r e f u l a n d e x a c t p h o n e t i c v a l u e s ; t h e t r a n -
s c r i p t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e a p p e n d i x .T h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h conspicuousness? I t h a s b e e n o b j e c t e d t h a t a s o u n d w h i c h i s
e a s y f o r o n e p e r s o n t o p r o n o u n c e m a y b e d i f f i c u l t f o r a n o t h e r , m e a n i n g b y t h i s t h a t a G e r m a n ,
f o r e x a m p l e , fin ds t h e E n g l i s h ih m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n d o e s a n E n g l i s h m a n . B u t t h i s a g a i n h a s
n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. J u s t a s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f a
s o u n d m e a n s t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s o u n d r e l a t i v e t o th e o t h e r s o u n d s o f t h e s a m e d i a l e c t a n d o b -
1 Zipf, op. eii., p. 61. T he various sources of these statistics and con trol figures, togethe r with a criticismof the method by which the statistics were obtained, are given on pp. 42 5.
1 Cf . E . Herm a n n , pp. cii., p. 602.
C3 J
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v i o u s l y n o t t o s o u n d s i n g e n e r a l , s o t o o t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a n y s o u n d i s r e l a t i v e o n l y t o t h e
c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s oS o t h e r s o u n d s i n t h e s a m e d i a l e c t . I t w o u l d b e a b s u r d t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s l a w
s h o u l d w o r k f o r t i n g e n e r a l a n d d i n g e n e r a l ; a f o r t i s t, a s s a i d b e f o r e , m a y b e m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s
t h a n a l e n i s d. I f s o , i t s h o u l d b e l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e d. M o r e o v e r i t i s n o t l ik e l y t h a t a n y s o u n d
o r g r o u p o f s o u n d s w i l l b e a s e a s y f o r a s p e a k e r t o u t t e r o r a h e a r e r t o p e r c e i v e a s a s o u n d o r
s o u n d s o f t h e n a t i v e s p e e c h p a t t e r n . I f t h e r e a d e r w i s h e s , h e m a y d i s c a r d t h e p r e v i o u s t a b l e o nt h e s o m e w h a t d o u b t f u l g r o u n d s t h a t a F r e n c h t , f o r e x a m p l e , is p r o n o u n c e d i n m a n y w a y s , a n d
a d d t h a t th e s t r i k i n g c o r re l a t io n is n o t h i n g b u t r a n d o m c h a n c e . B u t h e m a y n o t d i sc a r d t h e
C h i n e s e figu res f o r t h a t r e a s o n ; fo r t h e a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r
d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g .
T h e t h i r d , a n d I t h i n k t h e l a s t , s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n , i s t h a t t h e s a m e s o u n d v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y ,
a n d h e n c e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s . T h i s i s u n -
d o u b t e d l y t r u e . A s P r o f e s s o r E l i s e R i c h t e r p o i n t s o u t , ' a m o n g o t h e r e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e s , t h e G e r -
m a n p a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a w o r d , b e t w e e n s y l l a b l e s , a n d a t t h e e n d o f a w o r d r e p r e s e n t s t h r e e d i f -
f e r e n t a n d p h o n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t s o u n d s ; s h e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r G e r m a n p a r e ,
t h e r e f o r e , n o t v a l i d u n t i l t h e s e p's a r e e a c h s e g r e g a t e d . S h e s u g g e s t s r e c o u r s e t o e x p e r i m e n t a lp h o n e t i c s . I t h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y a n o t h e r t h a t I a v o i d t h e is s u e e n t i r e l y b y u s i n g t h e w o r d
phoneme i n s t e a d o f sound, i m p l y i n g t h e r e b y t h a t s o u n d s w h o s e d i f f e r e n c e i s d e t e c t a b l e o n l y b y t h e
s k i l l f u l r e a d i n g of a r e c o r d i n g a p p a r a t u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d f o r l i n g u i s t i c p u r p o s e s a s i d e n t i c a l
s o u n d s . I m y s e l f h a d h o p e d t o a v o i d t h i s t r o u b l e s o m e i s su e o n p a g e 4 1 o f t h e o r i g in a l a r t i c l e b y
s t a t i n g t h a t w h e n a s o u n d b e c a m e m o r e f r e q u e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t e n d e d t o d i m i n i s h i n c o n -
s p i c u o u s n e s s , i t s w e a k e n i n g w o u l d f irst c o m m e n c e i n th o s e p o s i t i o n s w h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s
w e r e p r o p i t i o u s f o r a w e a k e n i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a b, b e c o m i n g t o o f r e q u e n t , t e n d e d t o lo s e , l e t u s
s a y , i t s increment oj voice, i t w o u l d i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y l o se i t s o o n e r a n d e a s i e r i f s u r r o u n d e d b y
v o i c e l e s s s o u n d s , t h a n i t w o u l d b e t w e e n v o w e l s ; i t w o u l d b e m o r e a p t t o l o s e i t s v o i c e i n g ebst o r
hebst t h a n i n geben o r heben. A n d if o n e c o n s id e r s l a n g u a g e a s s o m e t h i n g d y n a m i c , s o m e t h i n g
l i v i n g , a n d o n e h a p p e n e d t o r e c o r d t h e l a n g u a g e p h o n e t i c a l l y a s a g r a d u a l w e a k e n i n g w e r e t a k i n g
p l a c e , o n e c o u l d n o t r e a s o n a b l y s a y t h a t t h e Principle f a i l e d t o f u n c t i o n s i m p l y b e c a u s e a d i f -
f e r e n c e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n w a s o b s e r v a b l e i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a n e a s i e r w a y t o r e f u t e t h e p h o n e t i c i s t t h a n b y a t t e m p t i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e
t o h i m t h a t t h e v e r y p h e n o m e n a h e p o i n t s t o a s d i s p r o o f a r e i n r e a l i t y a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e
w o r k i n g o f t h e Principle. L e t u s t a k e r a t h e r a l a n g u a g e w h e r e t h i s p r o b l e m d o e s n o t a r i s e a n d
t e s t i t s c o n s o n a n t s . L e t u s e x a m i n e t h e d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g , w h i c h i s m o n o s y l l a b i c i n s t r u c t u r e . I n
t h e d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g , a c o n s o n a n t i s u s e d o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s y l l a b l e a n d i s a l w a y s f o l -
l o w e d b y a v o w e l . T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s a fin al c o n s o n a n t . T h e la n g u a g e , b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y
m o n o s y l l a b i c , o f f e r s n o s e r i o u s p r o b l e m o f i n t e r s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t s . I n r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f
t h e c o n s o n a n t , e v e r y t h i n g i s a b s o l u t e l y c o n s t a n t . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o c o n s i d e r b u t t h e a c t u a l c o n -
s p i c u o u s n e s s o f t h e s o u n d .
N o r i s t h e r e a n y d i f f i c u l t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n s o n a n t i n e a c h p a i r i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .
E v e n t h e e a r l ie s t r o r o a n i z a t i o n s s h o w i t ; a ll p h o n e t i c i s t s a g r e e a b o u t i t ; i t i s a t o n c e e v i d e n t t o
a n y o n e l i s t e n i n g t o a n a t i v e o f P e k i n g s p e a k . T h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a i s d e c i d e d l y m o r e c o n -
s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e f a i n t l e n i s m e d i a . 1 F o r s o w e a k i s t h e v o i c e i n t h e l e n i s m e d i a , t h a t t h e r e i s
d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r i t s h o u l d b e s t b e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h a R o m a n m e d i a o r t e n u i s ( e . g . b y a 6 o r p) .
A n d s o s t r o n g i s t h e a s p i r a t i o n a n d f o r c e o f t h e t e n u i s , t h a t s e v e r a l o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n d i c a t e i t
1Op. cit., pp. 293 B.
2 For a careful and thorough discussion of Chinese phonetics, see Bemhard Karlgren: Etudes sur la phonologic
chinoise, Leyden and Stockholm, 1915, pp. 223 r i .
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w i t h a f o l l o w i n g " , ( e . g . p c , k " , t ", e t c . , a s i n t h e W a d e S y s t e m ) . F o r m y o w n t r a n s c r i p t i o n s I h a v e
u s e d t h e p h o n e t i c s y s t e m r e c o m m e n d e d b y C h a o , 1 p u r e l y f o r i t s g r e a t e r s i m p l i c i t y a n d b r e v i t y :
t h e m e d i a is u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e l e n i s , t h e t e n u i s t r a n s c r i b e s t h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a . B u t t h a t
t h e r e a d e r m a y n o t b e c o n f u s e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r a ll s o u n d s i n t h e t a b l e s o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7
i n d i c a t e th e f o u r d i f f e r e n t w a y s in c u r r e n t u s e f o r tr a n s c r i b i n g C h i n e s e s o u n d s .
A n d s o t h e C h i n e s e fig ure s w i l l b e a n a n s w e r t o e v e r y c r i t i c i s m m a d e o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e
t h e o r y . I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 2 2 d o e s n o t f i n d i t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e s o u n d s o f m o s t o f t h e
l a n g u a g e s a g r e e r o u g h l y i n p e r c e n t a g e s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y g o b a c k t o t h e s a m e d i a l e c t f o u r t h o u -
s a n d y e a r s a g o , s u c h a n a r g u m e n t , a s s t r a i n e d a s i t s e e m s t o m e , d r o p s w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s C h i n e s e .
I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 3 , i n c o n c l u d i n g h i s c r i t i c i s m , e x p r e s s e s h i s s u r p r i s e , a f t e r a l l ,
t h a t t h e t e n u e s s h o u l d b e g e n e r a l l y m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n th e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e d i a e , a n d w o n d e r s
a t t h e r e a s o n , l e t h i m l o o k a t t h e s e fig ur es a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t o n p a g e 5 9 9 h e d i d , a f t e r a l l , c o n -
c e d e t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e o f t h e a r g u m e n t a p p e a r e d i n c o n t e s t a b l e .
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency, t h e f a i n t lenes mediae s h o u l d b e d e c i d e d l y
m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g fortes mediae aspiratae, a n d t h e y a r e :
d/t i/p t / t cj/a m ts/ts
lenis media 6.iS% 2-37 % 2.58 % 2.69 % 2.44 % 2.63 %fortis tenuis aspi-
rata 2.56 •56 1.02 1.04 1.23 r.40
M a y i t b e o b s e r v e d t h a t l i k e w i s e i n C h i n e s e t h e d e n t a l s ( c e r e b r a l s ) ar e d e c i d e d l y m o r e f r e -
q u e n t t h a n t h e l a b i a l s o r g u t t u r a l s . 3 I n t h e e v e n t t h a t o n e b e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e n u m b e r o f o c c u r -
r e n c e s o f a l l s o u n d s , h e w i l l f in d i n t h e t a b l e s , o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7 , t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f o c c u r r e n c e s
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e n t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s o f t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
T h e c o l u m n w i t h a n X a t t h e t o p i s C h a o ' s r e c o m m e n d e d p h o n e t i c s y s t e m w h i c h is u s e d i n t h et r a n s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n i n f u l l i n A p p e n d i x B .
T h e figure s a r e b a s e d o n a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t w e n t y s e l e c t i o n s o f c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e , e a c h
s e l e c t i o n o n e t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s o r i d e o g r a p h s l o n g . T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n r e a d s f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t ;
e a c h s q u a r e c o n t a i n s a C h i n e s e i d e o g r a p h r e p r e s e n t i n g a s y l l a b l e . I n t h e u p p e r l e f t h a n d c o r n e r
o f e a c h s q u a r e i s t h e n u m b e r o f t h a t s y l l a b l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s ; t h e n u m b e r
a t t h e l o w e r r i g h t i s t h e t o n e o f t h e w o r d ( * , r , 2 , 3 , 4 ) ; a n d u n d e r n e a t h i s t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n -
s c r i p t io n f o r e a c h s y l l a b l e . T h e t o n e s a n d t r a n s c r i p t i o n s a re a c c o r d i n g t o D r . Y u e n R e n C h a o ' s
A Phonetic Dictionary of the Chinese National Language, S h a n g h a i ( 1 9 2 6 ) , t h e C o m m e r c i a l
P r e s s . T h o u g h C h a o g i v e s a l l t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r e a c h w o r d , m y t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e a p p e n -
d i x u s e o n l y t h e " B r o a d e r S y s t e m of I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c S y m b o l s " b a s e d u p o n " L ' é c r i t u r e
p h o n é t i q u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e x p o s é p o p u l a i r e , " p u b l i s h e d b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a -
t i o n .
1 Se e infra.
' Of. cit.3 S ee F u Lu : Etude Expérim entale sur les tens du Chinois, Paris and Peking, 1925, p. 105, for a transcription,
according to a different system , of 25s Peking words. T he fre que ncy of the consonants in L u' s transcription indi-cates the same relationship as my own and can be considered a control.
i s l
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PART II
Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and
Semantic Change
T H E p r e s e n t s t u d y d e a l s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e a n d i s i n t e n d e d t o s h o w t h e r e l a -
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e m a n t i c c h a n g e a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n o n t h e s u b j e c t o f
s e m a s i o l o g y b y l i n g u i s t s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s , y e t , a s f a r a s I k n o w , l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g
h a s b e e n d o n e f r o m t h e a n g l e o f a b b r e v i a t i o n . A n d b e l i e v i n g t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n i s t h e v e r y c r u x
o f t h e m a t t e r , I p r e f e r t o d i s r e g a r d , f o r t h e p r e s e n t , a l l p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t a n d
t o b u i l d u p m y p r e s e n t t h e o r y b y a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e o b v i o u s e x a m p l e s o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e
s u c h a s t h e y o c c u r i n t h e e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l — o f a n y i n d i v i d u a l , b e h e o l d o r
y o u n g , w i s e o r f o o l i s h , s i c k o r w e l l , m a d o r s a n e . I n t h e e n s u i n g p a g e s m u c h w i l l b e s a i d a b o u t
t h e " m e a n i n g " o f w o r d s a n d a v e r y g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e " e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y " o f
w o r d s , d o m a i n s ^ b i t h e r t o a n d f o r n o g o o d r e a s o n c o n s i d e r e d p r i m a r i l y p r o p e r f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h e r
a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t . B u t si n c e t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s o f w o r d s a r e , t o m y m i n d , n o t d i v o r c e d f r o m a b -
b r e v i a t i o n , a s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e a s t h a t m a y s e e m t o t h e r e a d e r a t t h is t im e , I s h a l l k e e p t h i s
p a p e r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f l i n g u i s t i c s , a n d t r y t o a v o i d f i r s t , a n i n t r i c a t e p o r t r a i t o f w h a t i s c o n -
s i d e r e d t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n m i n d , a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e e t e r n a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e" s y m b o l i c " t o t h e " r e a l , " h o p i n g , t h e r e b y , t o e s c a p e t w o k n o t t y p r o b le m s w h i c h i n v a r i a b l y
s p e l l t h e d o w n f a l l o f s e m a s i o l o g i s t s w h o b e g i n w i t h a c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f m i n d o r r e a l i t y .
F o r f r a n k l y , w e k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n m i n d a n d v e r y l it t l e a b o u t r e a l i t y .
T h e r e a r e t h e o r i e s t o b e s u r e , b u t t h e s e t h e o r i e s c o n f l i c t s o g r a v e l y t h a t a f r a n k e x a m i n a t i o n o f
t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e w i l l, i n m y b e l i e f , b e m o r e a p t t o t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e p r o c e s s o f m i n d t h a n
t h e o r i e s o f m i n d o n t h e p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e . F o r t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e a r e t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e ,
j u s t a s t h e f a c t s o f g r a v i t a t i o n a r e t h e f a c t s o f g r a v i t a t i o n . A n d j u s t a s w e s h o u l d s m i l e a t a
p h y s i c i s t w h o d e v o t e d h i s t i m e t o e x p l a i n i n g h o w m u c h m o r e p i c t u r e s q u e n a t u r e w o u l d b e i f
g r a v i t a t i o n f o l l o w e d t h e i n v e r s e c u b e i n s t e a d o f t h e i n v e r s e s q u a r e , s o w e s h o u l d s m i l e a t t h e
p e r s o n - w h o s p e n d s h i s t im e t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e u s t h a t " c o r r e c t " l a n g u a g e s h o u l d b e o f t h is n a -t u r e a n d n o t o f t h a t . H e n c e , h o w o n e should e x p r e s s o n e s e l f i s o f n o c o n c e r n i n t h i s p a p e r , b u t
r a t h e r h o w o n e does e x p r e s s o n e s e l f . T o b e s u r e , t h e r e a d e r w i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y g l i m p s e b e h i n d
m y s t a t e m e n t s t h e t h o u g h t s o f o t h e r s . T h e r e a s o n I d o n o t i n t e r l a r d t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r w i t h
r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f o t h e r s i s n o t t h a t I d o n o t w i l l i n g l y c o n c e d e t h a t t h e w o r k s o f
o t h e r s h a v e o f t e n b e e n e i t h e r a n i n s p i r a t i o n o r a r e - a s s u r a n c e , a n d t h a t w i t h o u t t h e m t h i s
t h e o r y o f a b b r e v i a t i o n w o u l d h a v e p r o s p e r e d m o r e s l o w l y , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h i s t h e o r y f o r b e t t e r
o r f o r w o r s e s h o u l d s t a n d o n i t s o w n f e e t w i t h o u t r e s t i n g i n a n y w a y u p o n a u t h o r i t y .
B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p o i n t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a s m u c h a s t h i s p a p e r i s
a d d r e s s e d p r i m a r i l y t o l i n g u i s t s . T h e t h e o r y o f Relative Frequency i s a s t a t i s t i c a l l a w a n d , a s
s u c h , f a l ls w i t h i n t h e la w s o f p r o b a b i l i t y . L e t u s r e v i e w , b r i e f l y , w h a t i s m e a n t i n p a r t b y p r o b -
a b i l i t y . W h e n t h e o d d s a r e e v e n , i t m e a n s t h a t e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y c o v e r e d b y t h e o d d s m a y
m
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h a p p e n ; w h e n t h e o d d s a r e t e n t o o n e , i t m e a n s t h a t e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y m a y h a p p e n ; w h e n t h e
odds a r e a t r i l l i o n t o o n e , e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y s t i l l m a y h a p p e n , a n d i t i s n o d i s p r o o f o f a l a w ,
b a s e d o n p r o b a b i l i t y , i f t h a t r e m o t e c h a n c e s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e . T h e e n t i r e Principle of Relative
Frequency i s b a s e d o n p r o b a b i l i t y . S o u n d c h a n g e s a r e t o o g e n e r a l a n d c o n s i s t e n t t o a l l o w t h a t
s o u n d l a w s a r e a n y t h i n g b u t b a s i c , d y n a m i c , p e r v a s i v e l a w s ; b u t t h e e x c e p t i o n s a r e n u m e r i c a l l y
t o o a b u n d a n t a n d c o n f l i c ti n g t h a t th e y m a y a l l b e c h a r g e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t o t h e a c -e o t m t o f p r e h i s t o r i c l i n g u i s t i c s u b s t r a t a o r p r e h i s t o r i c d i a l e c t a l d i v e r g e n c e s . O n e c a n n o t d e n y
t h e p o s s i b le i n f l u e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s u b s t r a t a a n d r e m o t e d i a l e c t a l d i v e r g e n c e s ; b u t t h a t p u r e
c h a n c e p l a y s s o m e r dl e i n s o u n d c h a n g e l i k e w i s e c a n n o t b e d i s r e g a r d e d . F o r , a f t e r a l l , h o w e l s e
c a n o n e e x p l a in t h e e n o r m o u s d i v e r s i t y f o l l o w i n g u p o n a n y m a j o r s o u n d s h i f t ?
I a l l u d e to a l l t h i s n o w b e c a u s e s o m e h a v e t a k e n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e Principle of Relative Fre-
quency s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t i s s t a t i s t i c a l . F o r s t a t i s t i c s a r e h a t e f u l t o t h e h u m a n m i n d ; t h e y a r e
p a i n f u l l y d e fi n i te f o r t h e g r o u p w i t h o u t b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d e f i n i te f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . U n -
d o u b t e d l y , a p r i m a r y l a w w h i c h k n o w s n o flu ctu atio n w i t h i n i t s el f i s p l e a s a n t e r . I f n a t u r e h a d
c o n s u lt e d m a n i n t h e m a t t e r , w e s h o u l d a l l h a v e s u g g e s t e d p r i m a r y l a w s , f r o m t h e i n s t i n c t i v e
f e a r t h a t s o m e d a y W h i r l m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e c o m e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g f i r s t o f a l l t h a t e v e n i n as t a t i s t i c a l l a w i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r W h i r l t o b e c o m e c o m p l e t e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g , l i k e w i s e , t h a t i n m a n y
p e r s o n a l i t i e s W h i r l d o e s s e e m in a w a y t o b e k i n g . B u t n a t u r e d i d n o t c o n s u l t u s i n t h e m a t t e r
a n d h a s s e e n f i t t o l e t t h e l a w s o f c h a n c e g o v e r n v a s t p o r t i o n s o f t h e b a s i c o r d e r o f t h e p h y s i c a l
u n i v e r s e , a s w e l l a s n o s m a l l a m o u n t o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l . Y o u m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e Principle of Rela-
tive Frequency b e c a u s e y o u d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e s t a t i s t i c s s i g n i f i c a n t ; y o u c a n n o t d i s c a r d i t ,
h o w e v e r , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l a w i s n o t r e s p e c t a b l e . A n d s o w i t h t h e c r i t i c s w h o
h a v e r e s e n t e d t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h i s t h e o r y , a n d w h o s e n a m e s I h e r e o m i t , I c a n o n l y
a g r e e t h a t i t i s p e r h a p s n o t p l e a s a n t t o k n o w t h a t a l l c o l o r s g o b a c k t o t h r e e p r i m a r y c o l o r s ,
t h a t a l l m a t t e r i s r e d u c i b l e t o p r o t o n s a n d e l e c t r o n s i n m o t i o n , y e t n a t u r e r e a l l y s e e m s t o h a v e
b e e n s o b o l d a s t o d e c i d e t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h o u t a s k i n g f o r t h e p h i l o l o g i s t ' s e x q u i s i t e o p i n i o n .
A n d n o w t o th e m a t t e r a t h a n d .T h e r e a r e f o u r i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r is t i c s w h i c h a r e e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e i n w o r d s , p e r h a p s n o t
a l l f o u r i n e v e r y w o r d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e a r e w o r d s w h i c h h a v e a t l e a s t o n e a n d e v e n m o r e , n o r
a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s o u n u s u a l t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e m a s i m p o r t a n t . T h e
first is meaning, t h a t e l u s i v e a t t r i b u t e of a w o r d , s o i m p o r t a n t a n d y e t o f t e n so h a r d t o d e s c r i b e .
