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SELECTED STUDIES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE FREQUENCY IN LANGUAGE B Y GEORGE KING SLEY I P F INSTRUCTOR. IN GERMAN AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY HA RV AR D UN IVE RS ITY PRE SS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 1  9 3  2

Zipf 1932 Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language

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SELECTED STUDIES OF

T HE PRINCIPLE OF RELAT IVEF R E Q U E N C Y I N L A N G U A G E

B Y

G E O R G E K I N G S L E Y 2 I P F

I N S T R U C TO R . I N G E R M A N A T H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y

H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R ES S

C A M B R I D G E , M A S S A C H U S E T T S

1 9 3 2

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C O P Y R I C H T , 1 9 3 a

BY THE PR ESIDENT AND FELLOWS O r HARVARD COLLEGE

PRINTED AT THE HARVARD ONIVEASITY P RES i

CAMBRIDGE, MASS. , O . 3 .A .

/ y /

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

T H E p r e s e n t p a p e r , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e r e s u l t s o f s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s u b v e n e d b y l i b e r a l g r a n t s

f r o m t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s , d e a l s w i t h t h e

Principle of Relative Frequency, a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e firs t a d v a n c e d p u b l i c l y b y m e i n

1 9 2 9 . 1 T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y , w h i c h b e g a n s o m e y e a r s b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1 9 2 9 , h a d

e v e n b y t h a t t i m e r e a c h e d s u c h p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t i n t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e I c o u l d i n c l u d e o n l y s u c h

m a t e r i a l a s I d e e m e d e s p e c i a l l y s a l i e n t f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e n e w h y p o t h e s i s . S i n c e t h e n ,

t h e m a t e r i a l h a s a g a i n i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , n o t o n l y f r o m m y o w n i n d e p e n d e n t r e s e a r c h , b u t

l i k e w i s e f r o m t h e c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s k i n d l y t e n d e r e d b y c r i t i c s b o t h h e r e a n d a b r o a d .

H e n c e a g a i n , m y s p a c e c o m p e l s o n l y s e l e c t e d s t u d i e s , a s e l e c t i o n w h i c h i s d e s i g n e d i n p a r t t o i n -

c r e a s e t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , i n p a r t t o p e n e t r a t e f u r t h e r i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h a t m a t e r i a l , a n di n p a r t t o e x t e n d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e v e r y t h e o r y it s e l f . T h e c a r e f u l l y d e l i b e r a t e d a r r a n g e m e n t i s,

h o w e v e r , s u c h t h a t I h o p e t h e r e a d e r c a s u a l l y p e r u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s w i l l s e n s e t h e f u n d a -

m e n t a l o r g a n i c u n i t y of th e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c ip l e . T h e u n i t y of th e Principle of Relative Fre-

quency, i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s a n d s c o p e , i t s b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y o f Gestalt Psychology o n t h e o n e h a n d

a n d t h e t h e o r y o f Psychoanalysis o n t h e o t h e r , a n d i t s g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b o t h l i n g u i s t i c a n d

o t h e r w i s e , I a i n a t p r e s e n t c o m b i n i n g i n t o a m o d e s t v o l u m e t o a p p e a r in t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e .

I t i s b e c a u s e o f th i s v o l u m e t h a t I n o w i n c l u d e a s a p p e n d i c e s a l l t h e e s s e n t i a l s o u r c e m a t e r i a l

u p o n w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s i s b a s e d . O n l y a f t e r t h e m o s t c a r e f u l d i s c u s s io n

o f t h e m a t t e r w i t h c o l l e a g u e s a n d w i t h t h e C h a i r m a n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o -

p r i a t i o n w a s i t d e c i d e d t o p r i n t th i s u n w i e l d l y e v i d e n c e . I f , a s t h e y s a y , t h e C h i n e s e p h o n e t i c

t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e a p p e n d i x a n d t h e l i s t s o f t h e C h i n e s e w o r d s a n d s y l l a b l e s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d -

i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e p r o v e t h e m s e l v e s o f i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e t o th o s e w o r k i n g o n g r a m -

m a r s , r e a d e r s , o r s t e n o g r a p h i c s y s t e m s i n C h i n e s e , a n d i f t h e l i s t o f a l l w o r d s o c c u r r i n g i n f o u r o f

P l a u t u s ' p l a y s , a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a r d s w i t h l i n e

r e f e r e n c e s f o r e a c h w o r d ( d e p o s i t e d i n t h e H a r v a r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ) s h o u l d p r o v e of v a l u e f o r o n e

w o r k i n g o n P l a u t u s , a l l o f t h a t i s i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n h e r e . P e r h a p s t h a t i s

m o r e t h a n a s u f f i c i e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I h o w e v e r i n c l u d e t h e m s o l e l y t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o

d o u b t a s t o t h e m e t h o d u s e d f o r t h e r e s u l t s a n d a s t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , f o r

t h e s e r e s u l t s o f f e r o v e r w h e l m i n g p r o o f s o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h o u g h t h e e v i -

d e n c e t h e y g i v e r e p r e s e n t s b u t a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e , y e t i t i s o f s u c h

a n a t u r e a s t o e s t a b l i s h a t l e a s t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e t h e o r y b e y o n d a s h a d o w o f a d o u b t .

I t i s n e e d l e s s t o s a y t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e f o r m e t o g a t h e r t h e e n s u i n g m a t e r i a l

w i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f l o y a l a s s i s t a n t s . T h e t e d i o u s n e s s a n d n e e d o f a c c u r a c y o f t h e w o r k c a l l e d f o r

a l m o s t s u p e r h u m a n p a t i e n c e . O n e w h o h a s n e v e r a t t e m p t e d s u c h a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l n e v e r

u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n o r m o u s d e b t o f t h a n k s I o w e t o M r . K a n Y u W a n g , M r . H . Y . C h a n g , M i s s

D o r o t h y P r i e s t , M i s s M a r y C a m p b e l l , a n d m y w i f e f o r th e i r a s s i s t a n c e , a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d

h a v e b e e n m a i n l y i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e g e n e r o u s s u b v e n t i o n o f t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s

A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s .

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

January 6, 1932

1 G. K. Zipf, "Relat ive Frequency as a Determinant of Phonet ic Change," Harvard Studies in Classical Phi-lology, Vol. X L (1929), pp. 1-95.

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C O N T E N T S

P A R T I . R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y i n R e s p e c t t o C h i n e s e P h o n o l o g y I 

P A R T I I . R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y , A b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d S e m a n t i c C h a n g e 8 

A P PE N D IX A . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s i n P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, Mostellaria, Pseu-

dolus, a n d Trinummus 3 1

A P PE N D IX B . P h o n e t i c T r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o f t h e D i a l e c t o f

M o d e r n P e k i n g P l a t e s 1 - 5 0

A P P E N D IX C . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e o f W o r d s in t h e 20 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o f

A p p e n d i x B P l a t e s 1 0,-5 0.

A P P EN D I X D . F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e of S y l l a b l e s i n t h e 2 0 ,0 0 0 S y l l a b l e s o fA p p e n d i x B P l a t e s 1 6 - 7 6

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P A R T I

The Principle of Relative Frequency in Respect to

Chinese Phonology

T H E p r e s e n t p a p e r s e t s f o r t h t h e r e s u l t s o f a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n c h i e f l y t o d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r o r n o t th e m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r o f P e k i n g , C h i n a , a g r e e s w i t h I n d o - E u r o p e a n t o n g u e s i n

s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h a t a n o r i e n t a l l a n g u a g e w o u l d o f f e r v a l u -

a b l e a n d f in al e v i d e n c e w a s a p p a r e n t l i k e w i s e t o o t h e r s . 1 A n d t h a t o f t h e m a n y o r i e n t a l

l a n g u a g e s , C h i n e s e , o r , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e d i a l e c t o f m o d e r n P e k i n g , w o u l d b e t h e m o s t i d e a l

f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y a n g l e , I h o p e t o m a k e c l e a r i n t h e e n s u i n g p a r a g r a p h s .

B u t b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , i t w o u l d b e w i s e t o r e v i e w i n b r i e f t h e m a i n p o i n t s o f

t h e t h e o r y w h i c h t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s t o s u p p o r t . F o r t h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency, u n l i k e

e v e r y o t h e r l in g u i s t i c t h e o r y , d o e s n o t l o o k f o r t h e c a u s e s o f l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e s i n c l i m a t e , g e o g -

r a p h y , v o c a l o r g a n s , c h i l d h o o d m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , a n d s o o n , b u t s i m p l y m a i n t a i n s t h a t a n y

c h a n g e in a g i v e n l a n g u a g e i s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e of t h a t l a n g u a g e i t s e l f .

T h e g i s t o f t h e t h e o r y is t h a t a n y e l e m e n t o f s p e e c h w h i c h o c c u r s i n s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e -

q u e n t l y t h a n s o m e o t h e r s i m i l a r e l e m e n t d e m a n d s l e s s e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s t h a n t h a t

o t h e r e l e m e n t w h i c h o c c u r s m o r e r a r e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t i s e x p e c t e d d o e s n o t n e e d o r r e -

c e i v e t h e e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l es s e x p e c t e d . A f e w e x a m p l e s w i l l p e r h a p s

m a k e t h i s c l e a r e r .

T h e e v e r r e c u r r i n g e n d i n g s o f a w o r d d o n o t g e n e r a l l y n e e d a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s t h e r o o t ; t h e

v e r b a l au x i l ia r i e s , b e i n g m o r e f r e q u e n t , u s u a l l y d o n o t d e m a n d o r r e c e i v e a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s

t h e m a i n v e r b ; s o t o o t h e a r t i c l e l e s s t h a n i t s n o u n . T h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n ,

s y n c o p e , t o w a r d t h e f u s i o n of e n d i n g s , s u f f i x e s , p r e f i x e s , a u x i l i a r i e s , a r t i c l e s , a n d p a r t i c l e s o f f e r s

f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o o f . I n f a c t t h i s s e e m s t o m e t h e v e r y c r u x o f Satzphonetik, a s I h o p e w i l l

b e a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a d e r i n P a r t T w o o f t h i s p a p e r . I f o n e g o e s d e e p e r t h a n t h e w o r d , h o w e v e r ,

a n d t a k e s a p a r a d i g m w h i c h h a s s o m e e n d i n g s rigidly a c c e n t e d a n d o t h e r s r e g u l a r l y w i t h o u t

a c c e n t , o n e w i l l f i n d t h a t a c c e n t i s c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e r a r i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e , w h i l e l a c k o fa c c e n t i s i n v a r i a b l y l i n k e d w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . 2

I n t h e l i g h t o f a l l t h i s , I f o r m u l a t e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency: T h e a c c e n t o r d e g r e e o f

c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a n y w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -

q u e n c y o f t h a t w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d , a m o n g i t s f e l l o w w o r d s , s y l l a b l e s , o r s o u n d s i n t h e s t r e a m

o f s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . A s a n y e l e m e n t ' s u s a g e b e c o m e s m o r e f r e q u e n t , i t s f o r m t e n d s t o b e c o m e l e s s

a c c e n t e d , o r m o r e e a s i l y p r o n o u n c e a b l e , a n d vice versa.

1 Cf. Ed. Hermann, Philologische Wochenschrift, Vol. 51 (1931), p. 602.* For a detailed discussion of supporting evide nce, cf. Zip f,o £. ct<., pp . s ff . In supp ort of these view s, cf. EUse

Richter Archivfür das Studium der neueren Sfrachen, Vol. 157 (193 0), pp . 291 ff. Ag ains t these views cf. Ed. He r-man, op. cti., pp . 599 ff. A s I expect soon to be able to poi nt out, the e-o gradation in the o-declension and them atic

verbs is the answer to Professor Hermann's shrewd question.

m

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T h i s p r i n c ip l e b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n r e s p e c t t o s o u n d s ( p h o n e m e s ) .1 F o r s t r a n g e l y

e n o u g h s o u n d s , a s w e s h a l l s e e, d i f f e r d e c i d e d l y i n d e g r e e o f c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s . T h e v o i c e d a s p i r a t e

dh f o r e x a m p l e i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s , b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y , t h a n th e m e d i a d t s i n c e i t

h a s e v e r y t h i n g t h e d p o s s e s s e s , p l u s t h e a d d i t i o n a l increment of aspiration. B e c a u s e o f t h i s a d d i -

t i o n a l increment of aspiration, t h e dh i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n a d a n d , l i k e w i s e , m o r e

a u d i b l e t o t h e h e a r e r : i n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .

S o t o o a l e n i s o r a f o r t i s d i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l e n is o r f o r t i s t e n u i s

s i n c e t h e d p o s s e s se s e v e r y t h i n g t h e t h a s , p l u s t h e increment of voice. I n a l i k e m a n n e r , t h e a f f r i -

c a t e ts i s p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a t, b e c a u s e in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i t

h a s a f o l l o w i n g s p i r a n t . B u t w e c a n s a y n o t h i n g i n r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a

s p i r a n t , f o r e x a m p l e t h e p. F o r t h o u g h t h e p l a c k s t h e increment of explosiveness o f t h e t e n u i s , i t

c a n m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h i s l a c k b y a p r o l o n g e d d u r a t i o n ( e . g . ppp). O b v i o u s l y t h i s

a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e d e n t a l s c a n b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e x t e n d e d t o l a b i a l s , p a l a t a l s , v e l a r s , o r i n d e e d

t o a n y o t h e r o r e v e r y o t h e r s o u n d w h i c h w i l l s i m i l a r l y a d m i t o f a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s .

T h a t t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a s o u n d i s o n l y d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i v e t o a n o t h e r s o u n d h a s s e e m e d

t o s o m e c r i t ic s o f t h i s t h e o r y u n f o r t u n a t e . B u t i n s p i t e of t h e b r i l l i a n t w o r k o f m o d e r n e x p e r i -

m e n t a l p h o n e t i c s , p h o n e t i c i a n s h a v e n o t y e t d i s c o v e r e d a n y m e t h o d w h i c h c a n g i v e f o r a n y

s o u n d , l e t a l o n e f o r e v e r y s o u n d , e i t h e r t h e a c t u a l a b s o l u t e a m o u n t o f e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r i t s p r o -

n u n c i a t i o n , o r a n a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e e it h e r o f it s a u d i b i l i t y o r i t s p s y c h i c c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s . A n d i t i s

d o u b t f u l t h a t s u c h a m e a s u r e w i l l e v e r b e f o u n d . F o r t h is c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s d e p e n d s t o a l a r g e d e -

g r e e u p o n t h e a m p l i t u d e o r l o u d n e s s , a t h i n g w h i c h v a r i e s g r e a t l y i n w o r d s , a n d t h e r e f o r e i n

s o u n d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o o d o r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f t h e s p e a k e r . B u t i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i v e

c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a s o u n d , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f dh t o d, d t o / , a n d ts t o t i s s a t i s f a c t o r y . F o r r e -

g a r d l e s s o f h o w l o u d l y o r s o f t l y a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s , a l e n i s o r f o r t i s d t l e t u s s a y , w i l l b e b o t h

m o r e a u d i b l e a n d m o r e d i f f ic u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y le n i s o r f o r t i s / .