S e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s quality, b y w h i c h I m e a n t h a t a w o r d m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g d e s i r a b l e f o r
t h e e g o (positive quality) o r s o m e t h i n g u n d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e e g o ( negative quality). " H o n o r " i s
g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e ; " d e a t h " g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e . T h i r d l y , w o r d s h a v e e m o t i o n a l intensity, w h i c h
i s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n v a l u e : c o m p a r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , t h e intensity i n d i c a t e s h o w m u c h w e
s h o u l d l i k e t o o b t a i n t h e p o s i t i v e o r h o w m u c h w e s h o u l d l ik e t o a v o i d t h e n e g a t i v e . T h e f o u r t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c I s h a l l c a l l order-, a n d f o r t h e p r e s e n t , l e t u s c o n s i d e r o r d e r n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e
w o r d ' s p a r t of s p e e c h , — a d v e r b , n o u n , e t c . I s h a l l n o t t r y t o d e f i n e t h e s e f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f u r t h e r h e r e , b u t b y e x a m i n i n g t h e p ro c e s s e s o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e t r y t o m a k e c l e a r e r m y u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g b o t h of t h e ir n a t u r e a n d o f th e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n s e m a n t i c c h a n g e .
B y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e I s h a l l m e a n a c h a n g e w h e r e b y o n e s y m b o l i s t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y
s u b st it u te d f o r a n o t h er . E x a m p l e s a r e w i t h o u t n u m b e r . C a l l in g a " m a n " a " d o g , " a " w o m a n "
a " p e a c h , " t h e " m o o n " a i l c a n d l e , " m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t e m p o r a r y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , u n t i l t h e i r
u s e i n t h i s s e n s e b e c o m e s so f r e q u e n t a n d g e n e r a l t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o f " d o g , "
p e a c h , " a n d " c a n d l e " b e c o m e s s e c o n d a r y t o t h e n e w p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o r
a s p e c t o f " m a n , " " w o m a n , " a n d " m o o n . " W h e n a g i v e n s u b s t i t u ti o n o c c u r s b u t r a r e l y , w e c al l
t h e c h a n g e a metaphor. H o w e v e r , a s t h e g i v e n s u b s t i t u t i o n b e c o m e s e v e r m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d g e n -
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e r a l , t h e o r i g i n a l l y r a r e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d f i n a l l y b e c o m e s a s u b - m e a n i n g , a c o - i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
t h e w o r d , a connotation. I n t h i s f a s h i o n , " k i d , " a t o n e t i m e " a y o u n g g o a t / ' c a m e t o h a v e t h e
connotation " c h i l d " o r " b o y . " W h y " k i d " w a s e v e r s u b s t i t u te d f o r " c h i l d " or " b o y " n e ed n o t
c o n c e r n u s n o w ; i t i s s i m p l y s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t o n c e s u b s t i t u t e d t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t e d
m e a n i n g d e p e n d s l a r g e l y , i f n o t e n t i r e l y , u p o n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o r d w i t h t h e
s u b s t i t u t e d m e a n i n g .
T h i s o n e t h i n g w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , s i n c e i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r a n y s t u d y o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h a t
t h e r e i s n o f ix ed b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n metaphor o r connotation. I t is d i s p u t a b l e w h e t h e r " n u t " i s
m e r e l y a metaphor, o r w h e t h e r b y n o w " q u e e r p e r s o n " i s n o t a connotation o f " n u t . " L i k e w i s e ,
t h e r e i s n o d e f i n i t e l a w e s t a b l i s h i n g f o r a l l t i m e w h a t i s t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o r d e n o t a t i o n o f a
w o r d a n d w h a t i ts s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g o r m e a n i n g s , th e c o n n o t a t i o n s . I f w e t a k e t h e w o r d " b u g -
h o u s e " a s a n e x a m p l e , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r th e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g i s " i n s a n e a s y l u m , " o r
" h o u s e f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r p r o p a g a t i o n o f b u g s . "
I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s , o n e i s a p t t o f e e l t h a t e it h e r t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n -
i n g o r t h e o l d e s t m e a n i n g o r t h e a p t e s t m e a n i n g i s d e c i s i v e . B u t t h a t n o n e o f th e s e a r e f in al is e v i -
d e n t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t o f t e n a t a g i v e n m o m e n t t h e o r i g i n a l o r o ld e s t m e a n i n g i s e i t h e r o b s o -l e s c e n t , o b s o l e t e , o r i n d e e d e v e n e n t ir e l y u n k n o w n . W h a t e v e r " l o r d " m e a n s t o d a y , i t c e r t a i n l y
d o e s n o t m e a n a s in O l d E n g l i s h " g u a r d i a n o f t h e l o a f . " A n d a s f o r a p t n e s s of d e s i g n a t i o n , o n e
c a n b r i n g f o r t h e x a m p l e s w i t h o u t l i m i t t o i l l u s t r a t e th e f r e q u e n t in a p t n e s s of d e s i g n a t i o n . I f o n e
t a k e s " c o c k t a i l , " " h i g h - b a l l , " " m a r s h m a l l o w , " " b o o t l e g , " w i t h o u t e x a m i n i n g t h e s p e ci al h i s t o ry
o f e a c h w o r d a n d w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h a t t h e w o r d s r e f e r t o , o n e w o u l d s i m p l y b e a t u t t e r l o s s
t o g u e s s t h e i r m e a n i n g . A g e , d e r i v a t i o n , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s m u s t b e a l l d i s c a r d e d if o n e s e e k s
t h e a b s o l u t e i n t h e m e a n i n g o f a w o r d . S o m e t i m e s t h e y e x p l a i n t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g ; s o m e t i m e s
n o t . T o m y m i n d , i t i s h i g h l y d o u b t f u l t h a t th e r e i s a n a b s o l u t e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o v e r a n y p e r i o d
o f t i m e , o r w i t h i n a g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s . O n e g a i n s b e s t i n s i g h t i n t o m e a n i n g b y e x a m i n i n g
s h i f t s o f m e a n i n g , — s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s .T h e t e m p o r a r y , s e m i - p e r m a n e n t , a n d p e r m a n e n t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , f o r s o I s h a l l h e n c e f o r t h
d e s i g n a t e t h e s l i d i n g s c a l e f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n t o c o m p l e t e a n d i r r e v o c a b l e s u b -
s t i t u t i o n , d i f fe r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s o n l y i n r e s p e c t t o d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i l i t y . T h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o b -
a b i l i t y t h a t a n y g i v e n w o r d w h e n u s e d w i l l h a v e t h e d e r i v e d o r s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g i n s t e a d o f t h e
p r i m a r y m e a n i n g , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e s em a n t i c c h a n g e . E v e r y v o c a b u -
l a r y a t a n y t i m e r e f l e c t s t h e s e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n i t s w o r d s s o c l e a r l y t h a t
t h e s e m a s i o l o g i s t m a y r i g h t l y s a y t h a t meaning i s s h i f t i n g a n d d e t e r m i n a b l e i n r e s p e c t t o p r i m -
a r i l y o n l y b y t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . A n d t h i s f r e q u e n c y o f us e l i k e w i s e e x p l a i n s o u r f e e l-
i n g s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g s o r t h e f it ti ng m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s . F o r o f t e n
t h e s e m e a n i n g s r e m a i n p r i m a r y . Y e t t h a t o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g s o r a p t m e a n i n g s s o o f t e n c o n t i n u e t o
r e m a i n p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s i s s i m p l y b e c a u s e of a f a v o r i n g p r o b a b i l i t y . A n d i t i s t h i s f a v o r i n g
p r o b a b i l i t y a s w e s h a l l s e e t h a t p r e v e n t s e v e r y t e m p o r a r y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e f r o m a u t o m a t i c a l l y
b e c o m i n g p e r m a n e n t , t h e r e b y r e p l a c i n g t h e o l d e r m e a n i n g s .
" H a m " m e a n s t o u s a k i n d o f m e a t , to a t h e a t r i c a l c i rc l e a " p o o r a c t o r " ; " l a m b " m e a n s to u s
a k i n d o f a n i m a l , t o t h e r a c k e t e e r a " g u i l l i b l e p e r s o n . " A n d s o w e m i g h t p r o c e e d w i t h m a n y w o r d s
w h o s e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s , o r t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f w h o s e s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , v a r i e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t
s o c i a l , o c c u p a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l , c u l t u r a l c i r c le s . A p e r m a n e n t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e i n o n e c i rc l e m a y b e
o n l y t e m p o r a r y o r u n h e a r d o f i n a n o t h e r . H e n c e , p e r m a n e n c y i s r e a l l y a r e l a t i v e a f f a i r , p r i m a r i l y
r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n c i rc l e i n w h i c h i t e n j o y s a p r e p o n d e r a n t r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . A p e r s o n
i s a m e m b e r o f m a n y c i r c l e s , — h i s f a m i l y , h i s o f f i c e , h i s c l u b , t h e c i r c l e c o v e r e d b y h i s j o u r n a l s , h i s
c h u r c h , — a n d t h i s f r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e i n l a n g u a g e . F o r w i t h i n a g i v e n
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c i r c l e a c e r t a i n m e a n i n g , a r r i v e d a t b y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , m a y , b e c a u s e o f I h e r i g h t s o f r e l a t i v e
f r e q u e n c y , b e u n d i s p u t e d k i n g , a n d y e t i n o t h e r c ir c l e s b e u n h e a r d o f . I n d e e d , a w o r d m a y h a v e a
d i f f e r e n t , d e c i d e d p r i m a r y m e a n i n g in e v e r y d i f f e r e n t c i r c l e a n d y e t , w h e n o n e m e a s u r e s t h e r e l a -
t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f m e a n i n g s i n t h e l a r g e g r o u p w h i c h i n c l u d e s a l l t h e o t h e r c i r c l e s ,
f in d t h a t a ll t h e s e l o c a l p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t . A n y t h i n g t h a t t e n d s t o h i n d e r t h e
f r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g o f t h e s e s o c i a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l c i r c l e s , w h e t h e r t h e i m p e d i m e n t b e c a u s e d b yn a t u r e i n t h e f o r m o f r i v e r s , o c e a n s , m o u n t a i n s , d e s e r t s , a n d t h e l i k e , o r b y m a n h i m s e l f t h r o u g h
c u s t o m b a r r i e r s , h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s , d i f f e r e n t a n d s e p a r a t e d m a r k e t c e n t e r s , t r a v e l , d i f f e r e n c e s i n
c u l t u r e a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d t h e l i k e , w i l l t e n d t o r e m o v e t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l a r g e g r o u p
a n d c a u s e t h e l a n g u a g e to d r i f t a p a r t s l o w l y in t o d i a l e c t s . E a c h s m a l l c i r cl e b r o k e n f r o m t h e w h o l e
p u r s u e s i t s s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s u n h i n d e r e d u n t i l i t s v o c a b u l a r y a s u s e d b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e u n -
i n t e l l ig i b l e t o a s e p a r a t e d c i r cl e . I f t h e c h a n g e d f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c h a n g e d v o c a b u l a r y u p s e t s t h e
i n n e r b a l a n c e o f v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s , a s e x p l a i n e d i n P a r t O n e , p h o n e t i c c h a n g e s m a y a d d t o
t h e c l e a v a g e . O n e c ir c l e c a n n o t e x p a n d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o t h e r s , o r o n e c i r c l e c a n n o t is o l a t e i t s e l f
f r o m a ll o t h e r s w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f m e a n i n g , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -
q u e n c y o r r e l a t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e .
T h e N o r m a n i n v a s i o n o f E n g l a n d o r t h e M i d d l e A g e s i n G e r m a n y e x e m p l i f y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f a n e x p a n d i n g c ir c l e a n d o f c o n t r a c t i n g c i r c le s . C o n s e r v a t i v e c h a n g e i n l a n g u a g e is f o u n d w h e r e
t h e s t a t u s r e m a i n s f a i r l y f i x e d t h r o u g h t i m e , a n d i s n o t a t a l l c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f s l a n g
i n t h e l a n g u a g e . F o r a ll l a n g u a g e s h a v e s l a n g ; i f t h e s l a n g o f t o d a y d o e s n o t in toto b e c o m e t h e
g o o d u s a g e o f t o m o r r o w , i t i s n o t b e c a u s e s l a n g i s n o t o l d e r o r n o t m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n g o o d
u s a g e , f o r i t i s o f t e n v e r y o l d a n d i t s u s a g e r e f l e c t s i t s s u i t a b i l i t y . L a n g u a g e i n g o o d u s a g e h a s t h e
l a w s o f c h a n c e t o t h a n k f o r i t s l o n g e v i t y , a n d n o t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e b e l i e f o f s c h o o l m a s t e r s , a n y i n -
h e r e n t v e n e r a b i l i t y o r s u i t a b i l i ty . T h i s is , t o m y m i n d , a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p h e n o m e n a c o v e r e d
b y J o h a n n i s S c h m i d t ' s Wellentheorie, a n d i s t h e b a s i s o f a n y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t i n t h e c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s
o n l i n g u is t ic s u b s t r a t a . H o w e v e r a w o r d m a y r e c e i v e i t s m e a n i n g , a n d w h e t h e r t h e m e a n i n g i s
o r i g i n a l o r a p p r o p r i a t e o r n o t , t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e m e a n i n g a n d of t h e w o r d i t s e l f i s u l t i m a t e l ya m a t t e r o f Relative Frequency. T h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s i m p l y i s t h e c u s t o m a r y o r u s u a l m e a n -
i n g . A w o r d m a y c h a n g e i t s m e a n i n g o v e r n i g h t . Y e t o n l y t h o s e s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s a r e l i k e l y t o
r e m a i n w h i c h a r e o f s e r v i c e t o a d e c i d e d m a j o r i t y . T h e m e a n i n g of a w o r d i s f a r f r o m s t a b l e . B u t
l e t u s t u r n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f j u s t w h a t a w o r d i s .
A w o r d , w h e t h e r i t b e w r i t t e n , s p o k e n , f e l t , o r t h o u g h t i s a t r o o t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d e g r e e o f
a t t e n d a n t c o n s ci o u s n es s , a m e n t a l e v e n t . T o b e s u r e , s o m e t i m e s i t m a y b e p e r c e p t i b l y a c c o m -
p a n i e d b y g e s t u r e s o f t h e v o c a l c o r d s o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e b o d y , o r , a s i n t h e c a s e o f p u r e
t h i n k i n g , i t m a y n o t . I n i t s e l f , a w o r d is n o t h i n g b u t a n e v e n t i n t i m e . T h e m e a n i n g i s s u p p l i e d
b y t h e m i n d o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e m i n d of t h e a u d i t o r , if t h e r e b e a n a u d i t o r . T h e m e a n i n g s d o
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y n e e d t o a g r e e b e t w e e n s p e a k e r a n d a u d i t o r , n o r i s t h e r e n e c e s s a r i l y a c o n s i s t e n c y
o f m e a n i n g f o r t h e s p e a k e r o r h e a r e r o v e r a p er i o d o f ti m e . N o w " c a t " m e a n s " f e l i n e a n i m a l , "
n o w i t m e a n s " w o m a n . " I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t is i n t h e m i n d o f t h e s p e a k e r , t h e w o r d i s a n e x p r e s -
s i o n ; i f i n t h e m i n d o f t h e a u d i t o r , a p e r c e p t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a g e , w i s d o m , e x p e r i e n c e , t r a i n -
i n g , h e a l t h , o r s a n i t y o f e i t h e r . T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a w o r d a s a m e n t a l e v e n t a p p l i e s t o e v e r y l i v i n g
o r g a n i s m t h a t h a s l a n g u a g e . " C o r r e c t " m e a n i n g 01 " p r o p e r " m e a n i n g o f a w o r d s i gn i fi e s n o t h i n g
m o r e t h a n t h a t t h e c i r c l e o r c i r c l e s i n w h i c h t h a t m e a n i n g e n j o y s h i g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y s e e m t o
y o u , b e c a u s e y o u a r e o r a r e n o t i n t h e m , " p r o p e r " a n d " c o r r e c t . "
B u t t h o u g h a w o r d e x i s t s b o t h a s a p e r c e p t i o n a n d a s a n e x p r e s s i o n , I s h a l l h e n c e f o r t h , a s f a r
a s p o s s i b l e , c o n s i d e r i t o n l y a s a n e x p r e s s i o n , — n o t b e c a u s e i t is m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g o r i m p o r t a n t a s
a n e x p r e s s i o n , b u t b e c a u s e a w o r d i s a l w a y s a n e x p r e s s i o n , e v e n i n a n h a l l u c i n a t i o n , t h o u g h n o t
[ n ]
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a l w a y s a p e r c e p t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , l e t u s c o n t i n u e o u r e x a m i n a t i o n f o r c o n v e n i e n c e b y first e x -
a m i n i n g o n l y t h e s p o k e n w o r d . F o r th e s p o k e n w o r d is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h is a l w a y s a c c o m -
p a n i e d b y p e r c e p t i b l e g e s t u r e s . B y g e s t u r e s , I d o n o t m e a n p r i m a r i l y g e s t u r e s o f t h e h a n d s , l e g s ,
a r m s , b u t r a t h e r c e r t a i n s m a l l g e s t u r e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e s a n d t i s s u e s o f th e t h r o a t , m o u t h , l i p s ,
l u n g s , — p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s . Y e t t h a t is n o t a l l . T h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e b l o o d , b r e a t h i n g , a n d o t h e r
b a s i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , t h o u g h n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s p o k e n w o r d , a r e a l s o a n e x t r e m e l y e s -
s e n t i a l p a r t o f a s p o k e n w o r d a n d I s h a l l c a l l t h e m substrata gestures}
W e h a v e th e s e substrata gestures, w h i c h a r e a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e s p o k e n w o r d a n d w h i c h , a s
f a r a s w e c a n s e e , a r e a c o n s t a n t e s c o r t of m e n t a l e v e n t s t h r o u g h l i fe , v a r y i n g t o b e s u r e i n t h e i r
a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e of th e m e n t a l e v e n t . B u t o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t w e k n o w n o t h i n g
m o r e t h a n i t i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h m e a n i n g a n d t h a t t h e s a m e m e a n i n g i s n o t a l w a y s l i n k e d w i t h t h e
s a m e phonetic gestures o r t h e s a m e substrata gestures. T a k i n g t h e s p o k e n w o r d a s s t a n d a r d , t h a t i s,
t h a t p a r t o f t h e s p o k e n w o r d w h i c h w e s h a l l c a l l phonetic gestures, w e fin d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g m a y
v a r y f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n ; li k e w i s e , t h e substrata gestures m a y v a r y d e n o t i n g ,
t h e r e b y , a n e m o t i o n d i f f e r i n g b o t h i n quality a n d intensity. T h e m e n t a l e v e n t c o n t a i n s s o m e -
t h i n g m o r e t h a n m e a n i n g ; i t c o n t a i n s b o t h quality a n d intensity i n a d d i t i o n ; i t c o n t a i n s t h em o m e n t a r y a p p r a i s a l o f t h e m e a n i n g .
B y quality, I m e a n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t , w h e t h e r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t e x p r e s s i n g t h e
m e a n i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e i s positive o r negative. I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s e e m s u l t i m a t e l y t o b e o n t h e
o n e h a n d a r e a c h i n g o u t i n t o e n v i r o n m e n t t o g r a s p in a n y f a s h i o n f o r s o m e s u p p o r t f o r t h e o r -
g a n i s m f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a positive quality. I f , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e
m e n t a l e v e n t i s a s h r i n k i n g b a c k f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t t o e s c a p e a n d t o d e f e n d th e o r g a n i s m f r o m t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a negative quality. T h a t t h e s e q u a l i t i e s e x i s t i n l a n g u a g e i s i n -
d i s p u t a b l e . I t is l i k e w i s e in d i s p u t a b l e t h a t t h e y e x i s t a s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t a n d
s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h o u g h t h e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d m a y d i f f e r f r o m s p e a k e r t o s p e a k e r a n d f r o m
t i m e t o t i m e w i t h t h e s a m e s p e a k e r , y e t i t i s , n o n e t h e l e s s , e x c l u s i v e l y a p a r t o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t .Quality l i k e meaning i s s u b j e c t i v e ; y e t quality i s n o t meaning. T h e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d is p a r t o f
w h a t w e s h a ll c a l l t h e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s o f a w o r d . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s i s w h a t w e
l o o s e l y c a l l intensity.
T o m a k e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s c le a r e r , l e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " c a t " f o r a n e x a m p l e , a s a n y g i v e n p e r -
s o n m a y u s e i t a t a n y g i v e n t i m e . D i s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e q u a l i t y
w i l l b e e i t h e r n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e . T h a t i s , " c a t " w i l l t o t h a t p e r s o n a t t h a t t i m e b e e i t h e r d e -
s i r a b l e f o r t h e e g o , o r u n d e s i r a b l e , o r n e u t r a l , o r m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n n e g a t i v e , o r m o r e n e g a t i v e
t h a n p o s i t i v e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t " m a y b e c o l o r e d b y d es i re o r f e a r , o r b y
n e i t h e r , o r a m i x t u r e o f t h e t w o w h e r e o n e o r n e i t h e r m a y p r e v a i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s q u a l i t y i s
t h e i n t e n s i t y . I f t h e q u a l i t y i s a n x i e t y , t h e i n t e n s i t y is t h e a m o u n t o f a n x i e t y a t t h a t t i m e w i t h
t h a t p e r s o n . T h e m o r e t h e a n x i e t y , t h e g r e a t e r I s h a l l c a l l t h e i n t e n s i t y . T h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e o f
d e s i r e , o x a m i x t u r e o f a n x i e t y a n d d e s i r e , o r o f f e a r , r e m o r s e , o r h a t r e d . H o w l o w t h e i n t e n s i t y o f
a m e n t a l e v e n t m a y b e i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l . B u t t h a t i t m a y g o s o h i g h a s t o d e r a n g e o r d e s t r o y t h e
1 The se basic physiological processes — the functioning oí nerves, lung s, l iver , heart , and the l ike — which Ical l substrata gestures, are concomitant with the mental event, and intimately l inked with i t . li the mental eventvaries suddenly in emotional intensity, the activity of the substrata gestures is ap t to var y: sudden wrath or a nxie ty ,and a sudden change in heart-beat and rapidity of breathing. Wh ether the wrath or anxiety causes the change in thesubstrata gestures, or whether the change in the substrata gestures causes the wrath or anxiety , i t is hard to say.M uc h has been argue d on each side. It is sufficient for the purp oses of t his pap er to assume th at the mental pro c-esses and the physiological processes are concomitant, without an attempted inquiry into which comes first in timeor impo rtance. If the reade r finds this procedure ar bitr ary, let him miss several meals and notice the emotion al con-
dition of his mind; and having done so, let him wait until he is beset with worry and anxiety, and notice the con-dit ion of his appetite.
C 1 2 :
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o r g a n i s m i s n o t u n h e a r d o f . A l l t h i s is c o n t a i n e d i n t h e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t . "
A s t o t h e m e a n i n g , i t m a y h a v e m e a n t " f e l i n e a n i m a l , " o r " w o m a n , " o r a n y n u m b e r o f t h i n g s .
A s m e a n i n g m a y f lu ctu ate , s o t o o m a y q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y f lu ct ua te . E a c h o n e m a y v a r y
a m o n g p e r s o n s , o r w i t h i n t h e s a m e p e r s o n f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . E v e n if t h e r e i s n o i n s t r u m e n t t o
m e a s u r e i n t e n s i t y , o r r e c o r d q u a l i t y , o u r e x p e r i e n c e t e l l s u s t h a t t h e y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t a n t .T h e w o r d " w h i s k e y " m a y b e u t t e r e d w i t h d e s i r e i n o n e i n d i v i d u a l a n d w i t h a v e r s i o n i n a n o t h e r .
W i t h i n t w e l v e h o u r s t h e s a m e p e r s o n m a y s h i f t f r o m h i g h d e s i re to c o m p l e t e a v e r s i o n . I n f a c t , i f
i t w e r e p o s s i b l e f o r a p e r s o n t o c o m p i l e t h e w o r d s h e u s e s a n d t h e o c c a s i o n s a t w h i c h h e u s e s
t h e m i n e x p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f , h e w o u l d b e s u r p r i s e d t o s e e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g , q u a l i t y , a n d
i n t e n s i t y o f m a n y o f t h e w o r d s o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e . Y e t I b e l i e v e h e w o u l d b e e q u a l l y s u r p r i s e d
t o f in d t h a t t h e s e f lu ct ua tio n s i n m e a n i n g a n d in n e r v i v i d n e s s w e r e n o t a b s o l u t e l y a t r a n d o m , a s
h e m i g h t e x p e c t f r o m a d a y t o d a y o b s e r v a t i o n . T h o u g h i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a w o r d h a s a d if -
f e r e n t m e a n i n g e v e r y t i m e i t o c c u r s , y e t i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t m a n y w o r d s w i l l h a v e b u t a f e w m e a n -
i n g s a n d w i l l s h o w a m o n g t h o s e m e a n i n g s d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e s ; t h e m t a n i n g s w i l l a r r a n g e t h e m -
s e l v e s a s p r i m a r y , s e c o n d a r y , e t c . , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e b e c o m p e t i n g m e a n i n g s f o r t h e f ir st , s e c o n d ,
t h i r d p l a c e .
S o , t o o , t h e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d , t h o u g h i t m a y b e r a n d o m l y s h i f t i n g f o r
s o m e w o r d s , c e r t a i n l y w i t h o t h e r w o r d s w i l l s h o w a d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e f o r e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e o r
n e g a t i v e o r a c e r t a i n m i x t u r e o f t h e t w o . L i k e m e a n i n g , q u a l i t y m a y n o t b e i n v a r i a b l y c o n s t a n t ,
b u t l i k e m e a n i n g , i t m a y h a v e a m a r k e d t e n d e n c y o r p r e f e r e n c e .
I n t h e l i k e m a n n e r , t h e i n t e n s i t y , a l t h o u g h i t t o o m a y f lu ct ua te g r e a t l y f o r s o m e w o r d s , s h o u l d
f o r o t h e r s s h o w a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a m o r e m a r k e d s t a b i l i t y , h i g h o r law. T o b e s u r e , a m a n w h i l e
s t a r v i n g m i g h t u s e " b r e a d " w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r i n t e n s i t y t h a n h e w o u l d w h i l e w a l k i n g b y
a b a k e r y s h o p a f t e r d i n n e r . Y e t t h o u g h t h e s e f lu ct ua tio ns m a y b e g r e a t , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e
v a r y i n g s i t u a t i o n s , s t i l l y o u w o u l d h a r d l y b e w i l l i n g t o s a y t h a t f r o m d a y t o d a y t h e m e a n i n g s ,
q u a l i t ie s , a n d in t e n s i t i e s o f y o u r w o r d s v a r y a b s o l u t e l y a t r a n d o m . S o , t o o , y o u c a n n o t s a y t h a tt h e y d o n o t v a r y a t a l l , e s t i m a t i n g m e a n i n g s , q u a l i t i e s , i n t e n s i t i e s a s t h e y a r e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d
a t t h e e n d o f a p e r i o d o f t i m e — a d a y , a m o n t h , a y e a r , a d e c a d e , a s c o r e o f y e a r s , a l i f e - t i m e . I f
t h e inner vividness fo r m an y wo rd s do es no t f luctuate a t a l l ov er a g i v en peri o d, or i f i t f luctuates
a g r e a t d e a l o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h is m a y b e s y m p t o m a t i c o f a s e r io u s m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n . Y e t n o
m a t t e r h o w s e r i o u s t h e m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e e v e n t s o f h i s m i n d w o u l d c o n s t i -
t u t e l a n g u a g e .
I n l i g h t o f t h e a b o v e , w e m a y s a y t h e n o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s t h a t f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o u p o f i n -
d i v i d u a l s a t o n e t i m e , o r f o r a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d o f t i m e , w o r d s i n s p i t e o f
a l l t h e i r f lu ctu at io ns s h o w a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a p r e f e r e n c e of m e a n i n g , t o w a r d a s t a b i l i t y o f q u a l -
i t y , w h a t e v e r t h e q u a l i t y m a y b e , a n d t o w a r d a c o n s t a n c y o f i n t e n s i t y . T o b e s u r e , w e h a v e n o
p o s i t i v e w a y o f k n o w i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s a p p l i e s t o a i l e v e n t s o f t h e m i n d , s i n c e w e h a v e n ow a y o f e x a m i n i n g m i n d e x c e p t t h r o u g h i t s e x p r e s s i o n s , a n d w e c a n o n l y a p p r e c i a t e e x p r e s s i o n s o f
t h e m i n d w h e n t h e y h a v e s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a p r e f e r e n c e fo r m e a n i n g , a s t a b i l i t y o f q u a l i t y ,
a n d a c o n s t a n c y o f i n t e n s i t y . B u t t h a t i t i s i n g e n e r a l t r u e f o r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s of s p o k e n l a n -
g u a g e i s c r y s t a l c l e a r , s i n c e a l l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n a t a c i t " a c c e p t a t i o n " o f p r i m a r y
m e a n i n g s , q u a l i t i e s , a n d i n t e n s i t ie s . T h e " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g s n e e d o n l y b e a p p r o x i m a t e , l ik e -
w i s e t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d i n t e n s i t i e s , v a r y i n g m o r e o r l e s s a s t h e y d o f r o m i n d i v i d u a l t o i n d i v i d u a l .
B u t t h a t t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t s o m e w h e r e i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of d i c t i o n -
a r i es . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u s u a l m e a n i n g i s t h e u s u a l m e a n i n g , t h e u s u a l q u a l i t y t h e u s u a l q u a l i t y ,
t h e u s u a l i n t e n s i t y t h e u s u a l i n t e n s i t y . W e a r e a g a i n i n t h e fie ld o f p r o b a b i l i t y .
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A n d e v e n i n c a s e s w h e r e t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i s n o t w h a t w e n o r m a l l y c o n s id e r c o m m u n i c a -
t i o n , t h a t i s , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f a p e r s o n r a v i n g w i t h m a d n e s s o r d e l i r i u m , s t i l l t h i s
l a n g u a g e o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e r e v e a l s t o t h e s k i l l f u l o b s e r v e r a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f m e a n i n g ,
q u a l i t y , a n d i n t e n s i t y — p e r h a p s a t u t t e r v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e " a c c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s — y e t
n o n e t h e l e s s , f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t , r e l a t i v e t o t h e p a t i e n t .A n d e v e n w h e r e s p e e c h i s n o t a c c e s s o r y t o m e n t a l e x p r e s s i o n , t h a t i s , i n ou r d r e a m s a n d p h a n -
t a s i e s , t h o u g h t h e m e a n i n g s o f t h e s y m b o l s a r e i l l u s i v e e v e n t o t h e d r e a m e r , a n d t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d
i n t e n s i t i e s f a r f r o m o b v i o u s , y e t t h e g r e a t s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h a t f i e l d h a v e m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t s o m e o f
t h e s y m b o l s t e n d t o r e c u r w i t h a c o n s i s t e n c y o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s , n o t o n l y f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i s t e n t t o
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t s o m e t i m e s c o n s i s t e n t o v e r g r e a t g r o u p s o f p e o p l e .
A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e r e m u s t b e a r o u g h c o n s i s t e n c y o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s t h r o u g h o u t l i f e , e v e n
t h o u g h t h e m e n t a l e v e n t is i n n o w a y p e r c e p t i b l e . A t l e a s t, e v e r y l i v i n g m o r t a l a s s u m e s a d a y t o
d a y c o n s i s t e n c y b o t h i n h i m s e l f a n d i n o t h e r s . W e a s s u m e t h a t w e s h a l l l i k e a n d d i s l i k e t o m o r r o w
w h a t w e l ik e a n d d i s l i k e t o d a y ; t h a t w e s h a l l t h i n k a n d f e e l a n d " r e a s o n " t o m o r r o w a s w c t h i n k
a n d f e e l a n d " r e a s o n " t o d a y . W e e x p e c t t h e s a m e o f o t h e r s ; a n d y e t o u r s u r p r is e s , d i s a p p o i n t -
m e n t s , a n d s u d d e n f e a r s s h o w t h a t in t h is w e a r e o f t e n m i s t a k e n . I t i s n o t o n l y t h a t e x t e r n a l c o n -
d i t i o n s a l t e r , b u t w e , l i k e w i s e , c h a n g e , c h a n g e w h e r e t o a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s e x t e r n a l s a r e
i d e n t i c a l . Inner vividness i s o n l y s o m e t h i n g a p p r o x i m a t e , s o m e t h i n g t h a t v a r i e s w i t h i n a r a n g e ;
s o m e t h i n g c o n s t a n t e n o u g h s o t h a t l i f e a n d s o c i e t y c a n g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n w i t h a n a m a z i n g d e g r e e
o f o r d e r l i n e s s , y e t s o m e t h i n g f lu ct ua tin g e n o u g h s o t h a t l i f e a n d s o c i e t y g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l s o
w i t h a n a m a z i n g a m o u n t o f c o n f l i c t a n d f r i c t i o n .
W h a t h a s a l l t h i s t o d o w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h e r e a d e r m a y a s k . I t i s t h e p r o p e l l i n g c a u s e
b e h i n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . W e h a v e se e n h o w m e a n i n g m a y s h i f t ; t h i s i l l u s t r a t e s w h y m e a n i n g s d o
s h i f t , w h y o n e w o r d i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a n o t h e r a t a ll . W h e n a m e n t a l e v e n t , f r o m w h a t e v e r c a u s e ,
d e v i a t e s d e c i d e d l y f r o m t h e n o r m a l i n q u a l i t y o r i n t e n s i t y , a n o t h e r w o r d m a y b e s u b s t i t u t e d
w h i c h m o r e n e a r l y a p p r o a c h e s t h e q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y d i c t a t e d b y t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e m o m e n t .T h i s i s n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , b u t i t i s b y f a r t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t , f o r t h e
s i m i l a r i t y i n q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y i s t o m y m i n d f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n t h a n
s i m i l a r it y i n m e a n i n g . I n c a ll in g a " w o m a n " a " p e a c h , " o r a " c a t , " o r a " r o s e , " o r a " b i t c h , "
o r a " v a m p i r e , " o r a " m o u s e , " a r e w e i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s d o i n g m u c h m o r e t h a n s i m p l y s u b -
s t i t u t i n g t h e q u a l i t y a n d p e r h a p s i n t e n s i t y (I s a y a d v i s e d l y " p e r h a p s " ) of " p e a c h , " " c a t , "
" r o s e , " " b i t c h " a n d s o f o r t h ? S u r e l y t h e r e c a n b e l i t t le d o u b t a b o u t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of q u a l i t y .
O n e w o u l d r a r e l y r e fe r e n d e a r i n g l y t o a p e r s o n a s " p e s t - h o u s e . "
H o w g r e a t a r ô l e t h e a c c e p t e d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t e d w o r d p l a y s i n t h e s u b s t i t u t i n g i s
p r o b l e m a t i c a l . I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s i n m a n y c a s e s n e g l i g i b l e . F o r i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s o f
s u b s t i t u t i o n , t h e s u b s t i t u t e d w o r d h a s n o r m a l l y o n l y a m i l d o r i n d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t y , a n d t h e i n -t e n s i t y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n a r i s e s m u c h m o r e f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t a n u n u s u a l e p i t h e t h a s b e e n b e -
s t o w e d t h a n t h a t i t i s a n e p i t h e t o f u n u s u a l in t e n s i t y . I a m f a r f r o m c o n v i n c e d t h a t a w o r d o f
n o r m a l l y h i g h e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y , s u c h a s " b i t c h , " i s s e l e c t e d f o r s u b s t i t u t i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s h i g h
e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y ; I b e l i e v e r a t h e r t h a t i t s p r e s e n t h i g h e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y h a s a r i s e n f r o m
f o r m e r s p o r a d i c s u b s t i t u t i o n o f u n p l e a s a n t n a t u r e , — a s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n w h i c h
w e s h a l l p r e s e n t l y d e v e l o p .
W h e n a s k e d o r d e s i r i n g t o g i v e t h e c l e a r m e a n i n g o f a n e v e n t , w e d o n o t n o r m a l l y " s u b s t i -
t u t e " ; w e " e x p l a i n . " D e f i n i t i o n , e x p o s i t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , a n a l y s i s , o r w h a t e v e r e ls e y o u a r e i n -
c l i n e d t o p u t u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , s e e m t o m e p r i m a r i l y a q u e s t i o n o f o r d e r o r
s e q u e n c e of w o r d s . I n " e x p l a n a t i o n " it i s a m a t t e r o f u s i n g t h e " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g a n d " a c -
c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . O c c a s i o n a l l y i n " e x p l a n a t i o n " t h e re i s metaphor a n d
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connotation- B u t a r e n o t metaphor an d connotation, t h a t i s , s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , r a t h e r u s e d t o c o n v e y
v i v i d n e s s t h a n c l a r i t y ? I s i t n o t t r u e t h a t t h e m o r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s in t h e w o r l d o f metaphor,
whi ch i s t he world of fee l i ng, t he less l i ke ly i t i s t hat t he audi t or wi l l fo l low, or , i f he fo l lows , t he
l e ss l i k e l y t h a t h e w i l l l e n d t o t h e w o r d s t h e m e a n i n g w i t h w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d s t o e n d o w
t h e m ? Fo r w i t h metaphor, b y it s v e r y n a t u r e , t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g is n o t to p r e v a i l . B u t w i t he x p l a n a t i o n , c l a r i t y d e p e n d s u p o n a f a i r l y s t r i ct a d h e r e n c e t o " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g a n d " a c -
c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s , a n d i f I m a y h e r e s a y s o , u p o n a c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o r d e r — c o h e r e n c e .
T h i s is t h e n r e a l l y t h e v e r y p r o b l e m o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l •
i n t e n s i t y a n d c l a r i t y o f m e a n i n g . T h o u g h w e c a n n o t d e fi n e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o r c l a r i t y o f -
m e a n i n g , w e a r e a l l c o n s c i o u s o f w h a t t h e y a r e ; a n d I b e l i e v e t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e r i d d l e i s t o b e
f o u n d in w h a t I t e r m " o r d e r . " O r d e r , a s I s h a l l la t e r e x p l a i n a n d d e f i n e i t , i s t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n h i g h i n t e n s i t y a n d c l e a r m e a n i n g . S u c h a s t a t e m e n t i s i n i t s e lf u t t e r l y m e a n i n g l e s s . I
m e a n t h a t c l a r i t y t e n d s t o c o l l e c t a r o u n d " n o r m a l " o r d e r , a n d i n t e n s i t y a r o u n d a b n o r m a l o r
" b r o k e n " o r u n u s u a l o r d e r . I d o n o t s a y t h e r e i s a n y c a u s a l r e l a t io n s h i p , I s i m p l y s t a t e w h a t I
h o p e t o s h o w is a f a c t . T h e m o r e p r i m a r y t h e m e a n i n g s , t h e m o r e f ix ed t h e q u a l i t i e s , t h e m o r e
n o r m a l t h e o r d e r , t h e l o w e r w i l l b e th e c o n c o m i t a n t i n t e n s i t y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u s u a l i s n o t
e m o t i o n a l l y i n t e n se , a p r o p o s it i o n w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y n o t u n h e a r d o f . H e n c e , i n t e n s i t y , li k e m e a n -
i n g , m u s t s o m e h o w , e v e n th o u g h o n l y r e m o t e l y , b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y . T h o u g h
a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g i s k n o w n d e f i n i t e l y a b o u t o r d e r o t h e r t h a n t h a t i t i s e v e r y w h e r e e x t r e m e l y i m -
p o r t a n t , l e t u s p r o c e e d t o e x a m i n e t h e f a c t s o f o r d e r a s f a r a s l a n g u a g e r e v e a l s t h e m .
E v e r y l a n g u a g e h a s a p a t t e r n , s o r i g i d t h a t c e r t a i n s m a l l v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e p a t t e r n m a y l e a d i n -
s t a n t l y to o b f u s c a t i o n o r i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y . A n d y e t t h e p a t t e r n i s s o l o o s e a n d s u p p l e t h a t a n
i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n h i s p a t t e r n m a y d e s c r i b e h i s e n t i r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t i t b e . B u t
t h e r e i s n o d i v i n e d e c r e e b e h i n d a l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n , t h o u g h t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r i s r a r e w h o d o e s n o t
b e l i e v e s o . I f w e c o m p a r e p a t t e r n w i t h p a t t e r n , p u t t i n g o n e l a n g u a g e b e s i d e a n o t h e r , w e f in d
n e a r l y e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e o r d e r r e p r e s e n t ed i n t h e v a r i o u s p a t t e r n s — • a d j e c t i v e s g e n e r a l l y p r e -c e d e i n o n e , f o l l o w i n a n o t h e r ; v e r b s p r e c e d e i n o n e , f o l l o w i n a n o t h e r ; i n f l e c t i o n a l s u f f i x e s a r e
a d d e d i n o n e , p r e f i x e s in a n o t h e r , n e i t h e r i n a t h i r d . I f o n e l o o k s a t l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s , o n e i s
f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t h e r e , if a n y w h e r e , t h e u s u a l o r d e r i s t h e u s u a l o r d e r . W e s a y " t h e b l a c k
h o r s e " i n s t e a d o f " h o r s e b l a c k t h e , " b e c a u s e i t m a k e s b e t t e r s e n s e ; y e t t h e r e a s o n i t m a k e s b e t t e r
s e n s e i s n o t b e c a u s e o f d i v i n e d e c r e e , b u t b e c a u s e t h e o r d e r i s m o r e u s u a l .
A g a i n , e x a c t l y w h a t n o r m a l o r d e r i s, I , fo r o n e , do n o t k n o w . W h e n o n e s a y s n o r m a l o r d e r ,
o n e m e a n s u s u a l o r d e r . W h e n o n e s p e a k s o f th e n o r m a l c o u r s e of e v e n t s , o n e m e a n s th e u s u a l
c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . W h e n t h e o r d e r o f c e r t a i n e v e n t s b e c o m e s s o f ix ed t h a t o n e d o e s n o t e v e n t h i n k
o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g i n g , w e r e f e r to th o s e e v e n t s in t h a t c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r a s h a b i t . A g a i n ,
t h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y n o d i v i n e d e c r e e b e h i n d o r d e r , a l t h o u g h t h e t e m p t a t i o n i s a l w a y s g r e a t t o a s -
s u m e t h a t o u r h a b i t s , o r o u r a r r a n g e m e n t o f e v e n t s i n t h e f l o w o f t i m e , i s " p r o p e r " a n d " c o r r e c t . "T h e m o r e o f t e n i n t h e p a s t a c e r t a i n e v e n t p r e c e d e d o r s u c c e e d e d a n o t h e r c e r t a i n e v e n t o r e v e n t s
a t a r e l a t i v e l y a p p r o x i m a t e i n t e r v a l i n t h e f l u x o f t i m e , t h e m o r e w e a r e i n c l i n e d t o c o n s i d e r t h o s e
e v e n t s a s b e i n g i n a f ix ed o r d e r a n d e x p e c t t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o c c u r i n t h e f u t u r e in t h e l i k e
a r r a n g e m e n t . W h e n A is a l w a y s fo l l o w e d b y B , o r B a l w a y s p r e c e d e d b y A , w e s a y t h a t A a n d B
r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r a r e i n f i r m s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r ; a n d j u d g i n g f r o m o u r p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , w e p o s t u -
l a t e t h e s a m e f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h e l e s s fix ed t h e o r d e r i n th e p a s t , t h e l e s s p o s i t i v e l v d o w e p r o g -
n o s t i c a t e t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e f u t u r e . L e t . u s e x p r e s s t h i s f e e l i n g i n d i f f e r e n t t e r m s : th e m o r e
o f t e n t h a t t w o o r m o r e e v e n t s o c c u r i n a c e r t a i n s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r i n t h e s t r e a m o f t i m e , t h e m o r e
f ix ed w e c o n s id e r t h o s e e v e n t s in o r d e r . I n o t h e r w o r d s , b r i e f l y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y
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of an e ve nt in a ce rta in se que nce or se que nce s rathe r than in no se que nce , the more f ixe d the orde r
o f t h e e v e n t .
T h i s i s f i r s t o f a l l t r u e r e g a r d l e s s o f c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h a t e v e r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y
m e an . I f gr e a t por t ion s of l i fe proc e sse s are foun d in a cau sa l re l a t ion ship in a se nse oth e r tha n
t h a t o u t l i n e d b y t h e t h e o r y o f Relative Frequency, t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t o f o r d e r w i l l s t i ll h o l d
t r u e , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t " c a u s a t i o n " s h o u l d b e f o u n d t h e b a s i c f a c t o r o f a r r a n g e m e n t .
S e c o n d l y , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f o r d e r d o e s n o t n e c e s s i t a t e t h e o r g a n i s m ' s " c o m p r e h e n s i o n " o f t h e
i n n e r a r r a n g e m e n t o r o f t h e p o s s i b l e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e o r d e r . " I p l a n t e d a s e e d , a tr e e g r e w ,
and he re i s an app l e f ro m the tre e ." Se e d , tre e , ap pl e , are in f ixed norm al se qu e nce , e ve n tho ug h
w e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e c o n n e c t i n g s t e p s . T h e r e a s o n w e s a y t h a t p l a n t i n g a s e e d a n d a f t e r a c e r -
t a i n i n t e r v a l p l u c k i n g a n a p p l e i s r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i s n o t t h a t i t i s i n t h e l e a s t u n -
d e r s t a n d a b l e o r r e a s o n a b l e a c c o r d i n g t o o u r p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e , b u t t h a t it i s u s u a l . L e t a m a n
m a r r y h i s g r a n d m o t h e r a n d i t i s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o u s ; l e t a m a n b e g e t a c h i ld a n d m o s t of u s d o
n o t w o n d e r a n i n s t a n t a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d . A n d y e t , o n e i s a s m u c h o r a s l i tt l e
r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s t h e o t h e r . W e m a k e a g r e a t e r s t i r a b o u t t h e o n e t h a n t h e
o t h e r b e c a u s e i t i s l e s s u s u a l . N o t a s m a l l a m o u n t o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e m a } ' b e l i n ed u p b e h i n dt h e a c i d s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y t h e le s s t h e a d o . A n d c a n w e n o t s a y
t h a t o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t a p l e a s a n t t h i n g b e c o m e s u n p l e a s a n t t o u s i s b e c a u s e i t s u d d e n l y b e -
c o m e s t o o f r e q u e n t o r t o o r a r e i n o u r l i fe , o r i n t h e w r o n g o r d e r ? " T h e r e i s a t i m e f o r a l l t h i n g s . "
A n d d o e s n o t t h e c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t b e c o m e c l o u d e d , a n d i s n ' t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e
e v e n t u n s e t t l e d b y s u d d e n s h i f t s i n f r e q u e n c y ? J u s t a s e v e r y e v e n t h a s s o m e k in d of q u a l i t y a n d
s o m e " m e a n i n g , " s o , t o o , e v e r y e v e n t o f m i n d m u s t h a v e a d e g r e e o f d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r .