A n d n o w , if w e c a n s a y t h a t a le n i s o r f o r t i s m e d i a i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l yl e n i s o r f o r t i s t e n u i s , a n a l y s i s o f l a n g u a g e s h o u l d s h o w , i f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency b e

c o r r e c t , t h a t t h e l e s s c o n s p i c u o u s t e n u i s s h o u l d o c c u r i n c u r s i v e l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e

1 i k I P 4Bulgarian 7- 5 4 % 3-55 % 2 . 9 8 % 1 . 4 6 % 2.82 % 1-32 %En glish . . . 7-13 4-Ji 2.71 •74 2.04 1.81Russian 7.49 3-42 3-49 1.10 2.19 1.76Ital ian 4-74 3 6 3 •41 2.7S .89S w edish 76 4 5.48 3- S2 2.so 1.20 1.32H ung ar ian 7.18 3-3° S-72 2.45 1J34German , . 3-75 2.24 1.84 '•34F r ench . . . . 6 . 2 8 3-S5 4.81 •76 3-54 >•39Caech 5.60 3-73 3-93 •IS 3-S» r.86S panish . . . . 4.2J 5.20 3.S2 .07 2.64 2.05Sanskrit . . . . . 6 . 6 5 =.8S 1.99 .82 2.46 .46Gr eek . . . . 7 . 5 8 2.87 4.07 1.74 3.38 •49L a t i n 7-72 3-41 3-71 .96 2-OJ 1.40

1 For the sake of those who prefer the word phoneme, an extremely useful philological term which does not yetenjo y the frequen cy of usage i t deserves, let me say that the older and more general ly used word sound which X shalladhere to in this paper m ay be replaced throughout th is pape r by th e word phoneme without modifying my meaningin the slightest degree. B y sound changes I m ean, as practical ly ever y investigator of this ¿eld now means, phoneme

changes. For the meaning of phoneme see Leonard Bloomfield, "A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language,"

Language, Vol . II (1926), 157. In addit ion one m ay profitably consult Ed war d Sapir , "Soun d Patterns in Lan-g u a g e , " Language > Vol. I (1925), 37.

c » :

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m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s m e d i a . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t i n c o u n t i n g t h e s o u n d s o f a r e a s o n -

a b l y l o n g p i e c e o f c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e t o fin d b y a c t u a l c o u n t t h e t e n u e s m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e i r

c o r re s p o n d in g m e d i a e — m o r e i 's t h a n d 's , m o r e k's t h a n g ' s , m o r e p's t h a n b's.

T h e t a b l e o n p a g e 2 , r e p r i n t e d f r o m tn y o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h i s i s s t r i k i n g l y t r u e . 1

A n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e t a b l e a r e c l e a r .

W h e n , e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f c h a n g e o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e o f w o r d s i n t h e f o l k v o c a b u l a r y , o r

b e c a u s e o f t h e a d d i t i o n o f n e w o r t h e d e l e t i o n o f h i t h e r t o f a m i l i a r w o r d s , t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f

a s o u n d in c r e a s e s , t h e s o u n d t e n d s t o b e c o m e l e s s c o n s p i c u o u s , e i t h e r b y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e c o n -

s p i c u o u s n e s s o f o n e o r m o r e o f i t s i n c r e m e n t s , o r b y a b a n d o n i n g o n e o r m o r e o f i t s i n c r e m e n t s

e n t i r e l y . S o a f o r t i s d m a y b e c o m e a l e n i s d, o r e v e n a t. A n d c o n v e r s e l y , i f t h e s o u n d b e c o m e s

r e l a t i v e l y r a r e r , i t m a y a d d t o i t s i n c r e m e n t s . I n t h i s f a s h i o n a i m a y b e c o m e a d, a ih , o r a is; o r

a len i s d m a y b e c o m e a f o r t i s d o r a dh . I n t h i s f a s h i o n s o u n d s h i f t s t a k e p l a c e .

T h e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b a re . e x a m p l e s o f t h e f o r m e r . H a v i n g b e c o m e m o r e f r e q u e n t

t h a n p, a s o u r t a b l e s h o w s , th e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b h a v e w e a k e n e d i n b o t h t h e i r i n c r e -

m e n t o f v o i c e a n d e x p l o s i v e n e s s , a n d h a v e b e c o m e a s o u n d n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s o f t l y v o i c e d

E n g l i s h p. S p a n i s h l i k e w i s e e x h i b i t s a s i m i l a r c h a n g e w i t h i t s d, w h i c h , b e c a u s e o f i t s e x c e s s i v ef r e q u e n c y , h a s i n m o s t p o s i t i o n s l o s t i t s increment of explosion a n d b e c o m e a n 3 " . H e n c e i t h a p p e n s

t h a t t h e s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l s o u n d s i n v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s m a y v a r y i n d e g r e e o f e x p l o s i v e n e s s ,

a m o u n t o f a s p i r a t i o n , o r v o i c e . S o m e c r i t i c s b e l i e v e t h i s v a r i a t i o n v i t i a t e s t h e Principle of Rela-

tive Frequency. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t w o u l d b e h i g h l y o d d , a s w i l l a p p e a r b e l o w , if t h i s v a r i a t i o n

w e r e n o t t h e re . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e t a b l e I m u s t h o w e v e r r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o

t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e . L e t u s t u r n n o w t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o t h e t a b l e , i n a s -

m u c h a s t h e p r e s e n t C h i n e s e d a t a a r e i n t e n d e d t o a n s w e r m o s t , if n o t a l l , o f t h e m .

T h e f irs t o b j e c t i o n i s b y f a r t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t , n a m e l y t h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t

p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s . T o t h i s m a y I s a y a g a i n t h a t t h e f ig ur es i n t h e t a b l e f o r s o m e o f t h e

l a n g u a g e s d o r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; f o r s o m e o f t h e m o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e p h o -

n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; a n d f o r s o m e , n o t a b l y t h o s e f o r t h e d e a d l a n g u a g e s , i n c o n s i d e r i n g l e t t e r s a s

s o u n d s , c o m e a s cl o s e to a p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n a s w e s h a l l e v e r o b t a i n . I t i s c o m m o n p l a c e t o

s a y t h a t o u r a l p h a b e t s a r e n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y e x a c t . B u t , i n s o s a y i n g , l e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t o u r a l -

p h a b e t s i n g e n e r a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e g a r d t o c o n s o n a n t s , d o n o t a l w a y s u t t e r l y a n d c o m p l e t e l y d i s -

r e g a r d p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g , a s i t w e r e , n o e a r t h l y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a c t u a l p r o -

n u n c i a t i o n . S a n s k r i t , a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i s s o e x a c t i n i t s a l p h a b e t t h a t o n e m i g h t s a f e l y s a y t h a t

i t i s t r u l y a p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f t h e r e a d e r is n o t i m p r e s s e d b y t h e i n c o n -

t e s t a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e p e r c e n t a g e s i n t h e t a b l e , h e m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e t a b l e o n w h a t e v e r

g r o u n d s h e w i s h e s . B u t h e m a y n o t d i s c a r d t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s o n t h e g r o u n d o f p h o n e t i c

t r a n s c r i p t i o n , f o r t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s r e p r e s e n t c a r e f u l a n d e x a c t p h o n e t i c v a l u e s ; t h e t r a n -

s c r i p t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e a p p e n d i x .T h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h conspicuousness? I t h a s b e e n o b j e c t e d t h a t a s o u n d w h i c h i s

e a s y f o r o n e p e r s o n t o p r o n o u n c e m a y b e d i f f i c u l t f o r a n o t h e r , m e a n i n g b y t h i s t h a t a G e r m a n ,

f o r e x a m p l e , fin ds t h e E n g l i s h ih m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n d o e s a n E n g l i s h m a n . B u t t h i s a g a i n h a s

n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. J u s t a s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f a

s o u n d m e a n s t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s o u n d r e l a t i v e t o th e o t h e r s o u n d s o f t h e s a m e d i a l e c t a n d o b -

1 Zipf, op. eii., p. 61. T he various sources of these statistics and con trol figures, togethe r with a criticismof the method by which the statistics were obtained, are given on pp. 42 5.

1 Cf . E . Herm a n n , pp. cii., p. 602.

C3 J

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v i o u s l y n o t t o s o u n d s i n g e n e r a l , s o t o o t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s o f a n y s o u n d i s r e l a t i v e o n l y t o t h e

c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s oS o t h e r s o u n d s i n t h e s a m e d i a l e c t . I t w o u l d b e a b s u r d t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s l a w

s h o u l d w o r k f o r t i n g e n e r a l a n d d i n g e n e r a l ; a f o r t i s t, a s s a i d b e f o r e , m a y b e m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s

t h a n a l e n i s d. I f s o , i t s h o u l d b e l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e d. M o r e o v e r i t i s n o t l ik e l y t h a t a n y s o u n d

o r g r o u p o f s o u n d s w i l l b e a s e a s y f o r a s p e a k e r t o u t t e r o r a h e a r e r t o p e r c e i v e a s a s o u n d o r

s o u n d s o f t h e n a t i v e s p e e c h p a t t e r n . I f t h e r e a d e r w i s h e s , h e m a y d i s c a r d t h e p r e v i o u s t a b l e o nt h e s o m e w h a t d o u b t f u l g r o u n d s t h a t a F r e n c h t , f o r e x a m p l e , is p r o n o u n c e d i n m a n y w a y s , a n d

a d d t h a t th e s t r i k i n g c o r re l a t io n is n o t h i n g b u t r a n d o m c h a n c e . B u t h e m a y n o t d i sc a r d t h e

C h i n e s e figu res f o r t h a t r e a s o n ; fo r t h e a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r

d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g .

T h e t h i r d , a n d I t h i n k t h e l a s t , s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n , i s t h a t t h e s a m e s o u n d v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y ,

a n d h e n c e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s . T h i s i s u n -

d o u b t e d l y t r u e . A s P r o f e s s o r E l i s e R i c h t e r p o i n t s o u t , ' a m o n g o t h e r e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e s , t h e G e r -

m a n p a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a w o r d , b e t w e e n s y l l a b l e s , a n d a t t h e e n d o f a w o r d r e p r e s e n t s t h r e e d i f -

f e r e n t a n d p h o n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t s o u n d s ; s h e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r G e r m a n p a r e ,

t h e r e f o r e , n o t v a l i d u n t i l t h e s e p's a r e e a c h s e g r e g a t e d . S h e s u g g e s t s r e c o u r s e t o e x p e r i m e n t a lp h o n e t i c s . I t h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y a n o t h e r t h a t I a v o i d t h e is s u e e n t i r e l y b y u s i n g t h e w o r d

phoneme i n s t e a d o f sound, i m p l y i n g t h e r e b y t h a t s o u n d s w h o s e d i f f e r e n c e i s d e t e c t a b l e o n l y b y t h e

s k i l l f u l r e a d i n g of a r e c o r d i n g a p p a r a t u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d f o r l i n g u i s t i c p u r p o s e s a s i d e n t i c a l

s o u n d s . I m y s e l f h a d h o p e d t o a v o i d t h i s t r o u b l e s o m e i s su e o n p a g e 4 1 o f t h e o r i g in a l a r t i c l e b y

s t a t i n g t h a t w h e n a s o u n d b e c a m e m o r e f r e q u e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t e n d e d t o d i m i n i s h i n c o n -

s p i c u o u s n e s s , i t s w e a k e n i n g w o u l d f irst c o m m e n c e i n th o s e p o s i t i o n s w h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s

w e r e p r o p i t i o u s f o r a w e a k e n i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a b, b e c o m i n g t o o f r e q u e n t , t e n d e d t o lo s e , l e t u s

s a y , i t s increment oj voice, i t w o u l d i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y l o se i t s o o n e r a n d e a s i e r i f s u r r o u n d e d b y

v o i c e l e s s s o u n d s , t h a n i t w o u l d b e t w e e n v o w e l s ; i t w o u l d b e m o r e a p t t o l o s e i t s v o i c e i n g ebst o r

hebst t h a n i n geben o r heben. A n d if o n e c o n s id e r s l a n g u a g e a s s o m e t h i n g d y n a m i c , s o m e t h i n g

l i v i n g , a n d o n e h a p p e n e d t o r e c o r d t h e l a n g u a g e p h o n e t i c a l l y a s a g r a d u a l w e a k e n i n g w e r e t a k i n g

p l a c e , o n e c o u l d n o t r e a s o n a b l y s a y t h a t t h e Principle f a i l e d t o f u n c t i o n s i m p l y b e c a u s e a d i f -

f e r e n c e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n w a s o b s e r v a b l e i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a n e a s i e r w a y t o r e f u t e t h e p h o n e t i c i s t t h a n b y a t t e m p t i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e

t o h i m t h a t t h e v e r y p h e n o m e n a h e p o i n t s t o a s d i s p r o o f a r e i n r e a l i t y a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e

w o r k i n g o f t h e Principle. L e t u s t a k e r a t h e r a l a n g u a g e w h e r e t h i s p r o b l e m d o e s n o t a r i s e a n d

t e s t i t s c o n s o n a n t s . L e t u s e x a m i n e t h e d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g , w h i c h i s m o n o s y l l a b i c i n s t r u c t u r e . I n

t h e d i a l e c t o f P e k i n g , a c o n s o n a n t i s u s e d o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s y l l a b l e a n d i s a l w a y s f o l -

l o w e d b y a v o w e l . T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s a fin al c o n s o n a n t . T h e la n g u a g e , b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y

m o n o s y l l a b i c , o f f e r s n o s e r i o u s p r o b l e m o f i n t e r s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t s . I n r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f

t h e c o n s o n a n t , e v e r y t h i n g i s a b s o l u t e l y c o n s t a n t . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o c o n s i d e r b u t t h e a c t u a l c o n -

s p i c u o u s n e s s o f t h e s o u n d .

N o r i s t h e r e a n y d i f f i c u l t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n s o n a n t i n e a c h p a i r i s m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .

E v e n t h e e a r l ie s t r o r o a n i z a t i o n s s h o w i t ; a ll p h o n e t i c i s t s a g r e e a b o u t i t ; i t i s a t o n c e e v i d e n t t o

a n y o n e l i s t e n i n g t o a n a t i v e o f P e k i n g s p e a k . T h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a i s d e c i d e d l y m o r e c o n -

s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e f a i n t l e n i s m e d i a . 1 F o r s o w e a k i s t h e v o i c e i n t h e l e n i s m e d i a , t h a t t h e r e i s

d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r i t s h o u l d b e s t b e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h a R o m a n m e d i a o r t e n u i s ( e . g . b y a 6 o r p) .

A n d s o s t r o n g i s t h e a s p i r a t i o n a n d f o r c e o f t h e t e n u i s , t h a t s e v e r a l o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n d i c a t e i t

1Op. cit., pp. 293 B.

2 For a careful and thorough discussion of Chinese phonetics, see Bemhard Karlgren: Etudes sur la phonologic

chinoise, Leyden and Stockholm, 1915, pp. 223 r i .