E v e r y e v e n t m u s t b e p r e c e d e d a n d s u c c e e d e d b y a n o t h e r e v e n t , f r o m t h e f i r s t e v e n t t o t h e l a s t
e v e n t , w h e n e v e r t h a t m a y b e . T h e r e i s t h e n n o h a r m i n e s t i m a t i n g f u t u r e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e-
q u e n c e f r o m p a s t o c c u r r e n c e s . A n d y e t w e a l so h a v e b r e a c h e s i n n o r m a ! o r d e r.
E v e r y w o r d h a s s y n t a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s ; a w o r d i s u n t h i n k a b l e e x c e p t a ss o m e h o w o r d e r e d in t h e s t r e a m of t i m e . A n y b r e a c h a g a i n s t u s u a l o r d e r t e n d s t o u n s e t t l e t h e
s t a b i l i t y of b o t h q u a l i t y a n d m e a n i n g , a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y . A b r e a c h i n o r d e r
d o e s n o t c a u s e t h e u n s e t t l i n g , f o r o n e m a y j u s t a s r e a s o n a b l y c o m m e n c e w i t h a n u n e x p e c t e d
e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y a n d f in d o r d e r d e r a n g e d . O n e m a y a r g u e t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p u n t i l t h e e n d
o f t i m e ; b r o k e n o r d e r i s s i m p l y e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y ; e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y is s i m p l y b r o k e n o r d e r —
t h e y a r e c o n c o m i t a n t . O n e i s d e f i n a b l e o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e o t h e r . Y o u m a y c o n s u l t a l l t h e s p e-
c i a li z e d w o r k s o n e m o t i o n y o u w i l l ; y o u m a y r e a d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t e n d e d t o m e a s u r e , i n v e s t i g a -
t io n s i n t e n d e d t o a n a l y z e , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t e n d e d t o c u r e . W e t a l k d a i l y a b o u t e m o t i o n s — y e t
w h a t a r e t h e y ? T h e r e i s n o p a r t o f t h e b r a i n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m ; w h a t w e c on s i d e r t h e " c a u s e s " o f
t h e m c a n a r i s e i n t h e l u n g s , l i v e r , o r i n t h e m i n d i t s e l f . T h e y c a n h a v e a s o u r c e a n y w h e r e . A l l
d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e e m o t i o n s s e e m t o g r a v i t a t e a b o u t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t e m o t i o n i s i n a l i e n a b l y
c o n n e c t e d w i t h c o n f l i c t . I s t h e r e a n y h a r m i n s a y i n g t h a t c o n f l i c t i s b r o k e n o r d e r , a d e v i a t i o n
f r o m w h a t e v e r c a u s e , f r o m t h e n o r m a l co u r s e o f e v e n t s ? D o n o t y o u r g r e a t e s t s o rr ow ' s, g r e a t e s t
f e a r s , g r e a t e s t j o v s c o m e f r o m a n u n e x p e c t e d c h a n g e i n t h e h a b i t u a l c o u r s e o f e v e n t s ? I s n o t t h e
i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e m o t i o n g r e a t e r , t h e g r e a t e r a n d m o r e u n e x p e c t e d t h e d e v i a t i o n ? Y e t a s t h e u n -
e x p e c t e d e v e n t r e c u r s m o r e a n d m o r e , — i n f a c t b e c o m e s l e s s u n e x p e c t e d a n d m o r e u s u a l , i n f a c t
m o r e a n d m o r e a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , — d o e s n o t t h e i n t e n s i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d i m i n i s h ? O f c o u r s e
t h e r e a r c f l a s h - b a c k s , b u t w e e x p e c t t h a t in p r o b a b i l i t y . B u t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y ,
the l e ss the l ike l ih ood of f lash-backs. A nd if to our ab ov e fa ct or s of m e an ing , qu al i t y , in te n si t y ,
a n d o r d e r , w e a d d l i k e w i s e g r a d i e n t s o f a t t e n t i o n , f a t i g u e , v o l i t i o n , a s w e s h a l l w h e n a l l o f t h i s i s
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b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n o n e v o l u m e , a c e r t a i n s e n s e o f e v e r y - d a y r e a l i t y w i l l b e g i n t o c o l l e c t a r o u n d
th e Principle of Relative Frequency.
B u t w h a t i s o r d e r , v o u m a y a s k ? O r d e r , a s u s e d h e r e , i s b u t t h e s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s . I n t h e
s e q u e n c e of t h e e v e n t s A , B , C , D , E , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e t e r m i n a c y , i n t h e l i g h t o f p r o b a b i l i t y ,
w i t h w h i c h o n e e v e n t a n d n o t a n o t h e r a p p e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y o r a t a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l i n s t e a d o f l e s si m m e d i a t e l y o r a t a n u n c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l , o r n o t a t a l l , b e f o r e o r a f t e r a n o t h e r e v e n t , t h e m o r e f i x e d
t h e o r d e r of t h o s e e v e n t s . A f t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i l i t y o f a c e r t a i n s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s s o g r e a t
t h a t th e l i k e l i h o o d o f n o n - o c c u r r e n c e i n t h a t s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s n e g l i g i b l e , w e b e g i n t o s p e a k
p b e n o m e n o l o g i c a l h ' o f causation.
T h e r e a d e r m a y r e b e l a t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , p a r t l y b e c a u s e h e f e e l s t h a t W h i r l m a y b e c o m e k i n g ,
a n d p a r t l y b e ca u s e o r d e r m a y w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e b e c o m e v e r y d e t e r m i n e d . A s t o W h i r l , l e t m e
s a y t h a t w i t h o r d e r s o d e f i n e d W h i r l ' s c h a n c e s o f p a r t i a l o r c o m p l e t e r e g e n c y i n h u m a n p e r s o n a l i -
t i e s a r e , o f c o u r s e , d e f i n i t e l y e x i s t e n t , a n d n u m e r o u s h u m a n b e i n g s b e h i n d o r n o t b e h i n d l o c k e d
d o o r s g i v e p i t i f u l e v i d e n c e t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t . T h e o b j e c t i o n of c o n s t a n t l y g r e a t e r
d e t e r m i n a c y o f c e r t a i n s e q u e n c e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o t h e r s is j u s t a s v a l i d . W h e n , o u t o f a l l p o s s i b l e
e v e n t s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e , o n e e v e n t i n s t e a d o f a n y o f t h e o t h e r so c c u r s , t h a t e v e n t f r a c t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e b y , i t s p r o b a b i l i t y of r e - o c c u r r e n c e b y c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g l y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e o t h e r s . S o i t i s t h a t w i t h p a s s i n g y e a r s a n i n d i v i d u a l , r e -
g a r d l e s s o f h i s s p e c i s s . b e c o m e s m o r e f ix ed a n d s e t i n h i s w a y s , a n d a n e w o r d e r o r a n e w i n t e n s i t y
o r a n e w q u a l i t y s u f f i c e s t o a n n i h i l a t e h i m , e v e n t h o u g h i t b e o n l y o f a s l i g h t d e g r e e o f d e v i a t i o n
f r o m t h e n o r m a l , s o s l i g h t t h a t i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s y o u t h h e w o u l d h a v e a d j u s t e d h i m s e l f t o i t
c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a s i l y .
A n d w h y d o e s n o t l a n g u a g e b e c o m e s o c r y s t a l l i z e d , f o r l a n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t s t h i s o r d e r pa r
excellence? I t d o e s . B u t t h e g r e a t t h i n g t h a t s a v e s l a n g u a g e f r o m b e c o m i n g e n t i r e l y c r y s t a l l i z e d
is abbreviation. F o r w h e n t h e s e q u e n c e A , B , C , D , £ b e c o m e s s o fix ed t h a t w h e n e v e r A o c c u r s
t h e o d d s a r e e n o r m o u s t h a t B , C , I ) , E w i l l f o l l o w , t h e e c o n o m y of l a n g u a g e a b b r e v i a t e s B , C , D ,
E , u s i n g o n l y A . S o , t o o , w h e n t h e o d d s a r e i n f a v o r of B , o r C , o r D , or E , s o t h a t w h e n a n y o n e
o r m o r e o f t h e m o c c u r , i t o r t h e y w i ll o c c u r in t h i s s e q u e n c e , t h a t s y m b o l o r t h o s e s y m b o l s m a y
s t a n d fo r th e s e q u e n c e . T h e r e is n o t h i n g i n t h e n a t u r e o f m e a n i n g t h a t it c a n n o t b e c o n t a i n e d i n
o n e s y m b o l r a t h e r t h a n i n a n o t h e r o r o t h e r s , p r o v i d e d t h a t it o n c e b e c o m c s e s t a b l i s h e d e i t h e r b y
a b b r e v i a t i o n o r s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w h i c h a re to a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s t h e s a m e t h i n g . W h e n f o r
t h e s e q u e n c e A , B , C , D , E o n e o f t h e s y m b o l s t h e r e i n c o n t a i n e d i s s u b s t i t u t e d , w e c a l l i t abbrevia-
tion, w h e n a n o u t s i d e s y m b o l A " i s s u b s t i t u t e d , w e c a l l i t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . I s p e a k o f s y m b o l s a d -
v i s e d l y ; a s y m b o l is s o m e t h i n g t h a t s t a n d s f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e . B u t I s h a l l s h o w t h a t a s y m b o l is
a ls o a m e n t a l e v e n t . T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c y w h i c h c a u s e s a b b r e v i a t i o n i s t h e s a m e t e n d e n c y
w h i c h m a i n t a i n s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d t e n d s t o p r e v e n t r e g r e s s i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l s e q u e n c e w h i c h ,
w h e r e v e r i t m a y e x i s t a f t e r i t h a s b e e n a b b r e v i a t e d , c o n t a i n s t h e m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o t h e n e ws y m b o l . A n d s o t h e s y m b o l a r is i n g f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n m a y c o m b i n e w i t h o t h e r s y m b o l s a r i s i n g
f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n u n t i l a f ixe d s e q u e n c e a r i s e s , a n d a n e w a b b r e v i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e — a b b r e v i a -
t i o n u p o n a b b r e v i a t i o n ad infinitum. I f w e d e l v e i n t o t h e r o o t s o f a s y m b o l , w e m a y h i t s t r a t a
a t t e r s t r a t a o f s y m b o l s i n e v e r m o r e f ix ed a n d c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r . W h e n d o e s o n e f in al ly r e a c h
r e a l i t y , d o y o u a s k ? I l i k e w i s e a s k . T h e o r d e r m a y b e c o m e s o firm a s t o b e s u b c o n s c i o u s , i n s t i n c -
t i v e , t o b e r e f l e x i v e , t o b e s t r u c t u r a l — t h e s e a r e t h e substrata gestures, o f w h i c h t h e p e r m u t a t i o n s
a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s i n t i m e m a k e u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h e r e is r e a l i t y ? G o e v e n i n t o ce l l s t r u c t u r e
a n d y o u a r e s t i l l i n t h e f i e l d o f s y m b o l i s m .
F o r a s w e r e v i e w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l i f e , a s f a r a s i t is k n o w n t o u s , w e s e e t h a t t h e s e a b b r e v i a -
t i on s o f s e q u e n c e s a r i s i n g b y c h a n c e h a v e l e d t o t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y o f s p e c i e s . A n d a s a m e m b e r
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o f a s p e c i e s b e g i n s t o d e v e l o p , if i t h a s a n e m b r y o n i c s t a g e a t a l l , i t r e h e a r s e s , a s w e a l l k n o w , t h e
e n t i r e p r e v i o u s e s s e n t i a l h i s t o r )- of i t s species in abbreviated order. T h e r e i s n o e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n a n a m o e b a d i s t e n d i n g i t s w a l l f o r a f o o d p a r t i c l e , a d o g d i g g i n g f o r a b o n e , a c h i l d r e a c h -
i n g f o r a c o o k i e , a n d a n o l d m a n c r y i n g f o r b r e a d . T h e y a r e a l l r e a c t i n g t o th e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i n a
d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s . A s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r ,t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f d e f i n i t e i n h e r i t a b i l i t y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r . Y o u d o n o t n e e d t o t h i n k y o u r h a n d i s
l e ss a s y m b o l t h a n y o u r w o r d s s i m p l y b e c a u s e y o u c a n p e r c e i v e t h e m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e in t h e o n e .
T h e e s s e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , m o v e m e n t , g e s t u r e , o r d e r i n g i n y o u r h a n d a r e r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t ; t h e
m o l e c u l e s a r e r e p l a c e d r e m a r k a b l y o f t e n t h r o u g h o u t l if e . L o o k a t y o u r h a n d in th e l i g h t o f e v o -
l u t i o n a n d c o n s i d e r i t a s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n o f m a n i f o l d g e s t u r e s of d e f e n s e a n d a g -
g r e s s i o n t h e r e i n c e n t e r e d , b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e o r d e r o f i t s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
f u n c t i o n s , a l l i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d , li k e a w o r d , w i t h t h e w h o l e e g o . I n d e e d , w e m i g h t g o o n i n -
d e f i n i t e l y w i t h t h i s t h e o r y , r e g a r d i n g p h y s i c a l d i s e a s e a s i n t e r r u p t e d o r b r o k e n e s s e n t i a l p h y s i o -
l o g i c a l o r d e r , r e g a r d i n g m e n t a l d i se a s e a s b r o k e n o r i n t e r r u p t e d i n s t i n c t s o r h a b i t s , s h o w i n g t h a t
o u r in t e l l i g e n c e a n d r e a s o n , o f w h i c h w e a r e s o p r o u d , h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e
s t a b i l i t y o f i n s t i n c t i v e p r o c e s s , a b a r g a i n o f t h e p a s t w h i c h , a s o u r p r o p e n s i t i e s f o r d r u g s a n d n a r -
c o t i c s i n d i c a t e , i s n o t n o w a l w a y s u n a n i m o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d w i s e . A n d i t i s f ittin g t h a t s u c h a
t h e o r y o f l i f e s h o u l d c o m e f r o m t h e p h i l o l o g i s t , e v e n t h o u g h h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f i t w o u l d b e s o m e -
w h a t f a c i l i t a t e d b y u s i n g t e r m s o f t h e Gcstalt a n d Freudian s y s t e m s o f p s y c h o l o g y , t h o s e t w o
p o w e r f u l s y s t e m s w h i c h h a v e so g r e a t l y a i d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r s e l v e s .
T h e m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t h a s a p o s i t i o n of n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e . H e f i n d s h i s e v i d e n c e a l l
s o r t e d a n d c l a s s i fi e d f o r h i m , e v i d e n c e g o i n g b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s a n d e x t e n d i n g o v e r m i l l i o n s
o f s q u a r e m i l e s , t h e r e c o r d o f b i l l io n s o f m o r t a l s , s t u d i e d a n d o r d e r l y a r r a n g e d b y s o m e o f t h e m o s t
b r i l l i a n t m i n d s o f th e l a s t a n d p r e s e n t c e n t u r i e s . A n d t h o u g h h e w o r k s a l o n e h e h a s a t h i s h a n d
t h e f r u i t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s p e c u l a t i o n o f th e m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s , p h y s i c i s t s , c h e m i s t s , p h i -
l o s o p h e r s t o e n c o u r a g e a n d p o i n t th e w a y . Y e t t h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t u n i q u e a d v a n t a g e h e h a s int h e v e r y n a t u r e o f h i s m a t e r i a l . H e c a n o b s e r v e b o t h b y l o o k i n g i n t o h i m s e l f a n d a t o t h e r s . T h e
p r o b l e m o f c h a n g e a n d m u t a t i o n i s t h e s a m e f o r h i m a s f o r t h e b i o l o g i s t ; b u t t h e l i n g u i s t c a n o b -
s e r v e m u t a t i o n s t a k i n g p l a c e i n h i s v e r y l i f e t i m e w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g h is o b j e c t o f e x p e r i m e n t t o a
s t r a i n w h i c h , i n b e i n g g r e a t e n o u g h t o b r e a k e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r , m a y b e m o r e t h a n s u f f i c i e n t t o
a n n i h i l a t e t h e o b j e c t . H o w e v e r , a l l o f t h i s i s e a s y t o s a y . L e t u s n o w t u r n t o t h e p r o o f . F o r th e
g r e a t p r o b l e m i s h o w w e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h i s t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e la -
t i o n s h i p o f o r d e r a n d e m o t i o n i s t r u e . A n d t h e g r e a t i m p e d i m e n t t o p r o o f is t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t
i n a l l l a n g u a g e s h a l l w e t a k e a s a b a s i c u n i t f o r m e a s u r e m e n t .
F o r t h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n a g r e e m e n t a s t o w h a t t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e is . O n e m a y a r g u e e q u a l l y
p l a u s i b l y f o r s o u n d s , s y l l a b l e s , w o r d s , p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , a n d s o f o r t h , a n d e a c h o n e o ft h e s e u n i t s i s s e r v i c e a b l e , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b l e m . Y e t t h e r e i s n o c o m m o n
b a s i c u n i t w h i c h u n i t e s p h o n o l o g y w i t h m o r p h o l o g y , w i t h s y n t a x , w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . W e
h a v e n o m e a s u r i n g ro d s , s c a l e s, o r w a t c h e s t o s h i f t p i n t s i n t o p o u n d s , or h o u r s in t o m e t e r s . T a k -
i n g s o u n d s a s a u n i t , w e f in d e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -
q u e n c y , t h e l e ss t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s , a s d e f i n e d a n d i l lu s t r a t e d i n P a r t O n e of t h i s p a p e r . T a k i n g
s y l l a b l e s a s a u n i t , e v e r y p h i l o l o g i s t i s w i l l i n g t o c o n c e d e t h a t i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e i s a p t
t o w e a r a w a y t h e s y l l a b l e . A n d e l se w h e r e 1 1 h a v e s h o w n t h a t s y l l a b i c a c c e n t — t h a t g r e a t s u p -
p o r t o f f o r m — i s a p t to d i m i n i s h w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y . B u t w h e n w e c o m e t o w o r d s , l e t
a l o n e p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , a n d s e n t e n c e s , w e a r e f r a n k l y a t o u r w i t s ' e n d s . W h a t is t h e c o m m o n u n i t
t h a t w i l l i n c l u d e a l l t h e s e ?
1 Zipf , op. ciipp. 5 ff.
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The com mon unit is a time triangle. W h e n 1 s a y t h a t A i s a n a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r A B C D E , a
s e q u e n c e w h i c h h a p p e n e d t o b e p r e c e d e d b y e v e n t Y a n d f o l l o w e d b y e v e n t Z , I h a v e r e a l l y s a i d
t h a t th e a b b r e v i a t i o n A i s a s h o r t c u t t h r o u g h t i m e f r o m Y t o Z , a n d h a v e g i v e n t h e r e b y a n e x -
a m p l e o f a t i m e t r i a n g l e :
A
/ \
d i r e c t i o n o f t i m e
Y A Z i s s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z . I f o n e s u b s t i t u t e s a n o u t s i d e s y m b o l , X ( s e m a n t i c c h a n g e )
f o r t h e s e q u e n c e , Y X Z i s s t i ll s h o r t e r i n t i m e t h a n Y A B C I ) E Z - I t is s h o r t e r b e c a u s e o n e
e v e n t i n t e r v e n e s i n s t e a d o f f i v e . T h e s u m o f Y A + A Z i s s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z . 1 I f t h e
r e a d e r w o n d e r s a t t h i s , l e t m e a s s u r e h i m t h a t I a m n o t m e a s u r i n g b y s o l a r t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h
s o l ar t i m e u l t i m a t e l y b e l o n g s m o s t d e c i d e d l y i n t h e p i c t u r e . 1 c a n m a k e t h e t i m e o f t h i s t r i a n g l e
c l e a r e r t o y o u b y a l i t t l e e x p e r i m e n t .
L e t m e l o c k y o u i n a n e n c l o s u r e f r o m w h i c h s u n a n d s t a r l i g h t a r e e x c l u d e d . I s h a l l t a k e y o u r
w a t c h , b u t i n r e t u r n I s h a l i g i v e y o u e v e r y t h i n g y o u a s k f o r , e x c e p t a n y o b j e c t b y w h i c h y o u c a n
d e d u c e s o l a r t i m e . I s t h e e x p e r i m e n t c l e a r ? N o w a s l o n g a s y o u a r e e n t e r t a i n e d t h e r e , y o u w i l l
f in d t i m e s h o r t ; w h i l e y o u a r e b o r e d , y o u w i l l fin d t i m e l o n g . I s t h a t n o t t r u e ? B u t , a c c o r d i n g t o
w h a t m e a s u r e i s i t l o n g o r s h o r t ? I t h i n k y o u w i l l a d m i t t h a t y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t s l o w n e s s o r
s w i f t n e s s o f p a s s i n g t i m e h a v e l i tt l e o r n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h a c l o c k , b u t e v e r y t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e
n a t u r e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f y o u r e m o t i o n s a t t h e t i m e .N o w , t h a t s u b j e c t i v e s t r e a m o f t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h y o u s a y t h a t a g i v e n p o r t i o n o f y o u r
l if e s e e m e d l o n g o r s h o r t , s e e m e d t o p a s s e s p e c i a l l y s l o w l y o r r a p i d l y , i s t h e s a m e s t r e a m o f t i m e i n
w h i c h I s h a l l s a y t h a t t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e f o r m s a t i m e t r i a n g l e . I s h a l l c a l l i t psychic time. I
s h a l l s a y t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e i s a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h i n t u r n i s a lime triangle in psychic time.
' ' B u t t h i s psychic time i s n o t a b s o l u t e l i k e c l o c k t i m e . H o w c a n y o u u s e i t a s a m e a s u r e ? " ' I t i s
j u s t e x a c t l y a s l i t tl e a b s o l u t e as c l o c k t i m e ; t h a t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o i n t o f th e m a t t e r . I n g o i n g
f r o m Y t o Z b y m e a n s o f A , it t a k e s le s s t i m e t h a n f r o m Y t o Z b y m e a n s o f A B C D E . A n d
s i n ce t i m e i s m e r e l y t h a t b y m e a n s o f w h i c h w e m e a s u r e v e l o c i t y , w e m a y , t h e r e f o r e , s a y t h a t t h e
m e n t a l e v e n t A , b e i n g t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z , is r e l a t i v e l y f a s t e r t h a n A B C D E , b e i n g
a l s o t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z .