C + 3

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w i t h a f o l l o w i n g " , ( e . g . p c , k " , t ", e t c . , a s i n t h e W a d e S y s t e m ) . F o r m y o w n t r a n s c r i p t i o n s I h a v e

u s e d t h e p h o n e t i c s y s t e m r e c o m m e n d e d b y C h a o , 1 p u r e l y f o r i t s g r e a t e r s i m p l i c i t y a n d b r e v i t y :

t h e m e d i a is u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e l e n i s , t h e t e n u i s t r a n s c r i b e s t h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a . B u t t h a t

t h e r e a d e r m a y n o t b e c o n f u s e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r a ll s o u n d s i n t h e t a b l e s o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7

i n d i c a t e th e f o u r d i f f e r e n t w a y s in c u r r e n t u s e f o r tr a n s c r i b i n g C h i n e s e s o u n d s .

A n d s o t h e C h i n e s e fig ure s w i l l b e a n a n s w e r t o e v e r y c r i t i c i s m m a d e o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e

t h e o r y . I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 2 2 d o e s n o t f i n d i t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e s o u n d s o f m o s t o f t h e

l a n g u a g e s a g r e e r o u g h l y i n p e r c e n t a g e s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y g o b a c k t o t h e s a m e d i a l e c t f o u r t h o u -

s a n d y e a r s a g o , s u c h a n a r g u m e n t , a s s t r a i n e d a s i t s e e m s t o m e , d r o p s w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s C h i n e s e .

I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 3 , i n c o n c l u d i n g h i s c r i t i c i s m , e x p r e s s e s h i s s u r p r i s e , a f t e r a l l ,

t h a t t h e t e n u e s s h o u l d b e g e n e r a l l y m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n th e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e d i a e , a n d w o n d e r s

a t t h e r e a s o n , l e t h i m l o o k a t t h e s e fig ur es a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t o n p a g e 5 9 9 h e d i d , a f t e r a l l , c o n -

c e d e t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e o f t h e a r g u m e n t a p p e a r e d i n c o n t e s t a b l e .

I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency, t h e f a i n t lenes mediae s h o u l d b e d e c i d e d l y

m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g fortes mediae aspiratae, a n d t h e y a r e :

d/t i/p t / t cj/a m ts/ts

lenis media 6.iS% 2-37 % 2.58 % 2.69 % 2.44 % 2.63 %fortis tenuis aspi-

rata 2.56 •56 1.02 1.04 1.23 r.40

M a y i t b e o b s e r v e d t h a t l i k e w i s e i n C h i n e s e t h e d e n t a l s ( c e r e b r a l s ) ar e d e c i d e d l y m o r e f r e -

q u e n t t h a n t h e l a b i a l s o r g u t t u r a l s . 3 I n t h e e v e n t t h a t o n e b e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e n u m b e r o f o c c u r -

r e n c e s o f a l l s o u n d s , h e w i l l f in d i n t h e t a b l e s , o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7 , t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f o c c u r r e n c e s

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e n t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s o f t r a n s c r i p t i o n .

T h e c o l u m n w i t h a n X a t t h e t o p i s C h a o ' s r e c o m m e n d e d p h o n e t i c s y s t e m w h i c h is u s e d i n t h et r a n s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n i n f u l l i n A p p e n d i x B .

T h e figure s a r e b a s e d o n a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t w e n t y s e l e c t i o n s o f c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e , e a c h

s e l e c t i o n o n e t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s o r i d e o g r a p h s l o n g . T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n r e a d s f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t ;

e a c h s q u a r e c o n t a i n s a C h i n e s e i d e o g r a p h r e p r e s e n t i n g a s y l l a b l e . I n t h e u p p e r l e f t h a n d c o r n e r

o f e a c h s q u a r e i s t h e n u m b e r o f t h a t s y l l a b l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s ; t h e n u m b e r

a t t h e l o w e r r i g h t i s t h e t o n e o f t h e w o r d ( * , r , 2 , 3 , 4 ) ; a n d u n d e r n e a t h i s t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n -

s c r i p t io n f o r e a c h s y l l a b l e . T h e t o n e s a n d t r a n s c r i p t i o n s a re a c c o r d i n g t o D r . Y u e n R e n C h a o ' s

A Phonetic Dictionary of the Chinese National Language, S h a n g h a i ( 1 9 2 6 ) , t h e C o m m e r c i a l

P r e s s . T h o u g h C h a o g i v e s a l l t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r e a c h w o r d , m y t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e a p p e n -

d i x u s e o n l y t h e " B r o a d e r S y s t e m of I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c S y m b o l s " b a s e d u p o n " L ' é c r i t u r e

p h o n é t i q u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e x p o s é p o p u l a i r e , " p u b l i s h e d b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A s s o c i a -

t i o n .

1 Se e infra.

' Of. cit.3 S ee F u Lu : Etude Expérim entale sur les tens du Chinois, Paris and Peking, 1925, p. 105, for a transcription,

according to a different system , of 25s Peking words. T he fre que ncy of the consonants in L u' s transcription indi-cates the same relationship as my own and can be considered a control.

i s l

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PART II

Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and

Semantic Change

T H E p r e s e n t s t u d y d e a l s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e a n d i s i n t e n d e d t o s h o w t h e r e l a -

t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e m a n t i c c h a n g e a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n o n t h e s u b j e c t o f

s e m a s i o l o g y b y l i n g u i s t s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s , y e t , a s f a r a s I k n o w , l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g

h a s b e e n d o n e f r o m t h e a n g l e o f a b b r e v i a t i o n . A n d b e l i e v i n g t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n i s t h e v e r y c r u x

o f t h e m a t t e r , I p r e f e r t o d i s r e g a r d , f o r t h e p r e s e n t , a l l p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t a n d

t o b u i l d u p m y p r e s e n t t h e o r y b y a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e o b v i o u s e x a m p l e s o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e

s u c h a s t h e y o c c u r i n t h e e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l — o f a n y i n d i v i d u a l , b e h e o l d o r

y o u n g , w i s e o r f o o l i s h , s i c k o r w e l l , m a d o r s a n e . I n t h e e n s u i n g p a g e s m u c h w i l l b e s a i d a b o u t

t h e " m e a n i n g " o f w o r d s a n d a v e r y g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e " e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y " o f

w o r d s , d o m a i n s ^ b i t h e r t o a n d f o r n o g o o d r e a s o n c o n s i d e r e d p r i m a r i l y p r o p e r f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h e r

a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t . B u t si n c e t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s o f w o r d s a r e , t o m y m i n d , n o t d i v o r c e d f r o m a b -

b r e v i a t i o n , a s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e a s t h a t m a y s e e m t o t h e r e a d e r a t t h is t im e , I s h a l l k e e p t h i s

p a p e r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f l i n g u i s t i c s , a n d t r y t o a v o i d f i r s t , a n i n t r i c a t e p o r t r a i t o f w h a t i s c o n -

s i d e r e d t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n m i n d , a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e e t e r n a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e" s y m b o l i c " t o t h e " r e a l , " h o p i n g , t h e r e b y , t o e s c a p e t w o k n o t t y p r o b le m s w h i c h i n v a r i a b l y

s p e l l t h e d o w n f a l l o f s e m a s i o l o g i s t s w h o b e g i n w i t h a c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f m i n d o r r e a l i t y .

F o r f r a n k l y , w e k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n m i n d a n d v e r y l it t l e a b o u t r e a l i t y .

T h e r e a r e t h e o r i e s t o b e s u r e , b u t t h e s e t h e o r i e s c o n f l i c t s o g r a v e l y t h a t a f r a n k e x a m i n a t i o n o f

t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e w i l l, i n m y b e l i e f , b e m o r e a p t t o t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e p r o c e s s o f m i n d t h a n

t h e o r i e s o f m i n d o n t h e p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e . F o r t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e a r e t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e ,

j u s t a s t h e f a c t s o f g r a v i t a t i o n a r e t h e f a c t s o f g r a v i t a t i o n . A n d j u s t a s w e s h o u l d s m i l e a t a

p h y s i c i s t w h o d e v o t e d h i s t i m e t o e x p l a i n i n g h o w m u c h m o r e p i c t u r e s q u e n a t u r e w o u l d b e i f

g r a v i t a t i o n f o l l o w e d t h e i n v e r s e c u b e i n s t e a d o f t h e i n v e r s e s q u a r e , s o w e s h o u l d s m i l e a t t h e

p e r s o n - w h o s p e n d s h i s t im e t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e u s t h a t " c o r r e c t " l a n g u a g e s h o u l d b e o f t h is n a -t u r e a n d n o t o f t h a t . H e n c e , h o w o n e should e x p r e s s o n e s e l f i s o f n o c o n c e r n i n t h i s p a p e r , b u t

r a t h e r h o w o n e does e x p r e s s o n e s e l f . T o b e s u r e , t h e r e a d e r w i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y g l i m p s e b e h i n d

m y s t a t e m e n t s t h e t h o u g h t s o f o t h e r s . T h e r e a s o n I d o n o t i n t e r l a r d t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r w i t h

r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f o t h e r s i s n o t t h a t I d o n o t w i l l i n g l y c o n c e d e t h a t t h e w o r k s o f

o t h e r s h a v e o f t e n b e e n e i t h e r a n i n s p i r a t i o n o r a r e - a s s u r a n c e , a n d t h a t w i t h o u t t h e m t h i s

t h e o r y o f a b b r e v i a t i o n w o u l d h a v e p r o s p e r e d m o r e s l o w l y , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h i s t h e o r y f o r b e t t e r

o r f o r w o r s e s h o u l d s t a n d o n i t s o w n f e e t w i t h o u t r e s t i n g i n a n y w a y u p o n a u t h o r i t y .

B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p o i n t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a s m u c h a s t h i s p a p e r i s

a d d r e s s e d p r i m a r i l y t o l i n g u i s t s . T h e t h e o r y o f Relative Frequency i s a s t a t i s t i c a l l a w a n d , a s

s u c h , f a l ls w i t h i n t h e la w s o f p r o b a b i l i t y . L e t u s r e v i e w , b r i e f l y , w h a t i s m e a n t i n p a r t b y p r o b -

a b i l i t y . W h e n t h e o d d s a r e e v e n , i t m e a n s t h a t e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y c o v e r e d b y t h e o d d s m a y

m

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h a p p e n ; w h e n t h e o d d s a r e t e n t o o n e , i t m e a n s t h a t e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y m a y h a p p e n ; w h e n t h e

odds a r e a t r i l l i o n t o o n e , e i t h e r e v e n t u a l i t y s t i l l m a y h a p p e n , a n d i t i s n o d i s p r o o f o f a l a w ,

b a s e d o n p r o b a b i l i t y , i f t h a t r e m o t e c h a n c e s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e . T h e e n t i r e Principle of Relative

Frequency i s b a s e d o n p r o b a b i l i t y . S o u n d c h a n g e s a r e t o o g e n e r a l a n d c o n s i s t e n t t o a l l o w t h a t

s o u n d l a w s a r e a n y t h i n g b u t b a s i c , d y n a m i c , p e r v a s i v e l a w s ; b u t t h e e x c e p t i o n s a r e n u m e r i c a l l y

t o o a b u n d a n t a n d c o n f l i c ti n g t h a t th e y m a y a l l b e c h a r g e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t o t h e a c -e o t m t o f p r e h i s t o r i c l i n g u i s t i c s u b s t r a t a o r p r e h i s t o r i c d i a l e c t a l d i v e r g e n c e s . O n e c a n n o t d e n y

t h e p o s s i b le i n f l u e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s u b s t r a t a a n d r e m o t e d i a l e c t a l d i v e r g e n c e s ; b u t t h a t p u r e

c h a n c e p l a y s s o m e r dl e i n s o u n d c h a n g e l i k e w i s e c a n n o t b e d i s r e g a r d e d . F o r , a f t e r a l l , h o w e l s e

c a n o n e e x p l a in t h e e n o r m o u s d i v e r s i t y f o l l o w i n g u p o n a n y m a j o r s o u n d s h i f t ?

I a l l u d e to a l l t h i s n o w b e c a u s e s o m e h a v e t a k e n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e Principle of Relative Fre-

quency s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t i s s t a t i s t i c a l . F o r s t a t i s t i c s a r e h a t e f u l t o t h e h u m a n m i n d ; t h e y a r e

p a i n f u l l y d e fi n i te f o r t h e g r o u p w i t h o u t b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d e f i n i te f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . U n -

d o u b t e d l y , a p r i m a r y l a w w h i c h k n o w s n o flu ctu atio n w i t h i n i t s el f i s p l e a s a n t e r . I f n a t u r e h a d

c o n s u lt e d m a n i n t h e m a t t e r , w e s h o u l d a l l h a v e s u g g e s t e d p r i m a r y l a w s , f r o m t h e i n s t i n c t i v e

f e a r t h a t s o m e d a y W h i r l m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e c o m e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g f i r s t o f a l l t h a t e v e n i n as t a t i s t i c a l l a w i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r W h i r l t o b e c o m e c o m p l e t e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g , l i k e w i s e , t h a t i n m a n y

p e r s o n a l i t i e s W h i r l d o e s s e e m in a w a y t o b e k i n g . B u t n a t u r e d i d n o t c o n s u l t u s i n t h e m a t t e r

a n d h a s s e e n f i t t o l e t t h e l a w s o f c h a n c e g o v e r n v a s t p o r t i o n s o f t h e b a s i c o r d e r o f t h e p h y s i c a l

u n i v e r s e , a s w e l l a s n o s m a l l a m o u n t o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l . Y o u m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e Principle of Rela-

tive Frequency b e c a u s e y o u d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e s t a t i s t i c s s i g n i f i c a n t ; y o u c a n n o t d i s c a r d i t ,

h o w e v e r , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l a w i s n o t r e s p e c t a b l e . A n d s o w i t h t h e c r i t i c s w h o

h a v e r e s e n t e d t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h i s t h e o r y , a n d w h o s e n a m e s I h e r e o m i t , I c a n o n l y

a g r e e t h a t i t i s p e r h a p s n o t p l e a s a n t t o k n o w t h a t a l l c o l o r s g o b a c k t o t h r e e p r i m a r y c o l o r s ,

t h a t a l l m a t t e r i s r e d u c i b l e t o p r o t o n s a n d e l e c t r o n s i n m o t i o n , y e t n a t u r e r e a l l y s e e m s t o h a v e

b e e n s o b o l d a s t o d e c i d e t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h o u t a s k i n g f o r t h e p h i l o l o g i s t ' s e x q u i s i t e o p i n i o n .

A n d n o w t o th e m a t t e r a t h a n d .T h e r e a r e f o u r i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r is t i c s w h i c h a r e e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e i n w o r d s , p e r h a p s n o t

a l l f o u r i n e v e r y w o r d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e a r e w o r d s w h i c h h a v e a t l e a s t o n e a n d e v e n m o r e , n o r

a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s o u n u s u a l t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e m a s i m p o r t a n t . T h e

first is meaning, t h a t e l u s i v e a t t r i b u t e of a w o r d , s o i m p o r t a n t a n d y e t o f t e n so h a r d t o d e s c r i b e .