W i t h o u t t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n , t h e e v e n t s o f y o u r m i n d r u n , l e t u s s a v , — W Y A B C D E Z —
w i t h t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n t h e e v e n t s r u n —» V W Y A Z - * a n d t h e o n l y w a y y o u c a n t e l l f r o m t h e
s t r e a m of c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e ( o r s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , i f o n e u s e s X
i n s t e a d of A ) i s t h a t t h e r e i s a s u d d e n a c c e l e r a t i o n b e t w e e n Y a n d Z . I f Y a n d Z i n t u r n a r e l i k e -
w i s e a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e r e b y . e n j o y a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e r e i s t h e n n o w a y o f t e l l i n g
1 Cf. A. S. Eddington: The Natura of the Physical World, New Y or k, MacmiHan (1930), pp. H I ft ., for ac l e ar a n d p o p u l a r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m e t r i a n t e i n p h y s i c s . T h i s b o o k , t o g e t h e r w i t h A . N . W h i t e h e a d ' s Sy?>t-
bo!ism, Its Meaning end Effect, New Yo rk, Mac.mi llan ( jg - '7), and Kur t Kof fka 's Th e Growth of the Mind, N e w Y o r k ,H a r c o u r t B r a c o ( 1 9 2 8 ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y h a p p y d i s c u s s i o n s of F r e u d i a n p r i n c i p l e ? w i t h P r o f e s s o r H . A . S h a w a t
Harvard, hive been helpful to me in revamping and expressing the Principie of Relative Frequency, though it haso f t e n b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s o m e of t h e m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Geslalt w i t h t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e .
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t h a t A i s a n a b b r e v i a t i o n e x c e p t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i t d o e s n o t s l o w d o w n . I n e e d n o t p o i n t o u t
t h a t V W Y A Z a r e l o o s e l y o r d e r e d m e n t a l e v e n t s , a n d s h o u l d t h e y t h r o u g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o !
o c c u r r e n c e b e c o m e s u f f i c i e n t l y c r y s t a l l i z e d t o j u s t i f y a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s h o u l d s o m e o t h e r e v e n t
t h a n A b e u s e d f o r t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s h o u l d A l i k e w i s e d i s a p p e a r f r o m o t h e r s e q u e n c e s b y t h e
s a m e p r o c e s s , A m a y u t t e r l y d i s a p p e a r f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d s i m p l y b e c a r r i e d o n i n e s s e n c e b y
t h e a b b r e v i a t i n g s y m b o l s . T h i s i s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f l a n g u a g e t o m y m i n d . A n d " m e a n i n g " i s
r e a l l y w h a t l ie s b e h i n d , or i f y o u w i l l , b e l o w t h e s y m b o l s . B u t b e f o r e w e p r o c e e d t o quality a n d
intensity o f m e n t a l e v e n t s , l e t u s s u m u p w h a t w e h a v e s a i d o n t h e b a s i s o f o u r a s s u m p t i o n s : th e
greater the relative determ inacy of order, the less the relative sp eedy and vice versa. T h o u g h t h i s i s a n
a s t o n i s h i n g s t a t e m e n t , I s h a l l , n o n e t h e l e s s , p r o v e t h a t i t i s t r u e , a s a n a n a l y s i s o f l a n g u a g e w i l l
s h o w .
N o w , i t f o l l o w s f r o m w h a t w e h a v e s a i d b e f o r e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e
g r e a t e r t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e e m o t i o n , f o r e m o t i o n is b u t a l a c k of d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r . V W Y A Z
a re le s s d et er mi n ed in o r d er t ha n V W Y A B C D E Z , e v e n t ho u g h A B C D E a re t h e o n ly
e v e n t s i n d e t e r m i n e d s e q u e n c e . I t s e e m s a l m o s t a s if t h e p e r s o n s w h o c o i n e d u a b b r e v i a t i o n " a n d
" e m o t i o n " w e r e s o m e h o w c o n s ci o u s o f t h e P r i n c i p l e o f R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y . W h a t h a p p e n s t o
A B O D E w h i le a b b r e v i a t e d , I d o n o t k n o w ( n o r d o y o u ) . B u t t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a n n i h il a te d fo r -
e v e r i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e i r c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e a g a i n i n t h a t s e q u e n c e i n t h e s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s . S u r e l y s u c h a n e x p o s i t i o n e x p l a i n s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o r d e r , i n t e n s i t y , a n d m e a n i n g , b u t i t
l e a v e s quality o u t o f t h e p i c t u r e . A n d y e t quality i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , f o r i t f u r n i s h e s t h e m o t i v e .
O n e m a y p r o c e e d f r o m A t o B f o r o n e of s e v e r a l re a s o n s . I t m a y b e a n e s c a p e f r o m A b e c a u s e
A i s u n p l e a s a n t ( i n w h i c h c a s e A h a s a n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y ) ; o r o n e m a y p r o c e e d f r o m A t o B b e c a u s e
B i s m o r e p l e a s a n t ( i n w h i c h c a s e B i s m o r e p o s i t i v e o r i s j u s t a s p o s i t i v e w i t h a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f
i n t e n s i t y ) . W e m a y s p e a k o f negative a s fear a n d positive a s desire. A n d t h e s e t w o w e l l r e c o g n i z e d
q u a l i t ie s , a s r o u g h l y a s t h e y a r e h e r e s t a t e d , a r e r e a l l y t h e p r o p e l l i n g m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e s e q u e n c e
o f e v e n t s . W i t h a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f q u a l i t y , w e c a n u l t i m a t e l y g a i n g r e a t l i g h t o n t h i st h e o r y f r o m p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f t h e neurosis , a n d , i f t h i s t h e o r y o f e m o t i o n b e c o r r e c t , t h r o w a
g r e a t d e a l o f l i g h t o n t h e s t u d y o f t h e n e u r o s i s . T h e r e a d e r m a y n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p o r t a n t
r o l e o f q u a l i t y i n l i fe . H e m a y s a y t h a t h e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n i n d i v i d u a l sh o u l d w a n t t o p u t a
n e g a t i v e e v e n t b e h i n d h i m , o r f l e e f r o m a l o w p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y t o a h i g h e r p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y , b u t
w h y s h o u l d h e w i s h t o l e a v e a v e r y h i g h p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e ?
I n s i m p l e w o r d s , y o u h a v e s a i d " I c a n se e w h y a p e r s o n w a n t s t o e s c a p e a n u n p l e a s a n t e v e n t ,
o r l e a v e a p l e a s a n t e v e n t f o r a m o r e p l e a s a n t e v e n t , b u t I c a n n o t s e e w h y h e s h o u l d w a n t t o l e a v e
a v e r y p l e a s a n t e v e n t f o r o n e w h i c h i s l es s p l e a s a n t . " I n s h o r t , w h y d o n ' t w e a l w a y s d o j u s t w h a t
w e li k e m o s t t o d o ? A v e r y f r e q u e n t q u e s t i o n i n th i s w o r l d ! L e t u s t r y t o a n s w e r i t a c c o r d i n g t o
Relative Frequency. L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e e v e n t h a s a h i g h p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y , + A . N o w l e t u sa s s u m e t h a t t h e r e a r e , l i k e w i s e , -f- B a n d + C , d i f f e r e n t , b u t a p p r o x i m a t e i n i n t e n s i t y . L e t u s
n o w r es tr ic t o u r a c t i v i ty t o t h e m : + A - f B + C - f - C + B - f - A + B - | - C + B , e tc . B e i n g
l i m i t e d t o t h r e e e v e n t s , t h e y c a n h a v e o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f p e r m u t a t i o n s . N o m a t t e r h o w
h a r d y o u t r y , w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e t h e y w i l l d e v e l o p s e q u e n c e s , a n d w i t h t h e h i g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y
o f t h e s e q u e n c e s , o r d e r w i l l b e c o m e m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d . W i t h i n c r e a s e d c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o r d e -
t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r , e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y b e g i n s t o d e c r e a s e . A n d a f t e r t h e i n t e n s i t y d i m i n i s h e s
f a r e n o u g h i t w i l l b e l e s s t h a n t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o f e v e n t s o t h e r t h a n A , B , C , a n d t o t h e s e
o t h e r e v e n t s y o u t h e n p r o c e e d . F o r a s y o u c o n c e d e d a m o m e n t a g o , y o u c a n e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d
p a s s i n g f r o m p l e a s a n t e v e n t o r e v e n t s t o m o r e p l e a s a n t e v e n t s .
I f y o u w o u l d l i k e t o e x p e r i m e n t i n t h e m a t t e r , p i c k o u t t h e m o s t d e l i c i o u s a r t i c l e o f d i e t , o r t h e
m o s t e x q u i s i t e p i e c e o f m u s i c , o r t h e m o s t r e f r e s h i n g f o r m o f e x e r ci s e , m e n t a l o r p h y s i c a l , a n d c o n -
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g g e y o u r s e l f t o i t d a y o n e n d , w e e k o n e n d . Y o u w i l l b e c o m e t i r e d o f i t ? I a g r e e . F a t i g u e i s a
f t in c t io n o f r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y a n d s e r v e s t o k e e p y o u f r o m i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y t o o
g r t a s X h o p e t o e x p l a i n w h e n I h a v e m o r e a v a i l a b l e s p a c e . B u t in s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t y o u a r e
I n c o m i n g t i r e d o f y o u r f a v o r i t e d i s h o f l o b s t e r t h a t y o u h a v e e a t e n d a i l y f o r t e n d a y s , c o n t i n u e
g a t i n g l o b s t e r f o r a n o t h e r t e n d a y s . A n d n o w h o w d o y o u f e e l a b o u t l o b s t e r ? S o y o u a r e s i c k o f i t
| it d d o n ' t w a n t a n o t h e r ! A f t e r a f u r t h e r t e n d a y s o f f o r c e f u l f e e d i n g o f lo b s t e r y o u w o u l d m o s t
^ f i n i t e l y n o t w a n t a n y m o r e a t a ll . T h e e r s t w h i l e h i g h p o s i t i v e in t e n s i t y h a s b e c o m e a h i g h
itegative i n t e n s i t y . T h i s i s s u r e l y a n e v e r y - d a y p h e n o m e n o n , f a m i l i a r t o a l l . O v e r - i n d u l g e n c e
b r i n g s s a t i e t y . A n d y e t , t o m y m i n d , i t i s n o t h i n g b u t t o o r a p i d a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -
q u e n c y . T h e a t t e n d a n t d e r a n g e m e n t o f t h e substrata gestures w h i c h m a y b e b r o a d l y t e r m e d s i c k -
n e s s w h e t h e r i t b e a n u p s e t s t o m a c h o r c a n c e r o f t h e s k i n , i s i n m y o p i n i o n i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s d u e
t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a b r e a c h i n c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r , f r o m w h a t e v e r s o u r c e o r trauma t h a t y o u
w i s h . I n i n c r e as i n g t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f l o b s te r y o u h a v e b r o k e n t h e s t r i c t o rd e r o f t h e e v e r y -
• d a y ; i t i s b o t h t h e i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o n e a n d t h e b r o k e n o r d e r o f t h e o t h e r t h a t l e a d s t o
t h e r e s u l t a n t t r o u b l e . C e r t a i n l y t h e f a u l t i s n o t w i t h t h e lo b s t e r ; f o r c u s t o m a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e
a p p a l l i n g l y d i f f e r e n t a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s a n d e v e r y w h e r e w e n o t i c e t h a t w h a t i s f o o d f o r o n e m a yh e p o i s o n f o r a n o t h e r . I t is r e g r e t t a b l e t o m e t h a t r ig ht a t t h i s p o i n t w h e r e t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l , m e n -
" t a l , a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency a r e b e c o m i n g s o p e r t i n e n t w e
m u s t r e t u r n to l i n g u i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . B u t b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o l i n g u i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , l e t m e
s a y h e r e f o r th e s a k e o f a n y m a t h e m a t i c i a n w h o m a y p l a n t o f o r m u l a t e t h e e n s u i n g d a t a m o r e e x -
a c t l y , t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e h i g h l y i n t e n s e p o s i t i v e t o b e c o m e t h e h i g h l y in t e n s e n e g a t i v e , i n m y
o p i n i o n , i n t r o d u c e s t h e d e v i l i n t o t h e f o r m u l a i n t h e f o r m o f V — i . A n d n o w t o l i n g u i s t i c s .
H i g h l y e m o t i o n a l m e n t a l e v e n t s a r e r a r e . I f t h e y a r e o f n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y , t h e y t e n d t o b e r a r e
b e c a u se of a n a t u r a l d e si r e t o a v o i d t h e m . I f t h e y a r e p o s i t i y e , t h e y t e n d t o o c c u r r a r e l y b e c a u s e
o f t h e ir t e n d e n c y t o s h r i n k i n e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y w h e n t h e i r f r e q u e n c y in c r e a s e s . A n d t h e y b y
t h e s a m e t o k e n t e n d t o b e m a n i f o l d i n v a r i e t y . F o r n o t h i n g c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n m e n t a l e v e n t s
e x c e p t m e n t a l e v e n t s ; a n d t h e s e i n t e r v e n i n g m e n t a l e v e n t s w i l l b e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e o r n e u t r a l ,
a n d s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e g e n e r a l l a w s of a b b r e v i a t i o n . T h i s t e n d e n c y o f m e n t a l e v e n t s t o b e r a r e
a n d m a n i f o l d i n v a r i e t y I s h a l l c a l l t h e life tendency. I n s i m p l e t e r m s i t i s t h e t e n d e n c y t o i n c r e a s e
e x p e r ie n c e b y a h a z a r d o u s s e e k i n g f o r t h e n e w . B u t , o p p o s i n g t h e life tendency, w h i c h i n c r e a s e s
v a r i e t y , i s a b b r e v i a t i o n w h i c h r ed uc es n u m b e r w h e n f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s . I s h a l l c a l l t h i s t e n d -
e n c y t o d e c r e a s e n u m b e r a n d v a r i e t y b y a b b r e v i a t i o n w h e n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s , t h e
death tendency, b e i n g w i l l i n g t o a g r e e i f t h e r e a d e r i n s i s t s t h a t t h i s i s r o u g h l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h F r e u d ' s
death instinct, t h o u g h I h a v e n o s p a c e t o a r g u e t h e p o i n t . Life tendency a n d death tendency a r e
c o n s t a n t l y c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g e a c h o t h e r , — e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o n t h e o n e h a n d v e r s u s t h e s t a -
b i l i t y o f m e a n i n g a n d o r d e r o n t h e o t h e r . A s I l o o k a t l i f e , I t h i n k o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e o n e t e n d -
e n c y t a k e s u s f r o m o u r m o t h e r s ' w o m b a n d w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e h a n d s u s o v e r m o r e a n d m o r e t ot h e o t h e r t e n d e n c y w h i c h g i v e s u s s u r c e a s e i n t h e g r a v e . I n m a n y w a y s w e s e e m t o b e l i k e t h e
p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , w h i c h w e a r e t o l d e x p a n d s o n l y t o c o n t r a c t . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f i t b e
t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s t h i s b a l a n c e i n m i n d b e t w e e n t h e r a r e o c c u r r e n c e o f m a n y d i s s i m i l a r e v e n t s a n d
t h e f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f a s m a l l n u m b e r o f e v e n t s , t h i s b a l a n c e i s t h e b a s i c l a w o f l i f e a s w e l l a s
m i n d . L e t u s t r a n s l a t e t h e l a w i n t o t e r m s o f l a n g u a g e .
L e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e , " a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t w e s h a l l u s e a s o u r m e a s u r e t h e t i m e
t r i a n g l e . S h a l l w e c a l l t h e s o u n d s t h e e v e n t s ? I f y o u l i k e ; t h e r e a r e e i g h t o f t h e m a n d t h e s e -
q u en ce i s A B C D E F G H . T h e s e s o un d s o c cu r i n o t h er s eq u en c es , b u t t he ir o r de r i n t hi s s e-
q u e n c e , a s i n o t h e r s e q u e n c e s , i s v e r y f ix ed , a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o f a n y o n e is p r a c t i c a l l y
n i l. S o u n d s a r e m e a n i n g l e s s if n o t f ix ed i n s e q u e n c e s . A n d e a c h s o u n d r e p r e s e n t s p a r t i c u l a r g e s -
[ 2 1 ]
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ta res o i v a r i o u s o r g a n s of t h e m o u t h , p l u s t h e s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h e p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s a r e c r y s -
t a l l i z e d i n a r r a n g e m e n t a n d s e q u e n c e i n t i m e . A s a s o u n d i n c r e a s es i n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y , t h e s e
g e s t u r e s a r e a b b r e v i a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e , l o s i n g , t h e r e b y , w h a t I c a l l consficuousness. S h a l l w e
t a k e s y l l a b l e s a s t h e e v e n t s ? T h e r e a r e f o u r s y l l a b l e s i n " a u t o m o b i l e " a n d t h e s e q u e n c e m a y b e r e -
f er re d t o a s L M N O w h i c h i s r e a l l y a n a b b r e v i a t i on o f A B C D E F G H w h i c h a re s u b s t r a t a
w h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t i s o f s y l l a b l e s . L , M , N , a n d 0 e a c h o c c u r e l s e w h e r e p r e s u m a b l y . T h o u g h
f a i r l y c r y s t a l l i z e d , a c c e n t t e n d s i n t h e l o n g r u n t o h o v e r a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a s I h a v e s h o w n
e l s e w h e r e . 1 L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e L M N 0 , f o r o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , b e c o m e s r e l a -
t i v e l y m o r e f r e q u e n t . A n y o n e , t w o , o r t h r e e o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s m a y b e a b b r e v i a t e d , t h o s e
g o i n g f ir st w h i c h a r e l e s s e s s e n t i a l , t h a t is , w h i c h o c c u r i n m o r e o t h e r s e q u e n c e s . S o w e m a y t a k e
" a u t o , " o r " b i l " ( as i n I c e l an d i c ) f o r e x a m p l e . I f " a u , " o r " a u t , " o r " t o , " o r " m o " d o n o t o c c u r
a s a b b r e v i a t i o n s , i t m a y b e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l r e a d y a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s y m b o l s o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e
a n d w o u l d l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n , o r i t m a y b e s i m p l y c h a n c e . C a n w e s h o r t e n " a u t o " f u r t h e r ? Y e s ,
b y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w e c a n s u b s t i t u t e " c a r . " T h i s t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d s u b s t i t u -
t i o n i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e t e n d e n c y o f s h o r t w o r d s t o b e f r e q u e n t a n d l o n g w o r d s r a r e . 2
B u t n o w l e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e " a s a si n g l e s y m b o l , X , a n d co n s i d e r , a s s u b s t r a t a ,
s y l l a b l e s a s w e l l a s s o u n d s . V e r y g o o d , b u t t h e n w e m u s t h a v e a s t r e a m o f w o r d s i n w h i c h t h es y m b o l X o c c u r s a m o n g i t s f e l l o w s s o t h a t w e m a y e s t i m a t e i t s f r e q u e n c y . I f a ll w e h a v e s a i d
a b o u t Rdative Frequency, a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e b e t r u e , t h e n i n e x a m i n i n g a s u f f i -
c i e n t n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n t h e s t r e a m o f l a n g u a g e , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d m a n y d i f f e r e n t w o r d s
o c c u r r i n g r e l a t i v e l y r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w o c c u r r i n g r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t l y . T h a t w o u l d b e t h e
p r o o f o f t h e p u d d i n g ; a n d i t h a p p e n s t o b e t r u e , r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w i n f l e c t e d o r u n i n f e c t e d t h e
l a n g u a g e m a y b e .
I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e w o r d s o f 20 ,0 0 0 s y l l a b l e s o f m o d e m c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e o f P e k i n g ( t h e
s a m e s e l e c t i o n s o f w h i c h t h e s o u n d s w e r e e x a m i n e d i n P a r t O n e ) . T h e a c t u a l w o r d s w i t h t h e i r
f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e a r e t o b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x C . I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c -
c u r r e n c e o f a l l w o r d s i n P l a u t u s ' Aulularia, Mostellaria, Trinummus, a n d Pseudolus,3 a n d t h e
w o r d s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e s m a y b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x A . I n a d d i t i o n ,I h a v e t a k e n R . C . E l d r i d g e ' s a n a l y s i s 4 o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e i n A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s o f
s e l e c t i o n s t o t a l l i n g 4 3 , 9 9 0 w o r d s ( e x c l u s i v e of n u m e r a l s a n d p r o p e r n a m e s ) . I h a v e n o t u s e d F . W .
K a e d i n g ' s 5 e l a b o r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e u n f o r t u n a t e l y h i s r e s u l t s
a r e n o t i n a f o r m s e r v i c e a b l e t o s t a t i s t i c s . B u t K a e d i n g a g r e e s ( p a g e 5 4 f f . ) w i t h m y o w n r e s u l t s
a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e , t h a t m a n y w o r d s o c c u r r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w f r e q u e n t l y . B e l o w a r e t a b u -
l a t e d t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s a n d t h e t i m e s o f t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e , i n C h i n e s e , E n g l i s h , a n d L a t i n —
t h a t i s , i n a n e g l i g i b l y i n f l e c t e d , i n a s l i g h t l y i n f l e c t e d , a n d i n a f a i r l y h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d l a n g u a g e , s o
s e l e c t ed fo r t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e f o r f u t u r e w o r k . U n d e r e a c h l a n g u a g e t h e l e f t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s
t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h e w o r d o c c u r s , t h e r i g h t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s , e a c h o n e
o f " w hi ch o c c u r s t h a t m a n y t i m e s . I n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n C h i n e s e a n d L a t i n
a r e g i v e n t h e n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s . F o r C h i n e s e t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n e a c h f r e q u e n c y
w h i c h h a v e o n e , t w o , t h r e e , e t c . , s y l l a b l e s is g i v e n w i t h a s m a l l n u m b e r a t t h e u p p e r r i g h t t o d e s i g -
1 Se e supra, p. 1 .1 Se e infra, p. 23.3 According to the Oxford edition. Th e elision of est w i t h a p r e c e d i n g w o r d i s i n d i c a t e d b y i t a l i c s f e . g . i n o p i a j / ) ;
the elision of es is indicated by apostroph e (e. g. pessum u's). Differences in vowel qua ntit y were not recorded, norwould their consideration seriously alter the statistics, as the reader will see for himself by examining the l ist ofwords in the Appendix.
4 R. C. E ldr i dge : Six Thousand Common English Words, co pyr i ght i g n , pr i va te ly pr i nte d a t N i a ga r a Fa l ls ,N e w Y o r k .
s F . W . K a e d i n g : Haufiskeitsworterbuch der deidschen Sprache, Stegli tz, bei Berlin, 1898.