S e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s quality, b y w h i c h I m e a n t h a t a w o r d m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g d e s i r a b l e f o r

t h e e g o (positive quality) o r s o m e t h i n g u n d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e e g o ( negative quality). " H o n o r " i s

g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e ; " d e a t h " g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e . T h i r d l y , w o r d s h a v e e m o t i o n a l intensity, w h i c h

i s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n v a l u e : c o m p a r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , t h e intensity i n d i c a t e s h o w m u c h w e

s h o u l d l i k e t o o b t a i n t h e p o s i t i v e o r h o w m u c h w e s h o u l d l ik e t o a v o i d t h e n e g a t i v e . T h e f o u r t h

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c I s h a l l c a l l order-, a n d f o r t h e p r e s e n t , l e t u s c o n s i d e r o r d e r n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e

w o r d ' s p a r t of s p e e c h , — a d v e r b , n o u n , e t c . I s h a l l n o t t r y t o d e f i n e t h e s e f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

f u r t h e r h e r e , b u t b y e x a m i n i n g t h e p ro c e s s e s o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e t r y t o m a k e c l e a r e r m y u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g b o t h of t h e ir n a t u r e a n d o f th e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n s e m a n t i c c h a n g e .

B y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e I s h a l l m e a n a c h a n g e w h e r e b y o n e s y m b o l i s t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y

s u b st it u te d f o r a n o t h er . E x a m p l e s a r e w i t h o u t n u m b e r . C a l l in g a " m a n " a " d o g , " a " w o m a n "

a " p e a c h , " t h e " m o o n " a i l c a n d l e , " m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t e m p o r a r y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , u n t i l t h e i r

u s e i n t h i s s e n s e b e c o m e s so f r e q u e n t a n d g e n e r a l t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o f " d o g , "

p e a c h , " a n d " c a n d l e " b e c o m e s s e c o n d a r y t o t h e n e w p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o r

a s p e c t o f " m a n , " " w o m a n , " a n d " m o o n . " W h e n a g i v e n s u b s t i t u ti o n o c c u r s b u t r a r e l y , w e c al l

t h e c h a n g e a metaphor. H o w e v e r , a s t h e g i v e n s u b s t i t u t i o n b e c o m e s e v e r m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d g e n -

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e r a l , t h e o r i g i n a l l y r a r e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d f i n a l l y b e c o m e s a s u b - m e a n i n g , a c o - i n t e g r a l p a r t o f

t h e w o r d , a connotation. I n t h i s f a s h i o n , " k i d , " a t o n e t i m e " a y o u n g g o a t / ' c a m e t o h a v e t h e

connotation " c h i l d " o r " b o y . " W h y " k i d " w a s e v e r s u b s t i t u te d f o r " c h i l d " or " b o y " n e ed n o t

c o n c e r n u s n o w ; i t i s s i m p l y s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t o n c e s u b s t i t u t e d t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t e d

m e a n i n g d e p e n d s l a r g e l y , i f n o t e n t i r e l y , u p o n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o r d w i t h t h e

s u b s t i t u t e d m e a n i n g .

T h i s o n e t h i n g w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , s i n c e i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r a n y s t u d y o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h a t

t h e r e i s n o f ix ed b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n metaphor o r connotation. I t is d i s p u t a b l e w h e t h e r " n u t " i s

m e r e l y a metaphor, o r w h e t h e r b y n o w " q u e e r p e r s o n " i s n o t a connotation o f " n u t . " L i k e w i s e ,

t h e r e i s n o d e f i n i t e l a w e s t a b l i s h i n g f o r a l l t i m e w h a t i s t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o r d e n o t a t i o n o f a

w o r d a n d w h a t i ts s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g o r m e a n i n g s , th e c o n n o t a t i o n s . I f w e t a k e t h e w o r d " b u g -

h o u s e " a s a n e x a m p l e , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r th e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g i s " i n s a n e a s y l u m , " o r

" h o u s e f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r p r o p a g a t i o n o f b u g s . "

I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s , o n e i s a p t t o f e e l t h a t e it h e r t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n -

i n g o r t h e o l d e s t m e a n i n g o r t h e a p t e s t m e a n i n g i s d e c i s i v e . B u t t h a t n o n e o f th e s e a r e f in al is e v i -

d e n t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t o f t e n a t a g i v e n m o m e n t t h e o r i g i n a l o r o ld e s t m e a n i n g i s e i t h e r o b s o -l e s c e n t , o b s o l e t e , o r i n d e e d e v e n e n t ir e l y u n k n o w n . W h a t e v e r " l o r d " m e a n s t o d a y , i t c e r t a i n l y

d o e s n o t m e a n a s in O l d E n g l i s h " g u a r d i a n o f t h e l o a f . " A n d a s f o r a p t n e s s of d e s i g n a t i o n , o n e

c a n b r i n g f o r t h e x a m p l e s w i t h o u t l i m i t t o i l l u s t r a t e th e f r e q u e n t in a p t n e s s of d e s i g n a t i o n . I f o n e

t a k e s " c o c k t a i l , " " h i g h - b a l l , " " m a r s h m a l l o w , " " b o o t l e g , " w i t h o u t e x a m i n i n g t h e s p e ci al h i s t o ry

o f e a c h w o r d a n d w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h a t t h e w o r d s r e f e r t o , o n e w o u l d s i m p l y b e a t u t t e r l o s s

t o g u e s s t h e i r m e a n i n g . A g e , d e r i v a t i o n , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s m u s t b e a l l d i s c a r d e d if o n e s e e k s

t h e a b s o l u t e i n t h e m e a n i n g o f a w o r d . S o m e t i m e s t h e y e x p l a i n t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g ; s o m e t i m e s

n o t . T o m y m i n d , i t i s h i g h l y d o u b t f u l t h a t th e r e i s a n a b s o l u t e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g o v e r a n y p e r i o d

o f t i m e , o r w i t h i n a g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s . O n e g a i n s b e s t i n s i g h t i n t o m e a n i n g b y e x a m i n i n g

s h i f t s o f m e a n i n g , — s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s .T h e t e m p o r a r y , s e m i - p e r m a n e n t , a n d p e r m a n e n t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , f o r s o I s h a l l h e n c e f o r t h

d e s i g n a t e t h e s l i d i n g s c a l e f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n t o c o m p l e t e a n d i r r e v o c a b l e s u b -

s t i t u t i o n , d i f fe r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s o n l y i n r e s p e c t t o d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i l i t y . T h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o b -

a b i l i t y t h a t a n y g i v e n w o r d w h e n u s e d w i l l h a v e t h e d e r i v e d o r s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g i n s t e a d o f t h e

p r i m a r y m e a n i n g , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e s em a n t i c c h a n g e . E v e r y v o c a b u -

l a r y a t a n y t i m e r e f l e c t s t h e s e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n i t s w o r d s s o c l e a r l y t h a t

t h e s e m a s i o l o g i s t m a y r i g h t l y s a y t h a t meaning i s s h i f t i n g a n d d e t e r m i n a b l e i n r e s p e c t t o p r i m -

a r i l y o n l y b y t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . A n d t h i s f r e q u e n c y o f us e l i k e w i s e e x p l a i n s o u r f e e l-

i n g s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g s o r t h e f it ti ng m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s . F o r o f t e n

t h e s e m e a n i n g s r e m a i n p r i m a r y . Y e t t h a t o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g s o r a p t m e a n i n g s s o o f t e n c o n t i n u e t o

r e m a i n p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s i s s i m p l y b e c a u s e of a f a v o r i n g p r o b a b i l i t y . A n d i t i s t h i s f a v o r i n g

p r o b a b i l i t y a s w e s h a l l s e e t h a t p r e v e n t s e v e r y t e m p o r a r y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e f r o m a u t o m a t i c a l l y

b e c o m i n g p e r m a n e n t , t h e r e b y r e p l a c i n g t h e o l d e r m e a n i n g s .

" H a m " m e a n s t o u s a k i n d o f m e a t , to a t h e a t r i c a l c i rc l e a " p o o r a c t o r " ; " l a m b " m e a n s to u s

a k i n d o f a n i m a l , t o t h e r a c k e t e e r a " g u i l l i b l e p e r s o n . " A n d s o w e m i g h t p r o c e e d w i t h m a n y w o r d s

w h o s e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s , o r t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f w h o s e s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s , v a r i e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t

s o c i a l , o c c u p a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l , c u l t u r a l c i r c le s . A p e r m a n e n t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e i n o n e c i rc l e m a y b e

o n l y t e m p o r a r y o r u n h e a r d o f i n a n o t h e r . H e n c e , p e r m a n e n c y i s r e a l l y a r e l a t i v e a f f a i r , p r i m a r i l y

r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n c i rc l e i n w h i c h i t e n j o y s a p r e p o n d e r a n t r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e . A p e r s o n

i s a m e m b e r o f m a n y c i r c l e s , — h i s f a m i l y , h i s o f f i c e , h i s c l u b , t h e c i r c l e c o v e r e d b y h i s j o u r n a l s , h i s

c h u r c h , — a n d t h i s f r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e i n l a n g u a g e . F o r w i t h i n a g i v e n

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c i r c l e a c e r t a i n m e a n i n g , a r r i v e d a t b y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , m a y , b e c a u s e o f I h e r i g h t s o f r e l a t i v e

f r e q u e n c y , b e u n d i s p u t e d k i n g , a n d y e t i n o t h e r c ir c l e s b e u n h e a r d o f . I n d e e d , a w o r d m a y h a v e a

d i f f e r e n t , d e c i d e d p r i m a r y m e a n i n g in e v e r y d i f f e r e n t c i r c l e a n d y e t , w h e n o n e m e a s u r e s t h e r e l a -

t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f m e a n i n g s i n t h e l a r g e g r o u p w h i c h i n c l u d e s a l l t h e o t h e r c i r c l e s ,

f in d t h a t a ll t h e s e l o c a l p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t . A n y t h i n g t h a t t e n d s t o h i n d e r t h e

f r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g o f t h e s e s o c i a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l c i r c l e s , w h e t h e r t h e i m p e d i m e n t b e c a u s e d b yn a t u r e i n t h e f o r m o f r i v e r s , o c e a n s , m o u n t a i n s , d e s e r t s , a n d t h e l i k e , o r b y m a n h i m s e l f t h r o u g h

c u s t o m b a r r i e r s , h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s , d i f f e r e n t a n d s e p a r a t e d m a r k e t c e n t e r s , t r a v e l , d i f f e r e n c e s i n

c u l t u r e a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d t h e l i k e , w i l l t e n d t o r e m o v e t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l a r g e g r o u p

a n d c a u s e t h e l a n g u a g e to d r i f t a p a r t s l o w l y in t o d i a l e c t s . E a c h s m a l l c i r cl e b r o k e n f r o m t h e w h o l e

p u r s u e s i t s s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s u n h i n d e r e d u n t i l i t s v o c a b u l a r y a s u s e d b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e u n -

i n t e l l ig i b l e t o a s e p a r a t e d c i r cl e . I f t h e c h a n g e d f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c h a n g e d v o c a b u l a r y u p s e t s t h e

i n n e r b a l a n c e o f v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s , a s e x p l a i n e d i n P a r t O n e , p h o n e t i c c h a n g e s m a y a d d t o

t h e c l e a v a g e . O n e c ir c l e c a n n o t e x p a n d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o t h e r s , o r o n e c i r c l e c a n n o t is o l a t e i t s e l f

f r o m a ll o t h e r s w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f m e a n i n g , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -

q u e n c y o r r e l a t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e .

T h e N o r m a n i n v a s i o n o f E n g l a n d o r t h e M i d d l e A g e s i n G e r m a n y e x e m p l i f y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f a n e x p a n d i n g c ir c l e a n d o f c o n t r a c t i n g c i r c le s . C o n s e r v a t i v e c h a n g e i n l a n g u a g e is f o u n d w h e r e

t h e s t a t u s r e m a i n s f a i r l y f i x e d t h r o u g h t i m e , a n d i s n o t a t a l l c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f s l a n g

i n t h e l a n g u a g e . F o r a ll l a n g u a g e s h a v e s l a n g ; i f t h e s l a n g o f t o d a y d o e s n o t in toto b e c o m e t h e

g o o d u s a g e o f t o m o r r o w , i t i s n o t b e c a u s e s l a n g i s n o t o l d e r o r n o t m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n g o o d

u s a g e , f o r i t i s o f t e n v e r y o l d a n d i t s u s a g e r e f l e c t s i t s s u i t a b i l i t y . L a n g u a g e i n g o o d u s a g e h a s t h e

l a w s o f c h a n c e t o t h a n k f o r i t s l o n g e v i t y , a n d n o t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e b e l i e f o f s c h o o l m a s t e r s , a n y i n -

h e r e n t v e n e r a b i l i t y o r s u i t a b i l i ty . T h i s is , t o m y m i n d , a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p h e n o m e n a c o v e r e d

b y J o h a n n i s S c h m i d t ' s Wellentheorie, a n d i s t h e b a s i s o f a n y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t i n t h e c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s

o n l i n g u is t ic s u b s t r a t a . H o w e v e r a w o r d m a y r e c e i v e i t s m e a n i n g , a n d w h e t h e r t h e m e a n i n g i s

o r i g i n a l o r a p p r o p r i a t e o r n o t , t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f t h e m e a n i n g a n d of t h e w o r d i t s e l f i s u l t i m a t e l ya m a t t e r o f Relative Frequency. T h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g s i m p l y i s t h e c u s t o m a r y o r u s u a l m e a n -

i n g . A w o r d m a y c h a n g e i t s m e a n i n g o v e r n i g h t . Y e t o n l y t h o s e s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s a r e l i k e l y t o

r e m a i n w h i c h a r e o f s e r v i c e t o a d e c i d e d m a j o r i t y . T h e m e a n i n g of a w o r d i s f a r f r o m s t a b l e . B u t

l e t u s t u r n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f j u s t w h a t a w o r d i s .