C a a D
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CHINESE
Number of Words with their Syllables
LATIN OF PLAUTOS
Averagenumber of
Syllables
2046 ( 3 1 5 ' 1 5 7 1 ' 1 4 4 ' 1 4 '
4 9 4 ( n o 1 3 5 8 ' 2 3 1 3 ' )3 1 6 ( 5 9 1 1 4 7 * 9 'to o ( 2 4 1 »' 3 ")
9 9 ( 3 9 l 58 * 2 ')6 6 ( 2 4 1 4 1 * I s )
4 1 ( 1 6 1 25")2 5 ( i o £ 1 4 ' 1 ' )
3 ° ( I 3 1 1 5 * l> I 4 )20 ( ' 3 1 in2 5 ( I 4 l !,•)22 ( I 5 1 7 ' )1 0 ( 6> 4«)
1 4 ( 7 ' 7s
)1 3 ( 5 ' «• )1 0 ( 4' 5 ' i 4 )1 0 ( 6 ' 4 1 )
6 ( 2 1 4 ' )
5 ( 4 ' >•)
5 ( 5 ' )4 ( 3' i 4 )2 < 2 ' !5 ( 4 ' 1 ' )
3 ( 2> **)
4 ( 3 1 1* )4 ( •> 3 ' )6 ( 4» 2 ')6 ( 4 ' 2 ')
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i 1
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( » • )
1 31 4
1 51 61 71 8i g
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2526
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3 4
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3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 54 6
4 74 8
4 0
5 °
5 15 2
5 4
5 55 65 86 0
29761 0 7 9
5 1 6
2 9 42 1 2
1 5 11 0 5
« 4
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4 03 7
252826
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1 51 6
1 31 4151 61 71 8
1 9
23
2 42 52 62728
2 9
3 °3 13 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
36
3 7
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3 9
4 0
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4 4
4 54 64 74 8
4 95 °S i
5 35 4
5 55 65 86 1
5 4 ! 9J 1 9 S
4 9 22 9 9
1 6 11 2 6
8 7695 4
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'9 )
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(2.18)
(2.08)
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(1.70)
6 1-4 2 9 0 7 1 6 2 - 5 1 4 7 1 (1.40)
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n a t e t h e n u m b e r o f s y l la b l e s , t h u s p e r m i t t i n g u s t o s e e t h e t e n d e n c y o f l o n g w o r d s t o o c c u r r a r e l y ,
w h i c h w e s h o u l d e x p e c t f r o m t h e Principle of Relative Frequency a n d A b b r e v i a t i o n . W h e r e t h e
n u m b e r of s y l l a b l e s i s n o t m a r k e d , t h e w o r d s a r e m o n o s y l l a b l e s . I n L a t i n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s e m -
b r a c e t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s o f a l l t h e w o r d s h a v i n g t h e g i v e n o c c u r r e n c e .
T h e a s t o n i s h i n g t h i n g a b o u t t h i s m a r k e d t e n d e n c y i s n o t t h a t i t i s n e w — f o r i t is w e l l - k n o w na m o n g l i n g u i s t s a n d a s s e l f - e v i d e n t a s g r a v i t a t i o n . T h e a s t o n i s h i n g t h i n g i s t h a t i t s h o u l d o c c u r
t o a n y o n e t o b u i l d u p a l a w o f l a n g u a g e a n d m i n d u p o n i t . B u t e v e n m o r e a s t o n i s h in g i t i s t h a t ,
l i k e g r a v i t a t i o n , t h e r e i s n o t o n l y a p u l l t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n , b u t t h e p u l l t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n
I — v a r i e s i n a n o r d e r l y f a s h i o n a s t h e f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a se s . T h a t is , r e g a r d le s s o f w h e t h e r t h e la n -
I g u a g e is h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d o r n o t ( a n d t h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o s h o w t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a ti o n -
' s h i p o f m o r p h o l o g y a n d s y n t a x ) , t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s d e c r e a s e s w i t h a m a r k e d s i m i l a r i t y u p o n
i i n c r e a s e o f u s a g e . B u t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g d i s c l o s u r e i s t h i s , t h a t t h e f o r m u l a f o r a b b r e v i a t i o n i s
a b * = k , a f o r m u l a e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f g r a v i t a t i o n .
F o r w e c a n p l o t t h e s e f i g u r e s o n d o u b l e l o g a r i t h m i c c h a r t s , m a r k i n g o f f o n t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s
t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s w h i c h o c c u r a t a g i v e n f r e q u e n c y , a n d m a r k i n g o f f o n t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s
t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h e w o r d s o c c u r . T h e c h a r t s f o r t h e w o r d s i n P l a u t u s a n d E n g l i s h a r e
g i v e n o p p o s i t e o n p a g e 2 5 . T h e u p p e r c h a r t o n p a g e 2 6 i s f o r C h i n e s e w o r d s . T h e lo w e r c h a r t
o n p a g e 26 , f o r C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s , s h o u l d b e d i s r e g a r d e d . T h e r e a s o n s f o r i t s i n c l u s i o n a r e g i v e n
b e l o w . T h e d i a g o n a l l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e f o r m u l a a b * = k , a n d t h e r e a d e r c a n j u d g e f o r h i m s e l f i f
t h i s d o e s n o t p a s s t h r o u g h t h e i n d i c a t e d p o i n t s w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c l o s e n e s s .
T h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e l i n e a b ! a r e i n a l l t h r e e c a s e s r e m a r k a b l y s l ig h t . I f i t d e v i a t e s i n E n g -
l i s h a t t h e v e r y l o w f r e q u e n c i e s , t h a t i s b e c a u s e E l d r i d g e o m i t t e d p r o p e r n a m e s a n d n u m e r a l s
w h i c h a r e a s m u c h w o r d s a s a n y o f t h e o t h e r s . B u t t h e s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n i s d u e t o t w o o t h e r c a u s e s :
( 1 ) t h e n a t u r a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f e r r o r ; ( 2 ) t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e b a s e d o n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e a n d n o t
s p o k e n o r t h o u g h t , a n d h e n c e t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e l e c t i o n s , i n m a k i n g a n y e r a s u r e f o r r e - w r i t i n g ,
h a v e a r t i f i c i a l l y d i s t o r t e d w h a t w a s t h e n o r m a l c o u r s e o f e v e n t s .Y o u m a y a s k , " w h y d i d y o u n o t a ls o p l o t t h e w o r d s w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s w h i c h , a c c o r d -
i n g t o t h e l i s t s o n p a g e 2 3 , w o u l d m a k e t h e d i a g o n a l l i n e s u d d e n l y j u m p , a n d n o t f o l l o w t h e
s t r a i g h t l in e o f t h e f o r m u l a a b s = k i n t h e w a y y o u i n d i c a t e b y t h e d o t t e d l i n e o n a l l t h r e e
c h a r t s ? F o r P l a u t u s , f o r e x a m p l e , y o u d i d n o t i n c l u d e w o r d s w h i c h o c c u r r e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n
fifty t i m e s . A n d s o t o o , c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , f o r E n g l i s h a n d C h i n e s e . "
Y o u w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e l i n e w o u l d j u m p a t e x a c t l y t h a t p o i n t w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a . ,
f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s a r e c a l l e d f o r . I s h a l l c a l l t h i s t h e scattering point a n d i t i s w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m s o f
s y n t a x , m o r p h o l o g y , a n d s e m a n t i c C ha n g e m e e t . F o r w h e n w e s a y t h a t the square of the frequency of
occurrence times the num ber of word s possessing thai frequency remains constant, w e m u s t p e r f o r c e
h a v e , w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s , f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s w h i c h d o n o t e x i s t . T h i s d e m a n d o f t h e f o r m u l a f o r
f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s u d d e n s p u r t o f f r e q u e n c y w i t h e v e r g r e a t e r i n t e r v a l s i n
b e t w e e n .
T h e c h a r t f o r C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s I i n c l u d e h e r e s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e p r e s e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s e e m e d
i d e a l f o r t h e i n c l u s i o n ( in A p p e n d i x D ) o f t h e f r e q u e n c y l is t s o f C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s a n d t o n e s , o f
w h i c h I s h a l l m a k e f u t u r e u s e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o w t h a t t h e d e g r e e of i n fl e c t i o n o f a l a n g u a g e i s
p o s s i b le o f r o u g h c o m p u t a t i o n .
I t i s w i t h t r u e r e g r e t t h a t m y s p a c e n o w n e c e s s i t a t e s c o n c l u s i o n , w i t h o u t m y e v e n b r o a c h i n g
t h e q u e s t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a s a p e r c e p t i o n . I f o n e c h o o s e s t o r e g a r d w h a t I c a l l a s e q u e n c e a s a
Galalt, o r t o c o m p a r e m y d e f i n i t i o n o f e m o t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e F r e u d i a n s c h o o l , w e l l a n d g o o d .
T h a t I h a v e n o t d o n e s o m y s e l f i s p a r t l y b e c a u s e I w i s h e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency t o
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F R E Q U E N C Y O F O C C U R R E N C E .
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s t a n d o n i t s o w n f e e t , a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Gestalt, a s I u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ,
d e f i n i t e l y d o n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e p h e n o m e n a o f l a n g u a g e a s I o b s e r v e t h e m .
A n d a s w e h a v e a r g u e d o f w o r d s , s o w e m a y a r g u e of p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , r e g a r d i n g i n
t u r n t h e p h r a s e , t h e c l a u s e , t h e s e n t e n c e , a s t h e s y m b o l , a n d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e w o r d s a s s u b s t r a t a ,
e v e n t h o u g h i n d o i n g t h is , o r d e r a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n p l a y a l e s s p e r c e p t i b l e r o l e . T h e w o r d s e e m sr o u g h l y t o b e t h a t u n i t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n w h i c h t h e d e g r e e o f d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r a n d t h e i n -
t e n s i t y o f e m o t i o n a r e w i t h i n s u c h a r a n g e a s t o b e b o t h p e r c e p t i b l e . A n d w h e r e d o e s t h e Prin-
ciple of Relative Frequency s t o p ? I t s t o p s w h e r e n e i t h e r o r d e r n o r v a l u e a r e e x i s t e n t . I n o t h e r
w o r d s i t i s a l l p e r v a s i v e i n l i f e . 1 b e l i e v e t h a t f r o m t h e s i n g l e c e l l t o t h e m o s t h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d
s o c i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s t h e l a w p r e v a i l s t h a t F r e q u e n c y t i m e s C o n s p i c u o u s n e s s i s C o n s t a n t .
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maJomanem a n u smeispectore
plusquantums a tsciamscire
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3 3 Words Occur 1 3 T i m e scertumecquidegoneeiiusestisetsi
eugaefacinusfactafiatfidefiiius
iliaistis •istocloqueremanum
minisminusmultanobisnusquam
oculisrebussalutemStasimeuides
3 6 Words Occur 1 2 T i m e s
co rcorded e tdicasdicta
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dotemeloquarfaciasfaciuntgenus
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iussitLenomarumemeaemolestusnimium
officiumpudetquamquamquemquamsaluom
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4 4 Words Occur 1 1 T i m e s
capitecertecupiod e mdixitessetfateorfit
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minaemod ismultummutuomn e uostiumpostea
praedícaspuerequadragintareddamrogitasrogoscin
seruomsolettandemueniatuerauerbumuidi
4 3 Words Occur 1 0 T i m e s
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emitepistuiasEuclioface/ortefrugi
habent
haberehabitathisceistamiubelenoni
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milesmiseromiserumnostrumomnempalam
probus
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sumustenetuaeuiamuideturultro
5 4 Words Occur 9 T i m e s
dedisseeaser eexemplumextempioiaciant
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gratiahabeasistacistosmeliusmentem
méritomillemodum
moremmoribusmorornatusnihilinimio
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69 Words Occur 8 T i m e s
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ecquiseheueorum
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8 7 W o r d s O c c u r 7 T i m e s
a c c i p e r e d a t e fact i s m a t e r p a t r i s s exa c t u n u í d e a e q u e f e c i s s e m a x u m a m pet o s ientaequoms/ d é o s ferre misere p l a n e spesa m i c a dici ñliae m i s i t pot es suisa m i c u s d i c i t o for is m o r e propt er t aceasa q u a m d i c t i s frat er n e q u i q u a m q u a n t i uel i sa r b í t r a t u e genere n u l l a q u e o uenirea u d a c t e r ecast or i l l ius num mo q u i n q u é uia
C a l l i c l e s e loquere int e i lego nup t ias quisque uinocert o epist u la Iouis n u p t i i s repperi uiuerecert um sí erga ius omne responde uiuoc o n t r a eri lege o p t u r o e sciunt uixc o q u i er is Lesbonicum p a r t e m seni u s q u a mcredere fac iat locum pat re seruo u t r u m q u ed a b i t f a c i t o m a n i b u s
p a t r e
126
a c c e p i s t i a u s c u l t o F i d e sa d i r é C a l l i d a m a t e s f o r e taduenis censeas for ibusa d u l e s c e n ti c u n c t a f u e r i t
a e q u e c u r a g n a t a ma g e r e d a b i s g u a t oa g i t d a b i t u r h e ma g r u m d e d e r i s h o m i n i sa l i o d e s h o m o i ia l ios do horu ma l i u s d o m o i n g e o i u malt era m dos int er ima m a b o d u c a m I o n ia m a r e d u c o i p s ia m a t d u o i p s u mamic os egest a t em i t idemamo ris emi iubeoamplius et iamne loqui t uraper i t e faceres lubensaud i facies t udosa u d i n f a c i t e m a i o r u m
O c c u r 6 T i m e s
m a n u f e s t o p r a e t e r s o r t emM e g a d o r e p r o p e s p e c u l om e o s p r o x u m o s t !m o r t u o m P s e u d o l o s ú b i t o
mulier quapr opt er suim u f l í s q u i p p ia m s u m m on a m q u e q u i s q u í s s u m p t un e g a t q u o i u s m o d i t a c e snem inem rat io t eneonequ eo rogas t ib ic inamnescis rusum t r ibusnost ra s sa lua uendidi tnouom sapis ueniooculos sce lest us u idenolim scies uiderepaz sci t u i r ipet i t secum ui t ap lacid e sedulo uoc antpossis sent io uolesp o s t r e m o s i n u s u spraed ico so leo ut inam
161
abis canes gent iumaccepisse cena gerat na d ô n i t a t e m c e s s o g é r a sa d u e n i o c o c t u m g n a t ea d u e n i s s e c o n d i r i o n e m h a b ea d u o r t e c u l p a r n h a b u i taes dedist i hia e t a t i d i c a n t h u i i u sa g e r d i g n u m i a m n eagi t u r d imid ium incedi ta ib at d isper i i in imicos
ai io d ixer is inprobisal i i s doct e inspicerea l i q u i s d o c t u m i r a t u sa m a n t e m e c c e i t a i ia m a n t i e r a s l e n o ne ma m e t e s t n e l e p i d aa m i c i t i a m e z i l o c oa m o c e m C a b u l a m l o q u a ra n u m f a x i n t L y s i t e l e sa p s c e d e f e r o M a c e d o n i oapsent e f ides magist erAt henis f locci xnagnama u f e r a m f u a t m a g n i sb o u e s f u r m a l i sC a l l i c l e m f u r e m m a x u m oC a l l i p h o f u t u r u m M e g a i o n i d e s
O c c u r 6 T i m e s
m e n t i o n e m p e t u n t s i n a mm e t u a r a P h i l i p p u m s i nomet uro Phi lo lac hem siquidemmil i t i p ist r inum sol im i o i m e p o s s i m s t r e n u emult o s possunt st u lt usneuis post ulo suosn i h i lo p o t i s s u m u m t a m q u a mn o c t u p r a e d a m t e n e snost er pret io Theoprapidesnost ra pr incip io t ot um
nost rae probo t r igint anul lam proinde uaenupt ura. prope ras u idea soccasio quaer i t u id isseopere quid que uinopor t ui t quique uirgínemo p t u m a q u o r u m u i t a eo p t u m o r e d e o u l l a mordine rerum unamp a e n e r e u o r t a r u o l u i tpar í t e r saepe uort an tpat r i sc iant uort atp a t r i a m s e c u s u o xpessum e sent ent ia urbepet a m serui uxorpet ere serui t ut em
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2 9 9 W ords Occur 4 T i m e s
clam facto magtioclanculum factuntt/ maioremcogito f actus malaecommodum famam maxumumconduxit feram Megadorusconsili /erat m e l i u sconsilio ferunt meminicorruptum filia mensescred idi filial meq uecredis frustra meridieculpa furcifer metuontcures fures meumj*currere gloriara minorisdam.no gnatae miseretdanunt gnati miserlsdapsilis gnatum mittamdato gradum mittedatura habeam mitteredaturum habui mittideceat h a e monesdedero heia m o t a mDelphium heri mortalemdemum h e u mortal is
denuo hosce mortuosideum iltae mulieredicat illaec m u c u sdictum indicium neminidiues inímicum nominedivitias ioíuriam nosceredolos insidias nostrodomino interii nouistidormi t u m iauitus nouoduas ipsa noxiamduce istanc nulloducit istinc oblituseadem itaque occepiecfodiam iubes occludeegon iaborem oculiémisse leges o h
erilem legibus onustamerili Ienone oppidumesses Lesbonico orasEucli'onis liber orateuenit liberauit ornamentisexperiar liceat ornataexsequi licebit ornatusextra litteris ostendefac/Iius longe pactumfacinora ludo p a rfactiones magni pars
4 9 2 W o r d s O c c u r 3 T i m e s
a i o argentario carnufexalibi argenteam centum
aliquam arraboni certaaliter atta t ceteraallatum attuli ceterisaltéra audiui ceterumamabit aufer cibumamabunt auribus circumspiceamatorem ausim cluetamicae auxilio coepitamice Baiiionem colasamittat beluam comissatumangiportum beneficium comoediisantenac beneuolentem compellaboantidhac bibam concedamact iquom bibere concessero
anus Calidore. condimentisapstrudam CaUicIi condiunt
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pla^idespopulipopulopossintpossitpotarepotepoteropotuipotuitpraepraedapraesenspraesentipretiprocuJproloquipromisipueripultaboquaerasquamuisquidnam.quiduis
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temp u stergumtotustristuneualideuellemuellesuenerisueniamuenisseueriuesperumuicissimuideamuidisti
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dixeramdixistidixti
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4Ô 2 "Words Occur 3 T i m e s — Continued
doleodolisdolodo'iumdominumdonicumdormit
dotisdrachumamdubitasduintdulcee a tebriumecfectaecierriedimeduntegereegetehernelocutusemoriar
em ptaerameruseueueniateueniuntexemplisexistumatexitexpetoexpetuntexturbauitfabrifabulafabulaefabulare
fabularierfaciefacturusfactusffallaciisfamil iafamil iamfassu 'sfaxisfeceroferesf cr m eflagitiumforiformidoFor tu nafugiamfustibusfuturumsfgereregestiographicum
gratiasgregemgynaeceumhabeathabenhabetohabitatio
habitethaeretherbashominehominibushonoremhospeshostisianuaianuamibit
ig n oseasiflinciUorumilluncimpera
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it oiubetiudicemIunoiureiusseratiusseroiussilaníosIaudantlenonislepidislepidumLesbonicil e sliberosliberumliceretlignaliquetlubeantlubenter
lucrimaceEummachaeramagisquemagnuñeemalasmalos
maneammatremmatrimoniummaxumam e lraendariismendaciummentiarmessismetumihiquemilitem ¡litismiserammoraemortuis
mortuosm o sm o xmulieresmulierumnatenatonauemnecauitnegetNeptunenequiorneuoltnoctesquenormenosce
nosmetnostramDOStrisnouissenouosnullumnullusnumerumnummosoccasionemoccepistioccultooccupatusoculumodiooletopinooportereopperiaropgeruareopsignatasopgonium
optutmum/optumusorationemoratoro r ootioseotium
paenissumepaenitetpalliumpar ataparentespañetesparumpaucispaullopauperempeccauipecudespeculiopecuniapeiuspendere
perdasperdídistiperditperductetpergamperpetuompessumpessumispetasPhilulachetempietatempigeatpiscisplacentplenamponepoploposcamposcereposeopossetpossiesposthacpostulatpostulespostuletpoterispotiorpraeceptispraesentepraetoremprimumdumprior
probumprofectuspromisitproraittepromittere
1 1 9 8 W o r d s O c c u r T w i c e
abducere accepti actum adgrediarabduceres acceptum adde adiit
abduceret accersam addideris adleçauit
ab eam u s accerse adducam admjsitabeas accessit adduxi admoenireabibam acd pias
accipiatadeam adsiet
abieritacd piasaccipiat adeas adsiste
abire accubas adferre adsum
accepi accu b at adferret adueniataccepit acerrume adfinem aduenire
propemodumproperoprosusproxumaproxumumpublicopuer
pueropugnampulchrequaerisquaeritasquaeruntquaestioniquattuorqueatquicquidq u k u mquidamquoquamquoquoratemrecipere
reciperecipitrectareddereregemreliquitreperirerepudiumrogessacruficemsalueresaperesauiasce\erumscelussciâtscibamsciboscites e iSeleuciasempiternumsenectasententiamserioseroseruatseruatumseruemseruetseruissimitusinas
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tutelamualeuelintuelituelutuenalemuendidisseueneritueniuenbausueniuntuerberasuerberouestisueteraueteresuetusuicinouictuuidenturuidetuillarouirgouiuomuiuosuitiumullumunguent aunguBsu n ounusuoltisuolumus
uostrorumuterutorututuxores
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aliorumaliquanto
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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continued
aliquialto
amantumamaraamas
amataresamatonbusambasambosambulacrumamesamiciamisistiamoUminiamoueamplexabereancillasangíportoángulosanimaianimamanimatusánimosannoannonannuosannuman uaperiaperisappareatappeilaboappellareapscesseroapsentemapsentiapsoluamapsolutos
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artisaspiceaspiciasastaastasastatoastuastutumAthenasatiamentoattuleritattúlxstiauaritiaauaruaauctoxaudacissume
auíerenauferriaugent
auídis clamoris cupis campse faenoriaunculo clitellarios curas ebrius fallaciamaunculus cogita cu rassis eccere falladasaurem cogitare curriculo ecíecero . falsoauris cogites dabin ecfecturum famaauspicioausu's
cognatos dares ecficiam famemuspicioausu's cognosco das ecfodiebam familiaeau turnen t coloniam daturin edicam íamiliaremau tumo columine debetu r edico farailiaribusbacchanaí coiunt deceptus edictioaem fanoBallioni comedit decretum edidi fan umbeatus comes dedam edit fastiditbeneuolens comeíf dederat edixit faterebénigne comitia dederim educat fateturbibat commendaui dedírnus eduxi faximbibi commentusí dedistin egeris faxitbibite comminisci dedíta egredere feceritbonaque commit ta m deferam egreditur fecissetbonos commoda deferre eire feminabonus commode defodit eiulans fertbonu-rf commutet defrudaui eloquor ' fideicadam compedis deludif icatuj í eraere öducia
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coüdecet desinat erant fretusapiamcapias condidi desponde erimus fructuscapiatur condimenta despondisse errabo frugemcapillum condio deuorti erras frumenticapiti condita dice erunt fucaram conducibile diceret eruom fuerantCarysto conductor dicuii t essent fueratcassam confer differam esto fugiatcastigatorem confido digitum Euclionem fugis
cauere confregi dignam EucHoni fumuscaui confregit dígnis eumpse fundituscaussae conspectu dignumj/ eumque fustemcaussaeí/ conspectum dignus euocem futuracautum conspicatus díscipuiis exanimatus gallocedit consuadet distrahitur excruciari gallumceiata consulis diui exercitor gaudiiscelatum consulit diuidere existumo gerecenat consutis díuinam exite geritcenseam conueniant diuitem exitium germanamcenseat conueniunt diuitiis exorare gesseritcensebam conuiuarum dixerit exorari gestacensen conuiuas dixero exoritur gladiumcensuí conuiuis dixin exarna-uit gloriosumcera copia dixisse experior gnatacerebrum coque doce experiri grandem
cernitur coquinatum docta expetis grandiscerti coquinum docuit expetit gulamcertiorem coquo doctos exprobras gutturemcerussam coram dolet exsolatum habeboceteri corium doli exspectatus habemusCharine cornix dolorem exspectetis haberemCharinus corona dominus exstinguere habenCharmide coirumpit domisí exta habitarechlamydate coruos dono fabrorum hahitochlamydatus crapulam dormiam facerem harumcircum creaa nt dormiens faciamus harunccircumspicedum credas dormitet faciet bastíscita crede dormiunt facílem herbacitius crederem dotaüae faciiesí hoccirteciuibus cribrum d uc faciundum honoreciuitas crucior ducat facta« honoris
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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continue^
iamdudumibisignemignisignobilisiliacillasillastillequidemillisceillosimagineimaginemimperasimperatumrtimperauitimperiaimperoimpetratumimpetrauiimpleuistilmprobiimpulsuincedereincenatusincipitindequeindicemindignumindiligensindoctusindustriainestineunteinfamiaminfectuminfelizinfitiasingetiiingereinhiat
inicereinimiciinimicisinopiaInopiaminprobiinprobiorinprobuminprudensinpuneinpureinquitoinridereinridesinsciensinstituí
intemperiaeinterestinteruisamintrainueniaminueniatinuenio
louemipsuSKáiremistaistiusistoitaneitur
iubeam
iura memorem nominatiusseram mendacia nouaiuuentute mensa nouistiniuues meopte nouitiuzta mercatus nudiuslabore mercedem nugarilabra mercedis nugatorlabris mercimoni nullustlacrumas merenti nummuslacrumis meres numquislaetus meriti nutricemlapidem merui obiurigemlatum meruisti obnoziuslegionem metuas occasiostlegiones metuere occidamlepidam metuit occidisLesbonicus míhiraet occidistilibera mihis/ occipiasliberare militarem occludamlibere mina occupaboliberi minimi occupesliberis minimo ociuslinguam minore octogintaliquido mira od ilitterae miror odos
litterarum misereat offendetloca miseria olantlocare misericordia olerelocaui missa oleumloces mitto omitteloci mittunt omninolocis modí oneralocus molestos onerabolongior mulestum onustoslongius moles tumr/ operaelongum moneo opeslubeat monere opperirilubido monitum opportunelubidojí montis opsignatumluco mora opteslucro morata optestor
ludis moriuntur optigereLysiteli mortui optigitmaiore mulieri optueremaledictis mulierís optulitmales/ mulioncs optumimalitia mulos opulentomamma-madere multas opulentusmammia munditiis oraremancupio mundo oratiomandatum murenam oratummandauit narrauero Orcusmani natali oresmanta natalis ornamentamanufestarium natum ornatumastigia nauci otiomauellem necesse pakoam
maxumaíí necne paramearum negas parantmezst neges paratus •mecastor negó parcemedia nemost parcummedio nequeam parcusMegadoro nequeas parsimoniammelior nequis participemmeliora nequiter participesmeliores nescias partitudomemineris nescioquem parumpermeminisse nescit parum í/memor neue patinaememora nilne patinasmemorant nimisque patrissatmemorare noli patronusmemoras noluit paullisper
paullumpauperipauperibuspauperiempeccatispecauissepeculipecuniampedem
peiiurumpeiorempellegampellegerepenipenuspepulitpercontaborpercontareperconterisperdereperdideritperdisperditumperditusperduci
perductoremperduintperginpergulampericlispericlumpeñereperierintperieritperiimusperiistiperlubenspermitiespermittoperpetuopersequi
peruorsepessumipessumopetatpetirauspetitoPhilolachiPhiltonispignoripinguiorpiraeuraplacereplaces
planissumeplateam
Plautusplurisplu rum umpoetapoUicitusípopliportaportamporticumpossempostidpostillapostispostremumpotatpotessepotestate
potispraecipiopraedicespraedonespraemiumpraequampraesensitpraestitutapraeterea
praeterireprandiumprimoprincipiumpríoremprobantprobareprobioremprobisprobosprobrumprohibetproinpromampromuspropius
propriumPseudoluiípublicepublicumpudeatpuderepúdicopudicumpugnapulchrapulchrumpultandopultarepultaspurpurapurpuram
purusputeoputesputeumputusquadrilibremquaererequaeritatquaes tiquaes tionequaestumqualisquandoquidemquantaquantoquantum;?
quererequicquamsíquidlubetquiescequietusquippiniquitquoiaquoiuisquonamquondamquotradvcitusraperapererationeratu'
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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continue^
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redussereditxeferreferreregionesregionibusren untiantleperiorepperisserepperistirépudiésrespexisrespicerespiciasrestasre xrogitemsacrasacrumsaeuitersaginamsaiuamsaiussalutatsalutissanussapienssapitsarcinamsatinesceiestioremscibas
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6429 Words Occur Once
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accubans adaxintaccubantis adcurareaccubes adderesaccubitum addideroaccubo addiditaccumbas additoaccumbe additumaccumbere addituraccurarier adducaccurassis adduceremaccusas adducite
accusem adduintaccusites adduntacerui adduxitaceti adegeroacidissumi ademitacie aderatacrem aderoacriorem adessesacriter adessunuitacrius adesteacta adeundiactam adeuntactast adfatimacturu's adíectatacturus • adferaculeus adferat
acutis adferetadaeque adferetur
adferoadferrieraàîeitadferturadfertoadfigiadñnesadfiniadfinitateadfiniumadflictas
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adiurastiadiutoremadiutriceadiutumadiuuaadiuuabereadiuuareadiuuasadlegatuadlicereadloquar
adloquiadmemorditadminiciumadmittamadmonitusadmordereadornaadpetitadplicareadplaudereadportasadpositaadprimeadprobareadproperaadsedero
adsentaboradsentari
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1198 W o r d s Oc cu r Twice — Continue^
adsentatrixadsequereadsequituradsidamadsiduiadsiduoadsintadsistite
ad s i taduenaeaduenamaduenatadueneritaduentoaduentumadulescentiaeadulescen tiaequeadulescentisadulescentulumadulescentuluiiadulescenturnadultaadultamaduocare
aduocatoaduorsariaduorsatrixaduorsatusaduorsisaduortamaduortessduortetisaduortiaduortitisaduortitoaduortoaedemaedificanturaedificatioaediâcatoaedificiisaediliumaegritudineaegritudinemaegritudoaegrotiA c g y p t oA e g y p t u maemulosaequaaequaliaequal isaequiperabilisaequiperetaequissumumaequomqueaequos
aerumnasaerumnisAeschinumAeschrodoraaestateaetatisaetatuiaaetatulamaeternumafluamag antAg ath ocl emAgathocl iag eb atagetisa g i
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agitantagninamagnoagnosa g o u sagrumqueagundamahena
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ambitioambobusambulatisamburetarnicasamicissumamamicissumeamicitiaamicorumamíctusamicu'samicuí/amiserisamiseritamittoamnem
amoliriamolirieramoreamoresamoriamorinamoueremamouerim
amouerisamouesamplectareaffiplexatorampliusculeanginaaog m amangiportaaflguillai/aiiimaeaxiimatianimeanimisanimumqueaxiimu'animuiianne
annisannonaanno r u mannusarvtecesserisantemnasanteueniatantepertaantepotensanteuenianteueniamAnth r axantidiboantiditAntimachusantiquaantiquaeantiquamantiquisantiquoantiquosanu*anuianuliaperientaperioaperitinaperiunturapertasapisciturApollo
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asperneris auosqueaspexerit áureosaspexi aureumaspicedum aurichalcoaspicere auriumaspiciam auruíexaspicioasseres
aurumquespicioasseres ausculta b oassus auscultan*a s t auscultasastate auscúltateastitisse auscultesastíterunt ausumastrinxeris aususa s tute autumasatríensem autumaui
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a u i l u s
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blandís cantas cautoblsuditerne cantat cautosblanditur cantharus ceciditblandios cantheríis cecideroblandus cantores Cecropioblandurf ca n trices cedisblitum caperratam cedodumborabax capessere ceduntbonan capesses celebrabonasque capitale celembone capitali celerebonisne Capitolio celerembonítf eapitur ceJeribonumíí capiundas celeriorbos capram celeriterbouem capsit celeriusbracchia capta celesbracchium captandums/ celobrassicam captas celocembreuis captat cenaenebreuem capti cenandumbubula cap ti 0 cenasbubulam captioni cenati
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caedito carum Cercobuiuscaedundum caruisse Cerconicuscaeno cassidem Cererincaenum caste Cereriscaeruleos castigabilem certastcalamita tis castigabit certiorcalamo castigare certiscalator castigatum certissumuscalceolaríi castrandum certiuscalet casum certosCalidori catam certusíCalídoro catapiratería cerussaCalidorus cataractria ceteraecallent cati ceteroscallet catum cetumCallias catus Chares
Callidamatem caudicali CharrnidatusCallidamati caueam CharmideiCallidemides caueant Charmidicallidiorem cauebo cblamydeCallimarchus cauendum cblamydemCallinicus cauendumrí choragoCaUiphone caueo ChrysidemCaUippus cauerem cibocallum caueres cibujíCampanica cauero cícímandroCampans cauet CUiciamcampos cauiiiam cínaeduscáncer caupones círcitercandef acere causificor circumcircacandida caussam circumdaricandido caussasi circumdücamcandorem cante rircumducatcantantem cautiojí circumducecantari cautiores circumspectabam
5429 Word s Occur Onc e — Continued
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communiacommunicesquecommuniscommutauitcommutemuscommutocomoediacomparebascomparemcomparescomparetcompecticompectocompeUaremcompella tcompellit
compendiumcompilorcomplexui/compluriscompositumj/comprehenditecompressionescompressissecomprimerecompñmendacomprimorcomprimundatonareconatusconcastigaboconcedereconcelebrareconcenturiatconcenturio
concepisticoncietconciiiabulumconciliaticonciliaueritconcillesconcinnatccnclaui
conclauiaconcluiumconclusosconcordiorconcexitconcredereconcrederetconcredidiconcreditumconcreditunu/concreduoconcubinatumconcubiumconcustodiuicondemnabo
cocdiamcondiciocondicionecondidicicondignecondimentumsíconditamconditeconditumconditumsícondiuerocondormiuimusconducaturconducebasconduceconducta
conducta^/conductumconducuntcondulpicantcondusconduxiconectiteconfeciconferamconferemusconfessu'coDÍessu'sconfestimconñcietconficimusconfidentem
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confugisticongerronemcongerrones
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congeruntcongestaecongestumcongialemcongl iscatcongrediricongriocongrionec o n gram
cohibcrentconicereconiecitconiecturaconiuentconiunctusconlaudantconlaudeconlegitconl ibitumconligatisconl igiconl inuntconlocataconlocauiconlocem
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consequereconseruauitconser u om mconsidentconsideroconsign a b o•consignemusconsiliisconsiliricons is tamconsistuntconsociauitconsolaturconspexerisconspexiconspicariconspicereconspicoï•constituaturconstitueramconstrictisconstringamconsudauerisconsuetudineconsuetudinesconsuetumconsulasconsuiuicontab ef aci tcontechnatuscontem namcontem nitcontem nor
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6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c
costaecottabicottidianum.T¿cottidiecoxerintcrassamcrassascrassiscrassitudine
crastinicrastinumcreascrebricrebrocredatiscredibilecrediderimcrediderocrediercréditocreditumcredituruscreduascrepentcreta
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O c c u r O n c e — Continued ,
doctiordoctlr/doctiusdocuissetdoctrinamdoctusdocuitdolent
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6 4 2 9 W o r d s
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extentatumextergeextimueras
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ext is feras fluontextoll i feratur focoextol lunt ferebat focumextrudit ferentar ium fodiextrusisti feret foedarime x t u d i feriam foedee x t u r b a ferias folleme x t u r b a s t i ferio fontemexuuiis fer i t forabunt
exussum ferocem forentf a b a ferratile f o r m a lf a b e r ferreis formicisfabr is ferret formidasf a b r u m ferriteri formidolosasf a b u l a b i m u r ferriterium forsfabulatas i ferritribaces fortassefabulor ferrum fortemf a c e t e fertur fortisf a c e t i s feruefaciunt for t i terf a c i e b a t f e i u o n t fortuitofaciem fest ínate f o r t u n a b u n tf a c i e n t fest ine fortunamfacÜJumum fest inet for tunasf a c i m u s fest ino fortunatamf a c i n festo fortunataque
facinorum f e t a fortuna tasfacit is 6 am fortúnatef a c t a m fiamus fortunatorumfa c t i o fictor fortunatusfact iosum fictorem fortunatu 'sf a c t i u s f jcturae frangatfacto;/ fideli frangeref a c t u fideliam frangí tisf a c t u r i fidelis fratef a c u n d e fideli tasqu e fratremfaeceos fideli tatem fratr ifaenor is fideliter fraudefaenusculum F i d i fraudemf a l a s fidicinas fraudulentafa l laciae fido fraudulentefallere fierem fraus
fa l l is fierent fricarif a U u n t fieres frígidaf a l s a filias f r i tfa ls id icum finem fronsfa ls is firma frontemfalson firmiora frugaliorf a m a e firmiorem frumentar i isf a m a s firmitate frumentof a m e firmi tatem f r u m e n t u mf a m e q u e firmum frustraminif a m e s firm us frustrat ionesfamigerat io fissile frutexfamigerator i fissorum fuantf a m i g e r a t o r u m &xae fuasfamil iar i ter flabelliferae fucof a r t i m flagitabere fu ef a s flagitare fueramf a t e a r flagitator fuerisf a u c e s flagiti fueruntf a u c i s flagitio fugamf a u s t a flagris f u g a tf a x e m flagritribae fug a tisfebr im flammarii fugerefecer im flare fugerequef e c e r u n t fleam fuginf e c i m u s •fleas í u g i tfe lat f lentem fugita tfeliciterque fleueris fugitiuamfel ix fioccum fugit iuefemin as floreas fugitiuo;/feniculum fluctibu' fugitoremf e r a n t fluctus f u g i u n tferare fluctusque fuist i
6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued
fu itne glandium hereditasfulgur itae gloriae heresfullo gnaruris hesternumfullones graderere hibernafullonius gradibus hicinfulm entas gradie tur hieinefundamento gradu hiememfundamentum Graece hi lar ifundes grandinem hi larus
fundis grandibo Hilur icafundus gtandior hircumfungar is graphice hircusfungatur graphicus hirquinafungi grat iae hiscuntfungino gratiasq ue historiamfungit grat i is hiu lcafurandum grat is hocinefuratu m gratulator hodie;/furcil les g ra turn holerafur ibus grauabor hol i toresfur inum grauar is bolusfuru m graue m hominirffurt i f icas graui ' homo'sfust i grauida homuncul igalea grauior honeste
Gal l ic is grauiter honestetgal l ina g rauius hom ogallinácea greges Honorgal l inacio Grum io honor igall inacius gurguliorf honosgall inae gustare horagallus gus tato horriolagarriré gus taue rit horridularumgaudeant gu tta hort igaudeas gutta m hospitegaudent gym nasium hospit igaudere gym nast ica host iasgaudia habea nt host icasgaudüsque habeb am bost i l ibusgaudium habebis host isnegemit i habem ur huccine
gemitu habeon huiusmodigenera h abitas humanigenere;/ hab itatum humanisgener ibus habitauit huncinegenerum habitent iaceamgeniumque habit i iaceantgens habituru m iacebisgentium;/ habituru;/ iacentemgenua habitus iacentisgenuerunt habuer im iaceregerat habuist i iac iturgeratur habu itne iactar igerebat haecine iamquegeretur haec j/ ibamgermana haba e ibasgerrae haha hae ' ibatgerundu m hallec ibir/Geryonaceo hamu m ibiturgessi hapalo pside ictusgessisse ha ra idcircogess it har io lus identidemgestam harpa ga ideogestant harpa gatum idnegestandu;/ harpagauit idoneumgestas Ha rpage idoneusg e s t a sl b a i p a g o l a s o n e mgest ire He dyl iu m ignarissumisgest is herbasqu e ignauigestores herbis ignauiagignitur hercle;/ ignauiamglabrae Herculem ignauissumusglabr iorem Hercules ignauomgladio Hercu l i ignauos
[443
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-jgnorandurfgnlgnoscor^gnota
jgnotam
"Hffcet"ílianc1 íllef/
UJidnej/ifflic'í/
lllisíaiocImagoImberimbre-¡¿ibremqueímbres
4mbncesqueímbrimimbuasynmigratíjmmgrauiinmutare
^mmutassisimpeliereimperaboimperata
-imperatorimperatumímperauerimimperesímpetusimperioimperiosusimperitasimpertió
-impertitimpetrabilisimpetrabit
impetrareiiopetrariimpetrassereimpluatimpluitimponamimporiasimponenturimposisseimpulsorimpulsoreimpuneinaneminaniisinanilogistaeincedo
inceduntincenatiincendesincendorinceptatincertaincertiincertoincertumííincessiincidíindpissisincitasinclementerinclutaeincohatam
incoiaeincommode
incommodiincommoditatesincommoduminconciliareinconciliastininconsultuincrepitauitincumbatincursentincusincusesincutíesindagatorindagetindaudisseindaudiueritindicabisindicantindicareindicassisindiceindidemindidiindidit
indignisindipiscesindipiscorindue tiindolesindomitoindotataindotatamindotatasinduiturinduntindusiariiindus triaeindustriisindus triorinduxeris
induxeruntin 'inepteineptusineusebemeinfamisinfectainfectoresinfensaeinferiinferioreminfertinfidelisinfiduminñtinfortunioinfortuniuminfumoingeniaingenuomingerimusingredereingrediriingrediturinhiauitinhonestisinibisinicitiniecistíiniimusinimico
inimicusiniquióreiniuria
6429 Words Occur Once — Continued ,
íniuriuminiusteinlexitinlocabileminluuiesinmaneminmemorinmemoreminmoeneinmortaleinmortaliainmortalisínmundusinmuniinmunisinnocenteminopeminopia^inpiainpiuminportunaminpotiinpransusinproba
inprobaeinprobeinprobioresinprobissumuminprudenteininprudentiinpudensinpudiceinpuraeinpura-teinpurisinqueinquinauiinquitinrideasinrideat
inridetinriquain ructasinsaniaminsaniaequeinsanininsanisinsatietatibusinscendaminscienteinscitainsciteinscitissumusinscribitinsepultuminseruibisinseruireinsidianturinsimulasinsipiensinsipientiaj/inspectasinspec tasqueinsperatainspiceinspiciatinstipulatusinstrenuosinstruereÍnsulaÍnsulas
insulsuminsuperintegra
integumentum iocus laetitiaintellegara Iónica laetitiasintellegas Ioue laetointellegere ipsissumus laeuaintellegis ipso lacuamintellegit ipson lamberasintempestiuos ir a lamentareintende iram lanariusinterbibere irasci latiiiinterbitat irati languoremintercedat irato linternaintercepi iratum lapidesinterduim ires lapidiinterdum iret laqueointerfecero isque Lareminterfjciant isse largeinterfieri is t largiriinteribí istacin largiter
largitu'snteriit istacinelargiterlargitu's
interimam istest Lariinterminatusí istiusmodi Iaruaeintermissum istocine lasciuiaeintermortui istorum laserpiciinterpellatio itan lassus
interpolare iterant lateinterpoles iterari latebisinterp retari iterum latebricolaruminterpretes itidemque latebrisinterrogare itinera latebroseinterrumperc ituruí* latentinterstringam iubeat laterainteruias iubebis latesinteruorteret iubebo Iatitabatintestina iuben latiu'intestinis iubent latrocinatuminstituta iuberes latuintolerabiles iubeto latuitintolerandum iucundumíí lauabointroiérit iudex lauatintuli iudicare lauatio
intuor iudicium lauationerainuasit iudico lauatuminueneris iugis laudariinuenerit iuisse laudasinuenero iunculae laudasseinueni iurando laudauisseinuenias iurandum laudeminuenies iurauistin laudentinuenietis iuratori laudisinuenimus iuratus laudoinuenires iussisse Lauernainuenisse iusta lauiinuenisti iustus lauisinuento iuuabo lauitinuentu iuuas lautaqueinuenturum iuuerit lectaeinuentu's iuuentis lectisterniatorinuestigare . iuuentutem lectoinuideat iuxtaque lectusinuident labella lectusíinuidere labellis legaminuides labitur legeiitinuidia laborent legerupainuidus labores legerupaminuisam labori legioniinuises laboris legisinuitet labos lemniscosinuoca Lacina lenaminuoco Laconicam lenoniaminuolem Iacrumam lenoniuminutilem lacrumans lenoniumí/
iocaris lactibus lenoniusioculo laetantem lenonumiocum laetiñcantur lepidas*
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6 4 2 9 W o r d s
lep idi \uc'i maVi&cusIepidissume lucrifuga s malimIepidissummn lucta tor maliqueJepido luculentu m malitiamlepid us luc us roalitias/leto ludam malorumleuem ludere malumqueleues ludibundu s malum;/
leuiorcm ludicram malu;/l ibe l la ludl f icabo mamm iculalibellai ludific at mandassel ibe llam ludif icatorem mandata;/l ibel lo ludif icatu ' mand atusliberam ludvficatust mandatus/l ibérant ludif icauerit maneatlibérasse luditicetur man eboliberasso ludimu s manerelibera;/ ludiu;/ manesnel ibérât ludus manicasliberate lumb rice man iplatimliberaui lupos mansil iberet lupus man tantl iberorum luscus manubriumliberosque lustrantur manufesta
l ibertam lut i tan t manulear iil ibertas luto manuleatamlibrara luto;/ manum ;/l ibro lutum manuplaresl icentiam iuxantur manuplar isl icetne Luxu r iae marel icetque Lyco nides maril ictum;/ macchaera marial ignean maccidem marisl imbularü Macedoni mar itumisl imen Maced onia Massic il iaeam Macedoniensem mastigiaeUnguis Maced onius mater iaelin teones ma céran t matrona el inteum macero matronarumlinum macet matronisl inquere Mach aer io matulal iqueant machinas matulamliquida mac tant maturaliquidu-r/ mac tari ma tura mliquitur macto matu ratel i tat ionem madeam mauel iml item mad efactat is mauel isl i t teram maden t mauel i tl i t teras madeo mauisl i t terasque mad et mauololocassem madide maxum aslocass im madidum maxum ilocata madulsam maxumi;/locos maerens meailoco;/ maerore meanlocuples maeroris meaqueIocutus maest i t iaeque Med ea
longae maest i tudoque mediamlongi maestur i medicaboIongissuma mage medicamentolongo magisterio medicoloquaces magnas meditabarloquendi magnisque meditaborloquentis magn uâcus meditat iloquerer magn us medita tu mloquer is maiiores mcditatuslora malaque medul l i tusloris malcdicis meherclelubeat malefacta Mel inu mlubentissum o maie fi ce mellamlubitu m maléficos mellil laelubu it malef icura mem entolucem maleque meminerunt
lucernam malesuada meminist i
OccurOnce — Continued ,
meministin mimtare mordicibusmeminit minor morermemorarier minusculum morimemorat mirabilis morigeraememorato mirare morigeru'smemoret m i r a n moriormemoriam miremini morologism en mirimodis morosmendacem mi rum;/ morososmendaci loquius m is morsmendaci loquom Misargyr ides morsiunculaemendax miscent morta lesmendicabula misceres mortar iummendicare misces mortemmendice misera mortuamendicis miserae mortuammendico miseras mortuomendicus misereret mostram e n s misereri mostraremensam miserescat m o u e a n tmense mÍ5eri mouesmensulam miseriae m o u e tmensum miseras m u c c imentiré miser itumji muíamentís miserius mulcar i
men ti tu;/ miseros mulcetmeosque miserrume mulimequidem miserrumeis mulierculammera miserrumus mulieremquemera;/ mi se rum;/ mulsimercatum misi m u l t a b omercatura misisse multaemercaturan misissem multammercede;/ misisset multasquemercimonio missus multauitm e r c u í mist i muí t imerear mittatur mult i loquommerendam raitteres mult ipotentim e i e n s mitteret multoquemerere mitt imus muñerameret mitt is munerigerulí