A w o r d , w h e t h e r i t b e w r i t t e n , s p o k e n , f e l t , o r t h o u g h t i s a t r o o t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d e g r e e o f

a t t e n d a n t c o n s ci o u s n es s , a m e n t a l e v e n t . T o b e s u r e , s o m e t i m e s i t m a y b e p e r c e p t i b l y a c c o m -

p a n i e d b y g e s t u r e s o f t h e v o c a l c o r d s o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e b o d y , o r , a s i n t h e c a s e o f p u r e

t h i n k i n g , i t m a y n o t . I n i t s e l f , a w o r d is n o t h i n g b u t a n e v e n t i n t i m e . T h e m e a n i n g i s s u p p l i e d

b y t h e m i n d o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e m i n d of t h e a u d i t o r , if t h e r e b e a n a u d i t o r . T h e m e a n i n g s d o

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y n e e d t o a g r e e b e t w e e n s p e a k e r a n d a u d i t o r , n o r i s t h e r e n e c e s s a r i l y a c o n s i s t e n c y

o f m e a n i n g f o r t h e s p e a k e r o r h e a r e r o v e r a p er i o d o f ti m e . N o w " c a t " m e a n s " f e l i n e a n i m a l , "

n o w i t m e a n s " w o m a n . " I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t is i n t h e m i n d o f t h e s p e a k e r , t h e w o r d i s a n e x p r e s -

s i o n ; i f i n t h e m i n d o f t h e a u d i t o r , a p e r c e p t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a g e , w i s d o m , e x p e r i e n c e , t r a i n -

i n g , h e a l t h , o r s a n i t y o f e i t h e r . T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a w o r d a s a m e n t a l e v e n t a p p l i e s t o e v e r y l i v i n g

o r g a n i s m t h a t h a s l a n g u a g e . " C o r r e c t " m e a n i n g 01 " p r o p e r " m e a n i n g o f a w o r d s i gn i fi e s n o t h i n g

m o r e t h a n t h a t t h e c i r c l e o r c i r c l e s i n w h i c h t h a t m e a n i n g e n j o y s h i g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y s e e m t o

y o u , b e c a u s e y o u a r e o r a r e n o t i n t h e m , " p r o p e r " a n d " c o r r e c t . "

B u t t h o u g h a w o r d e x i s t s b o t h a s a p e r c e p t i o n a n d a s a n e x p r e s s i o n , I s h a l l h e n c e f o r t h , a s f a r

a s p o s s i b l e , c o n s i d e r i t o n l y a s a n e x p r e s s i o n , — n o t b e c a u s e i t is m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g o r i m p o r t a n t a s

a n e x p r e s s i o n , b u t b e c a u s e a w o r d i s a l w a y s a n e x p r e s s i o n , e v e n i n a n h a l l u c i n a t i o n , t h o u g h n o t

[ n ]

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a l w a y s a p e r c e p t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , l e t u s c o n t i n u e o u r e x a m i n a t i o n f o r c o n v e n i e n c e b y first e x -

a m i n i n g o n l y t h e s p o k e n w o r d . F o r th e s p o k e n w o r d is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h is a l w a y s a c c o m -

p a n i e d b y p e r c e p t i b l e g e s t u r e s . B y g e s t u r e s , I d o n o t m e a n p r i m a r i l y g e s t u r e s o f t h e h a n d s , l e g s ,

a r m s , b u t r a t h e r c e r t a i n s m a l l g e s t u r e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e s a n d t i s s u e s o f th e t h r o a t , m o u t h , l i p s ,

l u n g s , — p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s . Y e t t h a t is n o t a l l . T h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e b l o o d , b r e a t h i n g , a n d o t h e r

b a s i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , t h o u g h n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s p o k e n w o r d , a r e a l s o a n e x t r e m e l y e s -

s e n t i a l p a r t o f a s p o k e n w o r d a n d I s h a l l c a l l t h e m substrata gestures}

W e h a v e th e s e substrata gestures, w h i c h a r e a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e s p o k e n w o r d a n d w h i c h , a s

f a r a s w e c a n s e e , a r e a c o n s t a n t e s c o r t of m e n t a l e v e n t s t h r o u g h l i fe , v a r y i n g t o b e s u r e i n t h e i r

a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e of th e m e n t a l e v e n t . B u t o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t w e k n o w n o t h i n g

m o r e t h a n i t i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h m e a n i n g a n d t h a t t h e s a m e m e a n i n g i s n o t a l w a y s l i n k e d w i t h t h e

s a m e phonetic gestures o r t h e s a m e substrata gestures. T a k i n g t h e s p o k e n w o r d a s s t a n d a r d , t h a t i s,

t h a t p a r t o f t h e s p o k e n w o r d w h i c h w e s h a l l c a l l phonetic gestures, w e fin d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g m a y

v a r y f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n ; li k e w i s e , t h e substrata gestures m a y v a r y d e n o t i n g ,

t h e r e b y , a n e m o t i o n d i f f e r i n g b o t h i n quality a n d intensity. T h e m e n t a l e v e n t c o n t a i n s s o m e -

t h i n g m o r e t h a n m e a n i n g ; i t c o n t a i n s b o t h quality a n d intensity i n a d d i t i o n ; i t c o n t a i n s t h em o m e n t a r y a p p r a i s a l o f t h e m e a n i n g .

B y quality, I m e a n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t , w h e t h e r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t e x p r e s s i n g t h e

m e a n i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e i s positive o r negative. I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s e e m s u l t i m a t e l y t o b e o n t h e

o n e h a n d a r e a c h i n g o u t i n t o e n v i r o n m e n t t o g r a s p in a n y f a s h i o n f o r s o m e s u p p o r t f o r t h e o r -

g a n i s m f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a positive quality. I f , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

m e n t a l e v e n t i s a s h r i n k i n g b a c k f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t t o e s c a p e a n d t o d e f e n d th e o r g a n i s m f r o m t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a negative quality. T h a t t h e s e q u a l i t i e s e x i s t i n l a n g u a g e i s i n -

d i s p u t a b l e . I t is l i k e w i s e in d i s p u t a b l e t h a t t h e y e x i s t a s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t a n d

s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h o u g h t h e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d m a y d i f f e r f r o m s p e a k e r t o s p e a k e r a n d f r o m

t i m e t o t i m e w i t h t h e s a m e s p e a k e r , y e t i t i s , n o n e t h e l e s s , e x c l u s i v e l y a p a r t o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t .Quality l i k e meaning i s s u b j e c t i v e ; y e t quality i s n o t meaning. T h e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d is p a r t o f

w h a t w e s h a ll c a l l t h e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s o f a w o r d . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s i s w h a t w e

l o o s e l y c a l l intensity.

T o m a k e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s c le a r e r , l e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " c a t " f o r a n e x a m p l e , a s a n y g i v e n p e r -

s o n m a y u s e i t a t a n y g i v e n t i m e . D i s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e q u a l i t y

w i l l b e e i t h e r n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e . T h a t i s , " c a t " w i l l t o t h a t p e r s o n a t t h a t t i m e b e e i t h e r d e -

s i r a b l e f o r t h e e g o , o r u n d e s i r a b l e , o r n e u t r a l , o r m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n n e g a t i v e , o r m o r e n e g a t i v e

t h a n p o s i t i v e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t " m a y b e c o l o r e d b y d es i re o r f e a r , o r b y

n e i t h e r , o r a m i x t u r e o f t h e t w o w h e r e o n e o r n e i t h e r m a y p r e v a i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s q u a l i t y i s

t h e i n t e n s i t y . I f t h e q u a l i t y i s a n x i e t y , t h e i n t e n s i t y is t h e a m o u n t o f a n x i e t y a t t h a t t i m e w i t h

t h a t p e r s o n . T h e m o r e t h e a n x i e t y , t h e g r e a t e r I s h a l l c a l l t h e i n t e n s i t y . T h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e o f

d e s i r e , o x a m i x t u r e o f a n x i e t y a n d d e s i r e , o r o f f e a r , r e m o r s e , o r h a t r e d . H o w l o w t h e i n t e n s i t y o f

a m e n t a l e v e n t m a y b e i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l . B u t t h a t i t m a y g o s o h i g h a s t o d e r a n g e o r d e s t r o y t h e

1 The se basic physiological processes — the functioning oí nerves, lung s, l iver , heart , and the l ike — which Ical l substrata gestures, are concomitant with the mental event, and intimately l inked with i t . li the mental eventvaries suddenly in emotional intensity, the activity of the substrata gestures is ap t to var y: sudden wrath or a nxie ty ,and a sudden change in heart-beat and rapidity of breathing. Wh ether the wrath or anxiety causes the change in thesubstrata gestures, or whether the change in the substrata gestures causes the wrath or anxiety , i t is hard to say.M uc h has been argue d on each side. It is sufficient for the purp oses of t his pap er to assume th at the mental pro c-esses and the physiological processes are concomitant, without an attempted inquiry into which comes first in timeor impo rtance. If the reade r finds this procedure ar bitr ary, let him miss several meals and notice the emotion al con-

dition of his mind; and having done so, let him wait until he is beset with worry and anxiety, and notice the con-dit ion of his appetite.

C 1 2 :

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o r g a n i s m i s n o t u n h e a r d o f . A l l t h i s is c o n t a i n e d i n t h e i n n e r v i v i d n e s s o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t . "

A s t o t h e m e a n i n g , i t m a y h a v e m e a n t " f e l i n e a n i m a l , " o r " w o m a n , " o r a n y n u m b e r o f t h i n g s .

A s m e a n i n g m a y f lu ctu ate , s o t o o m a y q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y f lu ct ua te . E a c h o n e m a y v a r y

a m o n g p e r s o n s , o r w i t h i n t h e s a m e p e r s o n f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . E v e n if t h e r e i s n o i n s t r u m e n t t o

m e a s u r e i n t e n s i t y , o r r e c o r d q u a l i t y , o u r e x p e r i e n c e t e l l s u s t h a t t h e y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t a n t .T h e w o r d " w h i s k e y " m a y b e u t t e r e d w i t h d e s i r e i n o n e i n d i v i d u a l a n d w i t h a v e r s i o n i n a n o t h e r .

W i t h i n t w e l v e h o u r s t h e s a m e p e r s o n m a y s h i f t f r o m h i g h d e s i re to c o m p l e t e a v e r s i o n . I n f a c t , i f

i t w e r e p o s s i b l e f o r a p e r s o n t o c o m p i l e t h e w o r d s h e u s e s a n d t h e o c c a s i o n s a t w h i c h h e u s e s

t h e m i n e x p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f , h e w o u l d b e s u r p r i s e d t o s e e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g , q u a l i t y , a n d

i n t e n s i t y o f m a n y o f t h e w o r d s o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e . Y e t I b e l i e v e h e w o u l d b e e q u a l l y s u r p r i s e d

t o f in d t h a t t h e s e f lu ct ua tio n s i n m e a n i n g a n d in n e r v i v i d n e s s w e r e n o t a b s o l u t e l y a t r a n d o m , a s

h e m i g h t e x p e c t f r o m a d a y t o d a y o b s e r v a t i o n . T h o u g h i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a w o r d h a s a d if -

f e r e n t m e a n i n g e v e r y t i m e i t o c c u r s , y e t i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t m a n y w o r d s w i l l h a v e b u t a f e w m e a n -

i n g s a n d w i l l s h o w a m o n g t h o s e m e a n i n g s d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e s ; t h e m t a n i n g s w i l l a r r a n g e t h e m -

s e l v e s a s p r i m a r y , s e c o n d a r y , e t c . , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e b e c o m p e t i n g m e a n i n g s f o r t h e f ir st , s e c o n d ,

t h i r d p l a c e .

S o , t o o , t h e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y o f a w o r d , t h o u g h i t m a y b e r a n d o m l y s h i f t i n g f o r

s o m e w o r d s , c e r t a i n l y w i t h o t h e r w o r d s w i l l s h o w a d e c i d e d p r e f e r e n c e f o r e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e o r

n e g a t i v e o r a c e r t a i n m i x t u r e o f t h e t w o . L i k e m e a n i n g , q u a l i t y m a y n o t b e i n v a r i a b l y c o n s t a n t ,

b u t l i k e m e a n i n g , i t m a y h a v e a m a r k e d t e n d e n c y o r p r e f e r e n c e .

I n t h e l i k e m a n n e r , t h e i n t e n s i t y , a l t h o u g h i t t o o m a y f lu ct ua te g r e a t l y f o r s o m e w o r d s , s h o u l d

f o r o t h e r s s h o w a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a m o r e m a r k e d s t a b i l i t y , h i g h o r law. T o b e s u r e , a m a n w h i l e

s t a r v i n g m i g h t u s e " b r e a d " w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r i n t e n s i t y t h a n h e w o u l d w h i l e w a l k i n g b y

a b a k e r y s h o p a f t e r d i n n e r . Y e t t h o u g h t h e s e f lu ct ua tio ns m a y b e g r e a t , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e

v a r y i n g s i t u a t i o n s , s t i l l y o u w o u l d h a r d l y b e w i l l i n g t o s a y t h a t f r o m d a y t o d a y t h e m e a n i n g s ,

q u a l i t ie s , a n d in t e n s i t i e s o f y o u r w o r d s v a r y a b s o l u t e l y a t r a n d o m . S o , t o o , y o u c a n n o t s a y t h a tt h e y d o n o t v a r y a t a l l , e s t i m a t i n g m e a n i n g s , q u a l i t i e s , i n t e n s i t i e s a s t h e y a r e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d

a t t h e e n d o f a p e r i o d o f t i m e — a d a y , a m o n t h , a y e a r , a d e c a d e , a s c o r e o f y e a r s , a l i f e - t i m e . I f

t h e inner vividness fo r m an y wo rd s do es no t f luctuate a t a l l ov er a g i v en peri o d, or i f i t f luctuates

a g r e a t d e a l o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h is m a y b e s y m p t o m a t i c o f a s e r io u s m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n . Y e t n o

m a t t e r h o w s e r i o u s t h e m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e e v e n t s o f h i s m i n d w o u l d c o n s t i -

t u t e l a n g u a g e .

I n l i g h t o f t h e a b o v e , w e m a y s a y t h e n o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s t h a t f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o u p o f i n -

d i v i d u a l s a t o n e t i m e , o r f o r a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d o f t i m e , w o r d s i n s p i t e o f

a l l t h e i r f lu ctu at io ns s h o w a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a p r e f e r e n c e of m e a n i n g , t o w a r d a s t a b i l i t y o f q u a l -

i t y , w h a t e v e r t h e q u a l i t y m a y b e , a n d t o w a r d a c o n s t a n c y o f i n t e n s i t y . T o b e s u r e , w e h a v e n o

p o s i t i v e w a y o f k n o w i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s a p p l i e s t o a i l e v e n t s o f t h e m i n d , s i n c e w e h a v e n ow a y o f e x a m i n i n g m i n d e x c e p t t h r o u g h i t s e x p r e s s i o n s , a n d w e c a n o n l y a p p r e c i a t e e x p r e s s i o n s o f

t h e m i n d w h e n t h e y h a v e s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a p r e f e r e n c e fo r m e a n i n g , a s t a b i l i t y o f q u a l i t y ,

a n d a c o n s t a n c y o f i n t e n s i t y . B u t t h a t i t i s i n g e n e r a l t r u e f o r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s of s p o k e n l a n -

g u a g e i s c r y s t a l c l e a r , s i n c e a l l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n a t a c i t " a c c e p t a t i o n " o f p r i m a r y

m e a n i n g s , q u a l i t i e s , a n d i n t e n s i t ie s . T h e " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g s n e e d o n l y b e a p p r o x i m a t e , l ik e -

w i s e t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d i n t e n s i t i e s , v a r y i n g m o r e o r l e s s a s t h e y d o f r o m i n d i v i d u a l t o i n d i v i d u a l .

B u t t h a t t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t s o m e w h e r e i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of d i c t i o n -

a r i es . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u s u a l m e a n i n g i s t h e u s u a l m e a n i n g , t h e u s u a l q u a l i t y t h e u s u a l q u a l i t y ,

t h e u s u a l i n t e n s i t y t h e u s u a l i n t e n s i t y . W e a r e a g a i n i n t h e fie ld o f p r o b a b i l i t y .

[ 1 3 3

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A n d e v e n i n c a s e s w h e r e t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i s n o t w h a t w e n o r m a l l y c o n s id e r c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n , t h a t i s , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f a p e r s o n r a v i n g w i t h m a d n e s s o r d e l i r i u m , s t i l l t h i s

l a n g u a g e o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e r e v e a l s t o t h e s k i l l f u l o b s e r v e r a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f m e a n i n g ,

q u a l i t y , a n d i n t e n s i t y — p e r h a p s a t u t t e r v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e " a c c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s — y e t

n o n e t h e l e s s , f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t , r e l a t i v e t o t h e p a t i e n t .A n d e v e n w h e r e s p e e c h i s n o t a c c e s s o r y t o m e n t a l e x p r e s s i o n , t h a t i s , i n ou r d r e a m s a n d p h a n -

t a s i e s , t h o u g h t h e m e a n i n g s o f t h e s y m b o l s a r e i l l u s i v e e v e n t o t h e d r e a m e r , a n d t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d

i n t e n s i t i e s f a r f r o m o b v i o u s , y e t t h e g r e a t s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h a t f i e l d h a v e m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t s o m e o f

t h e s y m b o l s t e n d t o r e c u r w i t h a c o n s i s t e n c y o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s , n o t o n l y f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i s t e n t t o

t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t s o m e t i m e s c o n s i s t e n t o v e r g r e a t g r o u p s o f p e o p l e .

A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e r e m u s t b e a r o u g h c o n s i s t e n c y o f i n n e r v i v i d n e s s t h r o u g h o u t l i f e , e v e n

t h o u g h t h e m e n t a l e v e n t is i n n o w a y p e r c e p t i b l e . A t l e a s t, e v e r y l i v i n g m o r t a l a s s u m e s a d a y t o

d a y c o n s i s t e n c y b o t h i n h i m s e l f a n d i n o t h e r s . W e a s s u m e t h a t w e s h a l l l i k e a n d d i s l i k e t o m o r r o w

w h a t w e l ik e a n d d i s l i k e t o d a y ; t h a t w e s h a l l t h i n k a n d f e e l a n d " r e a s o n " t o m o r r o w a s w c t h i n k

a n d f e e l a n d " r e a s o n " t o d a y . W e e x p e c t t h e s a m e o f o t h e r s ; a n d y e t o u r s u r p r is e s , d i s a p p o i n t -

m e n t s , a n d s u d d e n f e a r s s h o w t h a t in t h is w e a r e o f t e n m i s t a k e n . I t i s n o t o n l y t h a t e x t e r n a l c o n -

d i t i o n s a l t e r , b u t w e , l i k e w i s e , c h a n g e , c h a n g e w h e r e t o a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s e x t e r n a l s a r e

i d e n t i c a l . Inner vividness i s o n l y s o m e t h i n g a p p r o x i m a t e , s o m e t h i n g t h a t v a r i e s w i t h i n a r a n g e ;

s o m e t h i n g c o n s t a n t e n o u g h s o t h a t l i f e a n d s o c i e t y c a n g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n w i t h a n a m a z i n g d e g r e e

o f o r d e r l i n e s s , y e t s o m e t h i n g f lu ct ua tin g e n o u g h s o t h a t l i f e a n d s o c i e t y g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l s o

w i t h a n a m a z i n g a m o u n t o f c o n f l i c t a n d f r i c t i o n .

W h a t h a s a l l t h i s t o d o w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h e r e a d e r m a y a s k . I t i s t h e p r o p e l l i n g c a u s e

b e h i n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . W e h a v e se e n h o w m e a n i n g m a y s h i f t ; t h i s i l l u s t r a t e s w h y m e a n i n g s d o

s h i f t , w h y o n e w o r d i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a n o t h e r a t a ll . W h e n a m e n t a l e v e n t , f r o m w h a t e v e r c a u s e ,

d e v i a t e s d e c i d e d l y f r o m t h e n o r m a l i n q u a l i t y o r i n t e n s i t y , a n o t h e r w o r d m a y b e s u b s t i t u t e d

w h i c h m o r e n e a r l y a p p r o a c h e s t h e q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y d i c t a t e d b y t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e m o m e n t .T h i s i s n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , b u t i t i s b y f a r t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t , f o r t h e

s i m i l a r i t y i n q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y i s t o m y m i n d f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n t h a n

s i m i l a r it y i n m e a n i n g . I n c a ll in g a " w o m a n " a " p e a c h , " o r a " c a t , " o r a " r o s e , " o r a " b i t c h , "

o r a " v a m p i r e , " o r a " m o u s e , " a r e w e i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s d o i n g m u c h m o r e t h a n s i m p l y s u b -

s t i t u t i n g t h e q u a l i t y a n d p e r h a p s i n t e n s i t y (I s a y a d v i s e d l y " p e r h a p s " ) of " p e a c h , " " c a t , "

" r o s e , " " b i t c h " a n d s o f o r t h ? S u r e l y t h e r e c a n b e l i t t le d o u b t a b o u t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of q u a l i t y .

O n e w o u l d r a r e l y r e fe r e n d e a r i n g l y t o a p e r s o n a s " p e s t - h o u s e . "

H o w g r e a t a r ô l e t h e a c c e p t e d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t e d w o r d p l a y s i n t h e s u b s t i t u t i n g i s

p r o b l e m a t i c a l . I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s i n m a n y c a s e s n e g l i g i b l e . F o r i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s o f

s u b s t i t u t i o n , t h e s u b s t i t u t e d w o r d h a s n o r m a l l y o n l y a m i l d o r i n d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t y , a n d t h e i n -t e n s i t y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n a r i s e s m u c h m o r e f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t a n u n u s u a l e p i t h e t h a s b e e n b e -

s t o w e d t h a n t h a t i t i s a n e p i t h e t o f u n u s u a l in t e n s i t y . I a m f a r f r o m c o n v i n c e d t h a t a w o r d o f

n o r m a l l y h i g h e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y , s u c h a s " b i t c h , " i s s e l e c t e d f o r s u b s t i t u t i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s h i g h

e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y ; I b e l i e v e r a t h e r t h a t i t s p r e s e n t h i g h e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y h a s a r i s e n f r o m

f o r m e r s p o r a d i c s u b s t i t u t i o n o f u n p l e a s a n t n a t u r e , — a s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n w h i c h

w e s h a l l p r e s e n t l y d e v e l o p .

W h e n a s k e d o r d e s i r i n g t o g i v e t h e c l e a r m e a n i n g o f a n e v e n t , w e d o n o t n o r m a l l y " s u b s t i -

t u t e " ; w e " e x p l a i n . " D e f i n i t i o n , e x p o s i t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , a n a l y s i s , o r w h a t e v e r e ls e y o u a r e i n -

c l i n e d t o p u t u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , s e e m t o m e p r i m a r i l y a q u e s t i o n o f o r d e r o r

s e q u e n c e of w o r d s . I n " e x p l a n a t i o n " it i s a m a t t e r o f u s i n g t h e " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g a n d " a c -

c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . O c c a s i o n a l l y i n " e x p l a n a t i o n " t h e re i s metaphor a n d

l H i

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connotation- B u t a r e n o t metaphor an d connotation, t h a t i s , s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , r a t h e r u s e d t o c o n v e y

v i v i d n e s s t h a n c l a r i t y ? I s i t n o t t r u e t h a t t h e m o r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s in t h e w o r l d o f metaphor,

whi ch i s t he world of fee l i ng, t he less l i ke ly i t i s t hat t he audi t or wi l l fo l low, or , i f he fo l lows , t he

l e ss l i k e l y t h a t h e w i l l l e n d t o t h e w o r d s t h e m e a n i n g w i t h w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d s t o e n d o w

t h e m ? Fo r w i t h metaphor, b y it s v e r y n a t u r e , t h e p r i m a r y m e a n i n g is n o t to p r e v a i l . B u t w i t he x p l a n a t i o n , c l a r i t y d e p e n d s u p o n a f a i r l y s t r i ct a d h e r e n c e t o " a c c e p t e d " m e a n i n g a n d " a c -

c e p t e d " i n n e r v i v i d n e s s , a n d i f I m a y h e r e s a y s o , u p o n a c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o r d e r — c o h e r e n c e .

T h i s is t h e n r e a l l y t h e v e r y p r o b l e m o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l •

i n t e n s i t y a n d c l a r i t y o f m e a n i n g . T h o u g h w e c a n n o t d e fi n e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o r c l a r i t y o f -

m e a n i n g , w e a r e a l l c o n s c i o u s o f w h a t t h e y a r e ; a n d I b e l i e v e t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e r i d d l e i s t o b e

f o u n d in w h a t I t e r m " o r d e r . " O r d e r , a s I s h a l l la t e r e x p l a i n a n d d e f i n e i t , i s t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n h i g h i n t e n s i t y a n d c l e a r m e a n i n g . S u c h a s t a t e m e n t i s i n i t s e lf u t t e r l y m e a n i n g l e s s . I

m e a n t h a t c l a r i t y t e n d s t o c o l l e c t a r o u n d " n o r m a l " o r d e r , a n d i n t e n s i t y a r o u n d a b n o r m a l o r

" b r o k e n " o r u n u s u a l o r d e r . I d o n o t s a y t h e r e i s a n y c a u s a l r e l a t io n s h i p , I s i m p l y s t a t e w h a t I

h o p e t o s h o w is a f a c t . T h e m o r e p r i m a r y t h e m e a n i n g s , t h e m o r e f ix ed t h e q u a l i t i e s , t h e m o r e

n o r m a l t h e o r d e r , t h e l o w e r w i l l b e th e c o n c o m i t a n t i n t e n s i t y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u s u a l i s n o t

e m o t i o n a l l y i n t e n se , a p r o p o s it i o n w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y n o t u n h e a r d o f . H e n c e , i n t e n s i t y , li k e m e a n -

i n g , m u s t s o m e h o w , e v e n th o u g h o n l y r e m o t e l y , b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y . T h o u g h

a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g i s k n o w n d e f i n i t e l y a b o u t o r d e r o t h e r t h a n t h a t i t i s e v e r y w h e r e e x t r e m e l y i m -

p o r t a n t , l e t u s p r o c e e d t o e x a m i n e t h e f a c t s o f o r d e r a s f a r a s l a n g u a g e r e v e a l s t h e m .

E v e r y l a n g u a g e h a s a p a t t e r n , s o r i g i d t h a t c e r t a i n s m a l l v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e p a t t e r n m a y l e a d i n -

s t a n t l y to o b f u s c a t i o n o r i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y . A n d y e t t h e p a t t e r n i s s o l o o s e a n d s u p p l e t h a t a n

i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n h i s p a t t e r n m a y d e s c r i b e h i s e n t i r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t i t b e . B u t

t h e r e i s n o d i v i n e d e c r e e b e h i n d a l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n , t h o u g h t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r i s r a r e w h o d o e s n o t

b e l i e v e s o . I f w e c o m p a r e p a t t e r n w i t h p a t t e r n , p u t t i n g o n e l a n g u a g e b e s i d e a n o t h e r , w e f in d

n e a r l y e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e o r d e r r e p r e s e n t ed i n t h e v a r i o u s p a t t e r n s — • a d j e c t i v e s g e n e r a l l y p r e -c e d e i n o n e , f o l l o w i n a n o t h e r ; v e r b s p r e c e d e i n o n e , f o l l o w i n a n o t h e r ; i n f l e c t i o n a l s u f f i x e s a r e

a d d e d i n o n e , p r e f i x e s in a n o t h e r , n e i t h e r i n a t h i r d . I f o n e l o o k s a t l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s , o n e i s

f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t h e r e , if a n y w h e r e , t h e u s u a l o r d e r i s t h e u s u a l o r d e r . W e s a y " t h e b l a c k

h o r s e " i n s t e a d o f " h o r s e b l a c k t h e , " b e c a u s e i t m a k e s b e t t e r s e n s e ; y e t t h e r e a s o n i t m a k e s b e t t e r

s e n s e i s n o t b e c a u s e o f d i v i n e d e c r e e , b u t b e c a u s e t h e o r d e r i s m o r e u s u a l .

A g a i n , e x a c t l y w h a t n o r m a l o r d e r i s, I , fo r o n e , do n o t k n o w . W h e n o n e s a y s n o r m a l o r d e r ,

o n e m e a n s u s u a l o r d e r . W h e n o n e s p e a k s o f th e n o r m a l c o u r s e of e v e n t s , o n e m e a n s th e u s u a l

c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . W h e n t h e o r d e r o f c e r t a i n e v e n t s b e c o m e s s o f ix ed t h a t o n e d o e s n o t e v e n t h i n k

o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g i n g , w e r e f e r to th o s e e v e n t s in t h a t c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r a s h a b i t . A g a i n ,

t h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y n o d i v i n e d e c r e e b e h i n d o r d e r , a l t h o u g h t h e t e m p t a t i o n i s a l w a y s g r e a t t o a s -

s u m e t h a t o u r h a b i t s , o r o u r a r r a n g e m e n t o f e v e n t s i n t h e f l o w o f t i m e , i s " p r o p e r " a n d " c o r r e c t . "T h e m o r e o f t e n i n t h e p a s t a c e r t a i n e v e n t p r e c e d e d o r s u c c e e d e d a n o t h e r c e r t a i n e v e n t o r e v e n t s

a t a r e l a t i v e l y a p p r o x i m a t e i n t e r v a l i n t h e f l u x o f t i m e , t h e m o r e w e a r e i n c l i n e d t o c o n s i d e r t h o s e

e v e n t s a s b e i n g i n a f ix ed o r d e r a n d e x p e c t t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o c c u r i n t h e f u t u r e in t h e l i k e

a r r a n g e m e n t . W h e n A is a l w a y s fo l l o w e d b y B , o r B a l w a y s p r e c e d e d b y A , w e s a y t h a t A a n d B

r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r a r e i n f i r m s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r ; a n d j u d g i n g f r o m o u r p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , w e p o s t u -

l a t e t h e s a m e f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h e l e s s fix ed t h e o r d e r i n th e p a s t , t h e l e s s p o s i t i v e l v d o w e p r o g -

n o s t i c a t e t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e f u t u r e . L e t . u s e x p r e s s t h i s f e e l i n g i n d i f f e r e n t t e r m s : th e m o r e

o f t e n t h a t t w o o r m o r e e v e n t s o c c u r i n a c e r t a i n s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r i n t h e s t r e a m o f t i m e , t h e m o r e

f ix ed w e c o n s id e r t h o s e e v e n t s in o r d e r . I n o t h e r w o r d s , b r i e f l y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y

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of an e ve nt in a ce rta in se que nce or se que nce s rathe r than in no se que nce , the more f ixe d the orde r

o f t h e e v e n t .

T h i s i s f i r s t o f a l l t r u e r e g a r d l e s s o f c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h a t e v e r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y

m e an . I f gr e a t por t ion s of l i fe proc e sse s are foun d in a cau sa l re l a t ion ship in a se nse oth e r tha n

t h a t o u t l i n e d b y t h e t h e o r y o f Relative Frequency, t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t o f o r d e r w i l l s t i ll h o l d

t r u e , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t " c a u s a t i o n " s h o u l d b e f o u n d t h e b a s i c f a c t o r o f a r r a n g e m e n t .