meretricis m i t t i t m u r m u r â tmeretricium mixtum murobatbar i imeretur modesti murr inammerita modest ia murummeritam modes tiam musicemeritus modicis mussar imeritu;/ moenia mussitabasmeruerunt M o l a s m u t a b i tmeruisse moles tam m u t a mmerum moles tiaeque
molestu'smutt ire
messemmoles tiaequemolestu's m u t u a m
messim molestu;/ mutuism e t e i e molles m u t u m i fmetimur mollior myropolaem e t i t moUiter nacm e t u a n t mollitiis nactus
metuculosa molocinarii naeniam e t u e b a m mone nanctu 'sm e t u e n d a moneas naremetuis monendu's narrabitm e t u s m o n e t narrabom e u ' s monstra narrasmigrare monstrare narratm i g r a t monstres narratominin montem narrauimi l ia montes narretmil iens moramur narromilitariis morare natalemmilitaris m o r a t u r n a t imilitem moratus natumüuinis morbo naturamiluom morburn n a u i
miluos morbus nauis
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J , . :
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-. nequaquam. nequeat: nequeunt
Nerineruo
nesdatnescioquidnescioquoaesciuntneutrubinidoricupinihilís/nimiaenimiasnimioquenimirumniteantnitidiornitidiusculenftidiusculumnitoremnitunturniueaobilerfnobilisnobiscumnoceasnoceatnocetnoctemnoctesnoctisnoenum
nolebamtiolintnolitnoluinominaboüomininonumnoramooscitatnoscocosquenosse
nostramonostrinostrorum
üostros/notaüotisüotisque
nouamnouaruranouasnouercamnouerisnouerisnenouerit
nouiciumnouorumnoxnoxianunubantnubentnucemnudanugacissumenugaenugamininugarenugatoremnugatorinugatorias
nugatoriumnugaturnugigerulisnugisnullinuUiw'nullums/numerasnumera ta enumeratisnumeratumnummisnummorumnumnamnumquinundinales/nuntiaretnuntiasnuntiatenuntiesnuntietnuntieturnuntiinuntiumnupsístinuptanuptiaenusquams/nutricenutrixobambulatum
obdormiuiobducamobestobicereobiciasobiciturobiciuntobiectareobiectasobiectasíobiectentobiectesobiurgandusobiurgansoblectemoblinam
obiitumobnoxiosobnoxíosaeobojuisti
6429 Words Occur Once — Continuedobrepatobrepserisobrepsistiobsonasobueneritobuolutoobuortatoccasiuncula
occedamusoccepistisoccepitoccep turns/occessitoccideretoccideritoccidimusocciditoccidoroccipiamoccipiatoccipítiooccisaoccisus
occlusaocclusaeocclusioremqueocclusiiocculantoccultabooccultandaes/occultatumoccultassisoccuitumocculuntoccupassisoccupatooccupatu'soccupauitoccupiasoccurritoccurroocelleocclJooceliu'soculataoculeusoculicrepidaeoculisqueoculusoderitodiosasodiossaequeodiosusodorem
odoresoffendamofficiooffiganturoffudamoffusamoggeruntoh eolentoleoolesoliuioliuomOlympicoomineomittis
ómnibus/onerabi'oneratonere
oneremonerisonusoperaes/operamqueoperas/operi
operirioperitoopibusopifexopinioneoporteatopperiamopperiareopperiboropperireopperituiopperitusopplebooppletaeoppletusopponam
Opportunitasopportuniusopportunumopportnnusoppressiunculaeopprimâtopprimituropprobraopprobrarieroppugnandooppugnasopsaeptas/opscurasseopsecraúeramopsecrauissetopsecrauitopsequentemopsequentisopsequiop se rendoopseriopseruaboopseruauitopseruemusopsessoropseuerisopsidioneopsignatamopsignatoopsistiopsit
opsonateopsanariopsonauitopsoniopsoniumqueopstantopstinauitopstringitopstrinxerooptegereoptempéremoptemperasoptinesoptiooptrudereoptrunco
optuerieroptumamoptumasoptumas/
optumisopturatopulentiaeopulentioresopulentissumusoraboorant
orasqueorationeorationisoratios/orauitordinemorditurordoor eorgiorumorituroriundiornatumossaostendamostenta rier
ostendiostentatostiootiosseotiosusouesouispacempaciscipactapactampactas/pactionempaedagoguspaenulasípalams/pallampallaspallíopalliolatímpallíos/palpumpanempañispanticesquepantopoüumpapaueFempapillarumparabitparaboparare
parasiteparasitosparasitusparatparataeparatas/paratisparatragoedatparatumparauiparcereparciorparcissumumparcuntparentparerem
paripariantparietemparietum
pari ta sparricidaparsiparsimoniaparsimoniaeparsisparsissempartapartasparteparticepsparturaparturitparuaparuisparuistiparuolusparuomparuoms/pascitepassimpassumpastum
patagiariipateantpatefecipaterepatererpaternampaternipaterquepatibulatumpatientiapatientissumums/patinispatiorpatiundapatiundums/patres
patriapatriumpatronepatronopatronumpaucapaucaspauciorespauciorumpaucorumpauepaullulumpauperantpauperculumpauperioris
pauperiorumpauperispauperrumumpaupertatepaupertatempauperumpauxillopauxillulopaiurillumpeccarimpeccatapeccatumpeccauistipectoripeculiarispedisequa
pedísequospeiiurarepeiiurauistipeiiure
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5 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued
p e n u npeiiurissumepeiiuriuspeiiuspeiorPel iampellegopellcrem
pellispellucetpendampendeantpendenspendentempendespendetpendispendopenetrarempenetrauipenetrauitpenituspensilempeperceris
peperissepeperitperambulaperacuitperbeneperbitereperbonamperbonoperbonumpercepipercolespercontaberepercontaripercontarierperculsu;/percussi
percussissespercussitpercutiamper d atperdeperderesperdideroperdidiciperdidisseperditaperdocesperdocteperduellibusperduellisperduimperduxeruntper eatperegriperegrinaperegrinosperegrin u mperegrinusperendieperendinum•pereoperfacileperfecerisperferamperfidiamperfidiasperfidiisperfossorper f r ig ef ad t
pergere
pergitepergitinpergraecamineipergraecaminipergraecaripergraphicusperguntperhibeatur
periclipericlum;/periclopericuloperiissemperiissesperindeperireperisperistromataperitissumusperlongums/permadefecitpermanascerepermanauitpernam
pernegarepernegatpernegopernouipernouitperaixperperamperpessu'sperpetiperpetiarperpetíorperpetrauiperpetuaeperpétuâtperp lacentperplexarierperpluantperpluitperpluontperpotasseperpotauiperscrutaborperscrutatusperse rutauipersentiscatpersequorperspectaperspexiperspicuepertegitoperterruitpertimescitpertundat
perturbâtpertussumperuenantperuenerisperueneritperuenistiperuiam;/peruigilatperuiumperuolgatunLî/pessuiispessumapessumu'spestepetasopetasus
pete
petetpetispetitumPhaniscepharetramPhiiemoPhilemoniPhilippeum
PhilippusPhilolachePhilolacheiPhilolachesnePhilolachetePhiJolachetiPhilolachetisphilosophatumphilosophaturPhil tonemPhoenicioPhrugiaphyrgiopicepicispicta
pictampictumpicturapietaspietatipietatispigerepigmentumpigrapilapilumpinguiorempipuloPirenampirumpiscatorpiscatupisca t u mpisciumpistillumpistorpistrinopiusplacariplaceamplaceantplacendaplaceoplacida;/placidoplagasplagigeraplagigeruli
plagipatidaepl anamplateaeplauditeplaudoplauduntplaustro r u mplausumplebiplenasplenoplenumpíen u spleriqueploraplorans
plorat
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plurumiplurumisplurumosplusquepoculapoeniceopolliceorpolliceturpollicitatiopollicitospollucibiliterPolymachaero-
plagidemPolymachaero-
plagidipolyposponamponatpondoponereponiturPontoP ontu mponuntpopulärempopularespopulumporcinamporgeporiciamporree t a mporrexiporta;/
portenditurporticusportitoremportitoresportitoriportoriumportupor tu mposeasposeeposceremposceretposcisposiuerisposiuipossespossiderepossidetpossietpossimuspossumusposte
posterorumposticuloposticulumposticumpostideapostularePostumuspotapotanduspotantis
potarier
pótatepota t u mpotempoteratpoteriíspoteritpoteruntpotestaspotestatempotipotiaturpotiorempotituspotuistipraebeopraeberipraecelletpraecepipraeceptapraeceptorpraecidampraeciperepraecipitauitpraecipitempraecipuepraecipuospraecurrampraedaepraedatoribuspraedicempraedicetpraediciturpraeditipraedopraefectumpraefectuspraeficiopraefulciorpraegnatempraehiberempraemandatum
praematurepraemostrauitpraemostroPraenestinuspraeoccupabopraeoptauistipraeponerespraeripiampraerodatpraerodatispraesagibatpraesegminapraesensissetpraesentariapraesentariispraesentarium
praesentempraesentespraesertimpraesidebop r a estâtpraestinempraestituta;/praestopraestolaborpraestrigiatorpraeterhacpraeuortarpraeuortarispraeuorterepranderoprandio
p r a t a
precatorprehendamprehenderitprehenduntprehensipremampretiumpretium;/primariaprimoribusprimusprincipipriuataepriuatumpriuosproauoprobasseprobesíprobiorprobioresprocedereprocellaeprocesseruntprocessiprocessit
procreandisprocudamprocuratorprocuresprodegerisprodiprodigiprodireproditprofanumprofecturusproíeroprofertoproferuntprofestoproficisci
profugiensprofúndeleprogigniprognatumprogrediminoprogrediturprohibeasprohibereprohibesprohibessisprohibessitpromatpromerepromerespromeritapromi
promiscampromiserampromisissepromissipiomittit ispromptaspronuperpropemodoproperantprop erarep ropera t epropera to;/properesproperetpropinarepropinqua
propinquitate
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6 4 2 9 W o r d s
propíor putid um quotu mo-pfopitia puto quouispropitii q radeb at
-wopolae quadrigis radicibus;£ r 0 prio quaedams/ rapacidaru m
propterea quaen rapaxpiopromptu quaepiam rapiamftforogare quaepiam s/ rap i'
-firorogatur qua eq' rapiturtjroscmditur quaeq uom que raptasíjrosilui quaeram raptoresprosint quaerat latkraesque
^ prospere qua ere ratispropereque quaerebas rauimprospicere q uaererem rean turprostibulum quae rite rearprostituam quaeritem rebiturprostituat quaeritem us recensprosum qua eritet recentiproterritum quaerito recepitpro thym e quaeritur recipiampjotinus quaerundum recnarmidaprotollet quaesso recita-protractum quaestio recludat
proueniant quaestu s recludeprouenit quaeuis recomm entatu'sprouidero quali recomminiscarprouinciae qualine Re cord atu'proumciam qualubet rectenprouincias quam obrem recurreprouocas quamu e recursemprouorsus quan tas redactu siprox quantilio reddatproxumam quanti l lum reddaturproxumas quan tis redderemproxume quaquam redderespioxumumsf quaqu e Teddesproxumus quartus reddeturnepube quasiqu e reddipublicae qua ssas redd ¡di
>publicisne qu ater redd itpueros quem piam redditaepuerum quemque reddituru'spugnabo querimonia reddituruspugnis queunt reddundumpulchram quian redduntpulchrior quibara redduxitpulchriores quidd am redemipulchrius quiddarm/ redhiberepulmento quietae redieritpulmentum quieto redieropulpamentis quina m redigetpuitabit quinauicenaria rediguntpultadum quine to rediitpultandi quingen tos redipisci
pultau i quiñis reditiopuitem quintibi réditopultiphagus quintus rediturumpumex qui's reducempumiceos quisquan u/ referampungit quoad referasPúnica quoc um referxetpuplicis quodam referspure quo iam referturpurget quoidam regespurigant quoii regipurpurata quoipiam reginaepurpurissum quoiuismodi regioneputa quoium regnoputa s quoiums/ regredereputa t quom odo relictae
putatu r quopiam relicuiputefacit quotiens relicuosputent quotumas re linques
[
O n c e — Continued l
relinqui reuocamus sapiesrelinquo reuocas sa reinareliquiae reu'que sarcinatoresremisit R h a d a m a n t e m sarcireremittam rides sarcirirem itta l ridetis sarmen taremitte ridicularia Sarsinat isremittere ridicule sarta
remoramqu e r iuabo satell itesremoran tur rogamus satiasremoratu r rogandi sat ietaterenuntiabo rogant sat iusrenuntiantur rogare satius/renunciare rogat saucaptidemrenuntiatum rogaturu's sauiisrenuntii roget sauiumreor rogitant saxor e p a r c u n t rogito saxumrepente r u a n t sea b raerepentino rubicundo scaenamreperias ructare scaeuastreper iatur ructus scalpurrirereperiri ruere scanditreperit rufus Sc a p ha e
repertam rumicem Sc a p ha mr e p e t a s rumori scapulisrepetundi ruont scata tr e p e t u n t rustici scelerareposcam rust icus scelestaereposco rusus scelestamrepperero sacerrumus scelestiorrepperissem sacrilege scelestumreprehendam sacris scelestu'sreprehende sacruficassem scibisreprehendit saeclo sciensreprehensi saeculum scinda ntrep utes saepissume scinderereputo, saeuiendum scintillamrequintas saeuomque scirpearere sagina scitaresciscat sagittas scitisresciuerit sagit tat is scitiusresciui sagittis scitneresciuisse saGat scitoresciu isti salicto scitus/ —resecroque salillum sciuiresigna tas salit sciuin . rresonat Salsipotenti s c o r t i n t u rrespicere saisis scribatii- ^respiciamrespicis
saluae scr ibuntür^espiciamrespicis saluete scrobes : •respondeam saluomque scrutar i —respo ndea t saluomi/ scurrarespond endi Sal us scurrasrespondeo salutabant scuta
respondí salutant secatrespondisset sal u tare secretoresponset salutas sectaturr esponsiones salute sectorresponsum salut i secundares tat salutigerulos securirestim saluto securimrest inguas sanae sedebasrestio ' sanctaj/ sedemrest i teras sanctums/ sedensrestitit sandaligerulae sedentrestituís sanein sedentariiretiñere Sangarionem sedetret inen sanguinis seduxiretullit sapiat segesretunsas/ sapienter segnities
retunsumrf sapienti segregantreueniat sapientia segregentreuenit sapientiam segreges
]
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Seleuciamsemitasenectussenectutisenissenserimseoseritsensisensimsensitsententiasquesentiatsepeliuiseptems e p turnassepulcrosequiturserasereresermonatussermonessermonisermonisqueseruaseruanda
seruandoseruariseruassoseruatorseruaueioseruauiseruauistiserueseruentseruiantseruitumseruitusseruitutisseruiuiseruiuntseruorumque
seruosnesescentaesesquipedeseuerumqueseuocassexagintasextumsibiqueSibul lasiccoculumsiccusSicyoneSicyonemSicyonisignissigno
sileatioSiluanosimiaSimiaeS im iamSimonisimulacrumquesimulantsimulassimulauitsimulessimultatemsimultersinapissincerumsingillatimsinistera
sinitosintnesiquidsirissistendaesisteresis tisitasitast
si tisitumsituimísiturfsiuesiuerissobriesobriu'soccosocerumsociennosociofraudesocordiamqueSocratemsodalissodalitate
sodess o lsolamsolassolésoleamsoleantsolearüsoleassoleatissolitussolitu'ssolstitialisolstitialissoluamsoluere
soluitesolutumsoluturmísomniatissomniauitsomnu'sonantsonatsonitumsonitussoporsorberequesorbitionesororissorssospitalis
sospitentsparsaspatiumspeciequespecimenspectabitspectantspectarespectatospectatorumspectospeculaborspeculatumspeculaturspeculoclarasSpemnesperas
6 4 2 9 W o r d s 0 <
speresspernerespernisSphaeriosplendoremspoliaspolierasponsionesponte
spopondispurcificums tastabilestabitstactas ta m u sstantStasimumstatstatinstatisstatuamstatuistiStaturstemuas
stilisstimulatricemstimulatricistimulorumstimulumStipendiumstipularierStirpestolidestolidiusStratastratioticumstratioticusstratu'strenuistrenuom
strenuososstrepitaîistrigibusStrobilumStrobilusStrolumstrophiariistrophiisstructastudeatstudeostudesstudetstultamstul t istultiloquentiam
stultisstultitiaestultitiarfstultitiisstultiusstultumstultu'ssuadeamsuadeassuadessuadetursuarumsuassuasoresuauisuauiorsuauis
c
O n c e — ConiinusuauisauiatiosuauitateSubbalüosubblandiebarsubditiuomsubducemussubductasubegerosubegisubestsubeuntsubigeresubigissubigitsubigorsúbitos*subitumsublegamsubleuisubleuitsublinatsublingulosubnigersubolebatsubolemsubueni
subuenissetsubuenistlsubuenitsuccieueresucopbantissudorsuessulcosumassumensumeresumeretsummamsummatumsuramussumpserosumpsi
sumpsimussumpsissesumptisumptibussumptuisumptumquesumptumsísumptusquesupellexsuperantsuperaresuperauitsuperbesuperbumsuperciliumsuperi
superioressuperosuperstessuppeditatsuppetantsuppingisupplexsupplicabosuppl icatsuppl icatumsupplicisuppositiciumsupremisupremumsupremus
o ]
supsequarsupsequeresupsequitursupsequorsupsíetsupstruontsuramsurdu'Sure
surgarasurgedumsurguntsurisSurosurruperesurruperemsurruperentsurruperessunuperetsurrupiosurrupuissesurrupuitsusceoseassuscensessuspendito
suspendiumsuspícaminisuspicentursuspicetursuspicionesustinentsustinetsusumsuturessycopbantaesycophantiosesymboloSyrustabernatabernáculotabernam
tabulastacebotácentetacettaciturnitatitactu 'taesuauítaeterrumetaetrioremtaetriustaletalentatalentotametsitang amtangerestangitetantamtantast a n tillotanti l lumtantont a n t utantumsítappetiatardetardustarpezitaetarpezitaratarmestaurustaurumtecbinae
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5429 Words Occur Once — Continued
tuaique uein uicerit uisitatus uoluptatestuams/ ueis uici Visso uolup tati
uoluptati'uapte uela uicine uisu'uolup tatiuoluptati'
tuar/ uelintne uicinos uiuam uoiuptatibu'tuisque uellent uicit uiuamus uolup ta tumtuli uellicat uictibus uiuat uolutauitulissent ueluti uictis uiue uomitumtumultuoso uenales 'uictitabam uiuito uoremtune uenalium uictit are uite uorsatúnica uenderes uictoria uitia uorsabatu rtunicam uendidisti uictorum uitilena uorsari
túnicas uendito •uicturaque uitio uorsa tu rtuomrf uenditurum .uictus/ uitu linam uorsotu o st uendundusf uideare uituperarier uorsoriamturarme ueneficae uideat uituperas uorsusturbae ueneficu's uideatur uiuam uorsuteturbant uenenis uidebis uiuere uorsutusturbat ueneram uidebo uixerít uortereturbaui mus uenerare uidebunt uixirous uorteritturbauit uenerim uidelicet uixisse uortiturbellas uenias uidendum uixit uortiturtúrbidas/ uenient uidendumsí ulciscare uostraetúrbidos ueniet uideon Vlixem uostrarumturbines uenibit uideri Vlixes uostroturbo ucniisse uideto ulmearum uostrosturget ueniret uidetque ulmeis uotemturpes ueniri uideturne ultumas uotesturpi uenisti uidit umerum urbaniturpilucricupi- uenítne uig ilan s umiditate urbanus
du m uenti uigila nti unae urbisturpitudinem uentriosus uigilas unctí urittuquidem uenturum uigiliam unct itant urnamturtures uentus uigilias unctiusculo uspiamtu's uenustates uigiliis unctor usquams/tu s uerberabilissume uigilo undam usquequaquetusculum uerberare uües/ undique usquintutin uerberari uiliores unguem ussuraetutor uerberarier uilissumus/ unguendam USSUJÍuaginam uerberate ui m unguis us uualeat uerberauisti uinarium ungulas usumualen uerbeream uincere uniuorsis usuraualent uerberonem uinces uniuorsum usurpari
usurpauialeo uerbií/ uincite unosusurpariusurpaui
ualete uerbo uinciti ' uoca USUJÍualui uerbumst uinctam uocabo utarualuisti uereare uinctus uocari utareualuistin uerecundari uindex uocauerit utend a
uana uerecundiam uinolentum uoces utendums/uanidicis uerumsí uiolarii uocis uterumuapulem uerus uirgarum uocitantur utibileuapulo uesanum uirginis Volcano utibilesuaria uestibulum uirgis uolebam utileuasa uestipica uiris uolebas utit uruasis uestitu uiritim uolgo utrauastities uestitu's uirium uolpes utramqueuaticinamini uetere uiro uolsus utriqueuberi ueterem uirtus uolturi um utrisqu euberrume ueteris uirtuti uolueram utrumuisuberrumos uetulae uirtut ibus uoluere uxorioubiquomque uexillum uirtutis uoluimus Xyt ili suecturam u i uisam uoluisses zamiamuehar uiaticum uise uoluisti zonariiuehementer uicem uisitata uolup zonariusuehunt
uolup