S e c o n d l y , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f o r d e r d o e s n o t n e c e s s i t a t e t h e o r g a n i s m ' s " c o m p r e h e n s i o n " o f t h e

i n n e r a r r a n g e m e n t o r o f t h e p o s s i b l e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e o r d e r . " I p l a n t e d a s e e d , a tr e e g r e w ,

and he re i s an app l e f ro m the tre e ." Se e d , tre e , ap pl e , are in f ixed norm al se qu e nce , e ve n tho ug h

w e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e c o n n e c t i n g s t e p s . T h e r e a s o n w e s a y t h a t p l a n t i n g a s e e d a n d a f t e r a c e r -

t a i n i n t e r v a l p l u c k i n g a n a p p l e i s r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i s n o t t h a t i t i s i n t h e l e a s t u n -

d e r s t a n d a b l e o r r e a s o n a b l e a c c o r d i n g t o o u r p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e , b u t t h a t it i s u s u a l . L e t a m a n

m a r r y h i s g r a n d m o t h e r a n d i t i s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o u s ; l e t a m a n b e g e t a c h i ld a n d m o s t of u s d o

n o t w o n d e r a n i n s t a n t a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d . A n d y e t , o n e i s a s m u c h o r a s l i tt l e

r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s t h e o t h e r . W e m a k e a g r e a t e r s t i r a b o u t t h e o n e t h a n t h e

o t h e r b e c a u s e i t i s l e s s u s u a l . N o t a s m a l l a m o u n t o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e m a } ' b e l i n ed u p b e h i n dt h e a c i d s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y t h e le s s t h e a d o . A n d c a n w e n o t s a y

t h a t o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t a p l e a s a n t t h i n g b e c o m e s u n p l e a s a n t t o u s i s b e c a u s e i t s u d d e n l y b e -

c o m e s t o o f r e q u e n t o r t o o r a r e i n o u r l i fe , o r i n t h e w r o n g o r d e r ? " T h e r e i s a t i m e f o r a l l t h i n g s . "

A n d d o e s n o t t h e c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t b e c o m e c l o u d e d , a n d i s n ' t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e

e v e n t u n s e t t l e d b y s u d d e n s h i f t s i n f r e q u e n c y ? J u s t a s e v e r y e v e n t h a s s o m e k in d of q u a l i t y a n d

s o m e " m e a n i n g , " s o , t o o , e v e r y e v e n t o f m i n d m u s t h a v e a d e g r e e o f d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r .

E v e r y e v e n t m u s t b e p r e c e d e d a n d s u c c e e d e d b y a n o t h e r e v e n t , f r o m t h e f i r s t e v e n t t o t h e l a s t

e v e n t , w h e n e v e r t h a t m a y b e . T h e r e i s t h e n n o h a r m i n e s t i m a t i n g f u t u r e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e-

q u e n c e f r o m p a s t o c c u r r e n c e s . A n d y e t w e a l so h a v e b r e a c h e s i n n o r m a ! o r d e r.

E v e r y w o r d h a s s y n t a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s ; a w o r d i s u n t h i n k a b l e e x c e p t a ss o m e h o w o r d e r e d in t h e s t r e a m of t i m e . A n y b r e a c h a g a i n s t u s u a l o r d e r t e n d s t o u n s e t t l e t h e

s t a b i l i t y of b o t h q u a l i t y a n d m e a n i n g , a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y . A b r e a c h i n o r d e r

d o e s n o t c a u s e t h e u n s e t t l i n g , f o r o n e m a y j u s t a s r e a s o n a b l y c o m m e n c e w i t h a n u n e x p e c t e d

e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y a n d f in d o r d e r d e r a n g e d . O n e m a y a r g u e t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p u n t i l t h e e n d

o f t i m e ; b r o k e n o r d e r i s s i m p l y e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y ; e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y is s i m p l y b r o k e n o r d e r —

t h e y a r e c o n c o m i t a n t . O n e i s d e f i n a b l e o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e o t h e r . Y o u m a y c o n s u l t a l l t h e s p e-

c i a li z e d w o r k s o n e m o t i o n y o u w i l l ; y o u m a y r e a d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t e n d e d t o m e a s u r e , i n v e s t i g a -

t io n s i n t e n d e d t o a n a l y z e , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t e n d e d t o c u r e . W e t a l k d a i l y a b o u t e m o t i o n s — y e t

w h a t a r e t h e y ? T h e r e i s n o p a r t o f t h e b r a i n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m ; w h a t w e c on s i d e r t h e " c a u s e s " o f

t h e m c a n a r i s e i n t h e l u n g s , l i v e r , o r i n t h e m i n d i t s e l f . T h e y c a n h a v e a s o u r c e a n y w h e r e . A l l

d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e e m o t i o n s s e e m t o g r a v i t a t e a b o u t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t e m o t i o n i s i n a l i e n a b l y

c o n n e c t e d w i t h c o n f l i c t . I s t h e r e a n y h a r m i n s a y i n g t h a t c o n f l i c t i s b r o k e n o r d e r , a d e v i a t i o n

f r o m w h a t e v e r c a u s e , f r o m t h e n o r m a l co u r s e o f e v e n t s ? D o n o t y o u r g r e a t e s t s o rr ow ' s, g r e a t e s t

f e a r s , g r e a t e s t j o v s c o m e f r o m a n u n e x p e c t e d c h a n g e i n t h e h a b i t u a l c o u r s e o f e v e n t s ? I s n o t t h e

i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e m o t i o n g r e a t e r , t h e g r e a t e r a n d m o r e u n e x p e c t e d t h e d e v i a t i o n ? Y e t a s t h e u n -

e x p e c t e d e v e n t r e c u r s m o r e a n d m o r e , — i n f a c t b e c o m e s l e s s u n e x p e c t e d a n d m o r e u s u a l , i n f a c t

m o r e a n d m o r e a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , — d o e s n o t t h e i n t e n s i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d i m i n i s h ? O f c o u r s e

t h e r e a r c f l a s h - b a c k s , b u t w e e x p e c t t h a t in p r o b a b i l i t y . B u t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y ,

the l e ss the l ike l ih ood of f lash-backs. A nd if to our ab ov e fa ct or s of m e an ing , qu al i t y , in te n si t y ,

a n d o r d e r , w e a d d l i k e w i s e g r a d i e n t s o f a t t e n t i o n , f a t i g u e , v o l i t i o n , a s w e s h a l l w h e n a l l o f t h i s i s

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b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n o n e v o l u m e , a c e r t a i n s e n s e o f e v e r y - d a y r e a l i t y w i l l b e g i n t o c o l l e c t a r o u n d

th e Principle of Relative Frequency.

B u t w h a t i s o r d e r , v o u m a y a s k ? O r d e r , a s u s e d h e r e , i s b u t t h e s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s . I n t h e

s e q u e n c e of t h e e v e n t s A , B , C , D , E , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e t e r m i n a c y , i n t h e l i g h t o f p r o b a b i l i t y ,

w i t h w h i c h o n e e v e n t a n d n o t a n o t h e r a p p e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y o r a t a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l i n s t e a d o f l e s si m m e d i a t e l y o r a t a n u n c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l , o r n o t a t a l l , b e f o r e o r a f t e r a n o t h e r e v e n t , t h e m o r e f i x e d

t h e o r d e r of t h o s e e v e n t s . A f t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i l i t y o f a c e r t a i n s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s s o g r e a t

t h a t th e l i k e l i h o o d o f n o n - o c c u r r e n c e i n t h a t s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s n e g l i g i b l e , w e b e g i n t o s p e a k

p b e n o m e n o l o g i c a l h ' o f causation.

T h e r e a d e r m a y r e b e l a t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , p a r t l y b e c a u s e h e f e e l s t h a t W h i r l m a y b e c o m e k i n g ,

a n d p a r t l y b e ca u s e o r d e r m a y w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e b e c o m e v e r y d e t e r m i n e d . A s t o W h i r l , l e t m e

s a y t h a t w i t h o r d e r s o d e f i n e d W h i r l ' s c h a n c e s o f p a r t i a l o r c o m p l e t e r e g e n c y i n h u m a n p e r s o n a l i -

t i e s a r e , o f c o u r s e , d e f i n i t e l y e x i s t e n t , a n d n u m e r o u s h u m a n b e i n g s b e h i n d o r n o t b e h i n d l o c k e d

d o o r s g i v e p i t i f u l e v i d e n c e t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t . T h e o b j e c t i o n of c o n s t a n t l y g r e a t e r

d e t e r m i n a c y o f c e r t a i n s e q u e n c e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o t h e r s is j u s t a s v a l i d . W h e n , o u t o f a l l p o s s i b l e

e v e n t s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e , o n e e v e n t i n s t e a d o f a n y o f t h e o t h e r so c c u r s , t h a t e v e n t f r a c t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e b y , i t s p r o b a b i l i t y of r e - o c c u r r e n c e b y c o r r e s p o n d -

i n g l y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e o t h e r s . S o i t i s t h a t w i t h p a s s i n g y e a r s a n i n d i v i d u a l , r e -

g a r d l e s s o f h i s s p e c i s s . b e c o m e s m o r e f ix ed a n d s e t i n h i s w a y s , a n d a n e w o r d e r o r a n e w i n t e n s i t y

o r a n e w q u a l i t y s u f f i c e s t o a n n i h i l a t e h i m , e v e n t h o u g h i t b e o n l y o f a s l i g h t d e g r e e o f d e v i a t i o n

f r o m t h e n o r m a l , s o s l i g h t t h a t i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s y o u t h h e w o u l d h a v e a d j u s t e d h i m s e l f t o i t

c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a s i l y .

A n d w h y d o e s n o t l a n g u a g e b e c o m e s o c r y s t a l l i z e d , f o r l a n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t s t h i s o r d e r pa r

excellence? I t d o e s . B u t t h e g r e a t t h i n g t h a t s a v e s l a n g u a g e f r o m b e c o m i n g e n t i r e l y c r y s t a l l i z e d

is abbreviation. F o r w h e n t h e s e q u e n c e A , B , C , D , £ b e c o m e s s o fix ed t h a t w h e n e v e r A o c c u r s

t h e o d d s a r e e n o r m o u s t h a t B , C , I ) , E w i l l f o l l o w , t h e e c o n o m y of l a n g u a g e a b b r e v i a t e s B , C , D ,

E , u s i n g o n l y A . S o , t o o , w h e n t h e o d d s a r e i n f a v o r of B , o r C , o r D , or E , s o t h a t w h e n a n y o n e

o r m o r e o f t h e m o c c u r , i t o r t h e y w i ll o c c u r in t h i s s e q u e n c e , t h a t s y m b o l o r t h o s e s y m b o l s m a y

s t a n d fo r th e s e q u e n c e . T h e r e is n o t h i n g i n t h e n a t u r e o f m e a n i n g t h a t it c a n n o t b e c o n t a i n e d i n

o n e s y m b o l r a t h e r t h a n i n a n o t h e r o r o t h e r s , p r o v i d e d t h a t it o n c e b e c o m c s e s t a b l i s h e d e i t h e r b y

a b b r e v i a t i o n o r s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w h i c h a re to a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s t h e s a m e t h i n g . W h e n f o r

t h e s e q u e n c e A , B , C , D , E o n e o f t h e s y m b o l s t h e r e i n c o n t a i n e d i s s u b s t i t u t e d , w e c a l l i t abbrevia-

tion, w h e n a n o u t s i d e s y m b o l A " i s s u b s t i t u t e d , w e c a l l i t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . I s p e a k o f s y m b o l s a d -

v i s e d l y ; a s y m b o l is s o m e t h i n g t h a t s t a n d s f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e . B u t I s h a l l s h o w t h a t a s y m b o l is

a ls o a m e n t a l e v e n t . T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c y w h i c h c a u s e s a b b r e v i a t i o n i s t h e s a m e t e n d e n c y

w h i c h m a i n t a i n s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d t e n d s t o p r e v e n t r e g r e s s i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l s e q u e n c e w h i c h ,

w h e r e v e r i t m a y e x i s t a f t e r i t h a s b e e n a b b r e v i a t e d , c o n t a i n s t h e m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o t h e n e ws y m b o l . A n d s o t h e s y m b o l a r is i n g f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n m a y c o m b i n e w i t h o t h e r s y m b o l s a r i s i n g

f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n u n t i l a f ixe d s e q u e n c e a r i s e s , a n d a n e w a b b r e v i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e — a b b r e v i a -

t i o n u p o n a b b r e v i a t i o n ad infinitum. I f w e d e l v e i n t o t h e r o o t s o f a s y m b o l , w e m a y h i t s t r a t a

a t t e r s t r a t a o f s y m b o l s i n e v e r m o r e f ix ed a n d c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r . W h e n d o e s o n e f in al ly r e a c h

r e a l i t y , d o y o u a s k ? I l i k e w i s e a s k . T h e o r d e r m a y b e c o m e s o firm a s t o b e s u b c o n s c i o u s , i n s t i n c -

t i v e , t o b e r e f l e x i v e , t o b e s t r u c t u r a l — t h e s e a r e t h e substrata gestures, o f w h i c h t h e p e r m u t a t i o n s

a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s i n t i m e m a k e u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h e r e is r e a l i t y ? G o e v e n i n t o ce l l s t r u c t u r e

a n d y o u a r e s t i l l i n t h e f i e l d o f s y m b o l i s m .

F o r a s w e r e v i e w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l i f e , a s f a r a s i t is k n o w n t o u s , w e s e e t h a t t h e s e a b b r e v i a -

t i on s o f s e q u e n c e s a r i s i n g b y c h a n c e h a v e l e d t o t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y o f s p e c i e s . A n d a s a m e m b e r

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o f a s p e c i e s b e g i n s t o d e v e l o p , if i t h a s a n e m b r y o n i c s t a g e a t a l l , i t r e h e a r s e s , a s w e a l l k n o w , t h e

e n t i r e p r e v i o u s e s s e n t i a l h i s t o r )- of i t s species in abbreviated order. T h e r e i s n o e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n a n a m o e b a d i s t e n d i n g i t s w a l l f o r a f o o d p a r t i c l e , a d o g d i g g i n g f o r a b o n e , a c h i l d r e a c h -

i n g f o r a c o o k i e , a n d a n o l d m a n c r y i n g f o r b r e a d . T h e y a r e a l l r e a c t i n g t o th e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i n a

d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s . A s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r ,t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f d e f i n i t e i n h e r i t a b i l i t y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r . Y o u d o n o t n e e d t o t h i n k y o u r h a n d i s

l e ss a s y m b o l t h a n y o u r w o r d s s i m p l y b e c a u s e y o u c a n p e r c e i v e t h e m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e in t h e o n e .

T h e e s s e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , m o v e m e n t , g e s t u r e , o r d e r i n g i n y o u r h a n d a r e r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t ; t h e

m o l e c u l e s a r e r e p l a c e d r e m a r k a b l y o f t e n t h r o u g h o u t l if e . L o o k a t y o u r h a n d in th e l i g h t o f e v o -

l u t i o n a n d c o n s i d e r i t a s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n o f m a n i f o l d g e s t u r e s of d e f e n s e a n d a g -

g r e s s i o n t h e r e i n c e n t e r e d , b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e o r d e r o f i t s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d

f u n c t i o n s , a l l i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d , li k e a w o r d , w i t h t h e w h o l e e g o . I n d e e d , w e m i g h t g o o n i n -

d e f i n i t e l y w i t h t h i s t h e o r y , r e g a r d i n g p h y s i c a l d i s e a s e a s i n t e r r u p t e d o r b r o k e n e s s e n t i a l p h y s i o -

l o g i c a l o r d e r , r e g a r d i n g m e n t a l d i se a s e a s b r o k e n o r i n t e r r u p t e d i n s t i n c t s o r h a b i t s , s h o w i n g t h a t

o u r in t e l l i g e n c e a n d r e a s o n , o f w h i c h w e a r e s o p r o u d , h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e

s t a b i l i t y o f i n s t i n c t i v e p r o c e s s , a b a r g a i n o f t h e p a s t w h i c h , a s o u r p r o p e n s i t i e s f o r d r u g s a n d n a r -

c o t i c s i n d i c a t e , i s n o t n o w a l w a y s u n a n i m o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d w i s e . A n d i t i s f ittin g t h a t s u c h a

t h e o r y o f l i f e s h o u l d c o m e f r o m t h e p h i l o l o g i s t , e v e n t h o u g h h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f i t w o u l d b e s o m e -

w h a t f a c i l i t a t e d b y u s i n g t e r m s o f t h e Gcstalt a n d Freudian s y s t e m s o f p s y c h o l o g y , t h o s e t w o

p o w e r f u l s y s t e m s w h i c h h a v e so g r e a t l y a i d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r s e l v e s .

T h e m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t h a s a p o s i t i o n of n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e . H e f i n d s h i s e v i d e n c e a l l

s o r t e d a n d c l a s s i fi e d f o r h i m , e v i d e n c e g o i n g b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s a n d e x t e n d i n g o v e r m i l l i o n s

o f s q u a r e m i l e s , t h e r e c o r d o f b i l l io n s o f m o r t a l s , s t u d i e d a n d o r d e r l y a r r a n g e d b y s o m e o f t h e m o s t

b r i l l i a n t m i n d s o f th e l a s t a n d p r e s e n t c e n t u r i e s . A n d t h o u g h h e w o r k s a l o n e h e h a s a t h i s h a n d

t h e f r u i t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s p e c u l a t i o n o f th e m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s , p h y s i c i s t s , c h e m i s t s , p h i -

l o s o p h e r s t o e n c o u r a g e a n d p o i n t th e w a y . Y e t t h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t u n i q u e a d v a n t a g e h e h a s int h e v e r y n a t u r e o f h i s m a t e r i a l . H e c a n o b s e r v e b o t h b y l o o k i n g i n t o h i m s e l f a n d a t o t h e r s . T h e

p r o b l e m o f c h a n g e a n d m u t a t i o n i s t h e s a m e f o r h i m a s f o r t h e b i o l o g i s t ; b u t t h e l i n g u i s t c a n o b -

s e r v e m u t a t i o n s t a k i n g p l a c e i n h i s v e r y l i f e t i m e w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g h is o b j e c t o f e x p e r i m e n t t o a

s t r a i n w h i c h , i n b e i n g g r e a t e n o u g h t o b r e a k e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r , m a y b e m o r e t h a n s u f f i c i e n t t o

a n n i h i l a t e t h e o b j e c t . H o w e v e r , a l l o f t h i s i s e a s y t o s a y . L e t u s n o w t u r n t o t h e p r o o f . F o r th e

g r e a t p r o b l e m i s h o w w e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h i s t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e la -

t i o n s h i p o f o r d e r a n d e m o t i o n i s t r u e . A n d t h e g r e a t i m p e d i m e n t t o p r o o f is t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t

i n a l l l a n g u a g e s h a l l w e t a k e a s a b a s i c u n i t f o r m e a s u r e m e n t .

F o r t h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n a g r e e m e n t a s t o w h a t t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e is . O n e m a y a r g u e e q u a l l y

p l a u s i b l y f o r s o u n d s , s y l l a b l e s , w o r d s , p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , a n d s o f o r t h , a n d e a c h o n e o ft h e s e u n i t s i s s e r v i c e a b l e , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b l e m . Y e t t h e r e i s n o c o m m o n

b a s i c u n i t w h i c h u n i t e s p h o n o l o g y w i t h m o r p h o l o g y , w i t h s y n t a x , w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . W e

h a v e n o m e a s u r i n g ro d s , s c a l e s, o r w a t c h e s t o s h i f t p i n t s i n t o p o u n d s , or h o u r s in t o m e t e r s . T a k -

i n g s o u n d s a s a u n i t , w e f in d e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -

q u e n c y , t h e l e ss t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s , a s d e f i n e d a n d i l lu s t r a t e d i n P a r t O n e of t h i s p a p e r . T a k i n g

s y l l a b l e s a s a u n i t , e v e r y p h i l o l o g i s t i s w i l l i n g t o c o n c e d e t h a t i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f u s a g e i s a p t

t o w e a r a w a y t h e s y l l a b l e . A n d e l se w h e r e 1 1 h a v e s h o w n t h a t s y l l a b i c a c c e n t — t h a t g r e a t s u p -

p o r t o f f o r m — i s a p t to d i m i n i s h w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y . B u t w h e n w e c o m e t o w o r d s , l e t

a l o n e p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , a n d s e n t e n c e s , w e a r e f r a n k l y a t o u r w i t s ' e n d s . W h a t is t h e c o m m o n u n i t

t h a t w i l l i n c l u d e a l l t h e s e ?

1 Zipf , op. ciipp. 5 ff.

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The com mon unit is a time triangle. W h e n 1 s a y t h a t A i s a n a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r A B C D E , a

s e q u e n c e w h i c h h a p p e n e d t o b e p r e c e d e d b y e v e n t Y a n d f o l l o w e d b y e v e n t Z , I h a v e r e a l l y s a i d

t h a t th e a b b r e v i a t i o n A i s a s h o r t c u t t h r o u g h t i m e f r o m Y t o Z , a n d h a v e g i v e n t h e r e b y a n e x -

a m p l e o f a t i m e t r i a n g l e :

A

/ \

d i r e c t i o n o f t i m e

Y A Z i s s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z . I f o n e s u b s t i t u t e s a n o u t s i d e s y m b o l , X ( s e m a n t i c c h a n g e )

f o r t h e s e q u e n c e , Y X Z i s s t i ll s h o r t e r i n t i m e t h a n Y A B C I ) E Z - I t is s h o r t e r b e c a u s e o n e

e v e n t i n t e r v e n e s i n s t e a d o f f i v e . T h e s u m o f Y A + A Z i s s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z . 1 I f t h e

r e a d e r w o n d e r s a t t h i s , l e t m e a s s u r e h i m t h a t I a m n o t m e a s u r i n g b y s o l a r t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h

s o l ar t i m e u l t i m a t e l y b e l o n g s m o s t d e c i d e d l y i n t h e p i c t u r e . 1 c a n m a k e t h e t i m e o f t h i s t r i a n g l e

c l e a r e r t o y o u b y a l i t t l e e x p e r i m e n t .

L e t m e l o c k y o u i n a n e n c l o s u r e f r o m w h i c h s u n a n d s t a r l i g h t a r e e x c l u d e d . I s h a l l t a k e y o u r

w a t c h , b u t i n r e t u r n I s h a l i g i v e y o u e v e r y t h i n g y o u a s k f o r , e x c e p t a n y o b j e c t b y w h i c h y o u c a n

d e d u c e s o l a r t i m e . I s t h e e x p e r i m e n t c l e a r ? N o w a s l o n g a s y o u a r e e n t e r t a i n e d t h e r e , y o u w i l l

f in d t i m e s h o r t ; w h i l e y o u a r e b o r e d , y o u w i l l fin d t i m e l o n g . I s t h a t n o t t r u e ? B u t , a c c o r d i n g t o

w h a t m e a s u r e i s i t l o n g o r s h o r t ? I t h i n k y o u w i l l a d m i t t h a t y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t s l o w n e s s o r

s w i f t n e s s o f p a s s i n g t i m e h a v e l i tt l e o r n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h a c l o c k , b u t e v e r y t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e

n a t u r e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f y o u r e m o t i o n s a t t h e t i m e .N o w , t h a t s u b j e c t i v e s t r e a m o f t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h y o u s a y t h a t a g i v e n p o r t i o n o f y o u r

l if e s e e m e d l o n g o r s h o r t , s e e m e d t o p a s s e s p e c i a l l y s l o w l y o r r a p i d l y , i s t h e s a m e s t r e a m o f t i m e i n

w h i c h I s h a l l s a y t h a t t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e f o r m s a t i m e t r i a n g l e . I s h a l l c a l l i t psychic time. I

s h a l l s a y t h e u n i t o f l a n g u a g e i s a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h i n t u r n i s a lime triangle in psychic time.

' ' B u t t h i s psychic time i s n o t a b s o l u t e l i k e c l o c k t i m e . H o w c a n y o u u s e i t a s a m e a s u r e ? " ' I t i s

j u s t e x a c t l y a s l i t tl e a b s o l u t e as c l o c k t i m e ; t h a t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o i n t o f th e m a t t e r . I n g o i n g

f r o m Y t o Z b y m e a n s o f A , it t a k e s le s s t i m e t h a n f r o m Y t o Z b y m e a n s o f A B C D E . A n d

s i n ce t i m e i s m e r e l y t h a t b y m e a n s o f w h i c h w e m e a s u r e v e l o c i t y , w e m a y , t h e r e f o r e , s a y t h a t t h e

m e n t a l e v e n t A , b e i n g t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z , is r e l a t i v e l y f a s t e r t h a n A B C D E , b e i n g

a l s o t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z .

W i t h o u t t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n , t h e e v e n t s o f y o u r m i n d r u n , l e t u s s a v , — W Y A B C D E Z —

w i t h t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n t h e e v e n t s r u n —» V W Y A Z - * a n d t h e o n l y w a y y o u c a n t e l l f r o m t h e

s t r e a m of c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e ( o r s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , i f o n e u s e s X

i n s t e a d of A ) i s t h a t t h e r e i s a s u d d e n a c c e l e r a t i o n b e t w e e n Y a n d Z . I f Y a n d Z i n t u r n a r e l i k e -

w i s e a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e r e b y . e n j o y a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e r e i s t h e n n o w a y o f t e l l i n g

1 Cf. A. S. Eddington: The Natura of the Physical World, New Y or k, MacmiHan (1930), pp. H I ft ., for ac l e ar a n d p o p u l a r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m e t r i a n t e i n p h y s i c s . T h i s b o o k , t o g e t h e r w i t h A . N . W h i t e h e a d ' s Sy?>t-

bo!ism, Its Meaning end Effect, New Yo rk, Mac.mi llan ( jg - '7), and Kur t Kof fka 's Th e Growth of the Mind, N e w Y o r k ,H a r c o u r t B r a c o ( 1 9 2 8 ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y h a p p y d i s c u s s i o n s of F r e u d i a n p r i n c i p l e ? w i t h P r o f e s s o r H . A . S h a w a t

Harvard, hive been helpful to me in revamping and expressing the Principie of Relative Frequency, though it haso f t e n b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s o m e of t h e m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Geslalt w i t h t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e .

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t h a t A i s a n a b b r e v i a t i o n e x c e p t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i t d o e s n o t s l o w d o w n . I n e e d n o t p o i n t o u t

t h a t V W Y A Z a r e l o o s e l y o r d e r e d m e n t a l e v e n t s , a n d s h o u l d t h e y t h r o u g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o !

o c c u r r e n c e b e c o m e s u f f i c i e n t l y c r y s t a l l i z e d t o j u s t i f y a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s h o u l d s o m e o t h e r e v e n t

t h a n A b e u s e d f o r t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s h o u l d A l i k e w i s e d i s a p p e a r f r o m o t h e r s e q u e n c e s b y t h e

s a m e p r o c e s s , A m a y u t t e r l y d i s a p p e a r f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d s i m p l y b e c a r r i e d o n i n e s s e n c e b y

t h e a b b r e v i a t i n g s y m b o l s . T h i s i s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f l a n g u a g e t o m y m i n d . A n d " m e a n i n g " i s

r e a l l y w h a t l ie s b e h i n d , or i f y o u w i l l , b e l o w t h e s y m b o l s . B u t b e f o r e w e p r o c e e d t o quality a n d

intensity o f m e n t a l e v e n t s , l e t u s s u m u p w h a t w e h a v e s a i d o n t h e b a s i s o f o u r a s s u m p t i o n s : th e

greater the relative determ inacy of order, the less the relative sp eedy and vice versa. T h o u g h t h i s i s a n

a s t o n i s h i n g s t a t e m e n t , I s h a l l , n o n e t h e l e s s , p r o v e t h a t i t i s t r u e , a s a n a n a l y s i s o f l a n g u a g e w i l l

s h o w .

N o w , i t f o l l o w s f r o m w h a t w e h a v e s a i d b e f o r e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e

g r e a t e r t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e e m o t i o n , f o r e m o t i o n is b u t a l a c k of d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r . V W Y A Z

a re le s s d et er mi n ed in o r d er t ha n V W Y A B C D E Z , e v e n t ho u g h A B C D E a re t h e o n ly

e v e n t s i n d e t e r m i n e d s e q u e n c e . I t s e e m s a l m o s t a s if t h e p e r s o n s w h o c o i n e d u a b b r e v i a t i o n " a n d

" e m o t i o n " w e r e s o m e h o w c o n s ci o u s o f t h e P r i n c i p l e o f R e l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y . W h a t h a p p e n s t o

A B O D E w h i le a b b r e v i a t e d , I d o n o t k n o w ( n o r d o y o u ) . B u t t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a n n i h il a te d fo r -

e v e r i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e i r c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e a g a i n i n t h a t s e q u e n c e i n t h e s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s -

n e s s . S u r e l y s u c h a n e x p o s i t i o n e x p l a i n s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o r d e r , i n t e n s i t y , a n d m e a n i n g , b u t i t

l e a v e s quality o u t o f t h e p i c t u r e . A n d y e t quality i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , f o r i t f u r n i s h e s t h e m o t i v e .

O n e m a y p r o c e e d f r o m A t o B f o r o n e of s e v e r a l re a s o n s . I t m a y b e a n e s c a p e f r o m A b e c a u s e

A i s u n p l e a s a n t ( i n w h i c h c a s e A h a s a n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y ) ; o r o n e m a y p r o c e e d f r o m A t o B b e c a u s e

B i s m o r e p l e a s a n t ( i n w h i c h c a s e B i s m o r e p o s i t i v e o r i s j u s t a s p o s i t i v e w i t h a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f

i n t e n s i t y ) . W e m a y s p e a k o f negative a s fear a n d positive a s desire. A n d t h e s e t w o w e l l r e c o g n i z e d

q u a l i t ie s , a s r o u g h l y a s t h e y a r e h e r e s t a t e d , a r e r e a l l y t h e p r o p e l l i n g m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e s e q u e n c e

o f e v e n t s . W i t h a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f q u a l i t y , w e c a n u l t i m a t e l y g a i n g r e a t l i g h t o n t h i st h e o r y f r o m p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f t h e neurosis , a n d , i f t h i s t h e o r y o f e m o t i o n b e c o r r e c t , t h r o w a

g r e a t d e a l o f l i g h t o n t h e s t u d y o f t h e n e u r o s i s . T h e r e a d e r m a y n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p o r t a n t

r o l e o f q u a l i t y i n l i fe . H e m a y s a y t h a t h e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n i n d i v i d u a l sh o u l d w a n t t o p u t a

n e g a t i v e e v e n t b e h i n d h i m , o r f l e e f r o m a l o w p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y t o a h i g h e r p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y , b u t

w h y s h o u l d h e w i s h t o l e a v e a v e r y h i g h p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y f o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e ?

I n s i m p l e w o r d s , y o u h a v e s a i d " I c a n se e w h y a p e r s o n w a n t s t o e s c a p e a n u n p l e a s a n t e v e n t ,

o r l e a v e a p l e a s a n t e v e n t f o r a m o r e p l e a s a n t e v e n t , b u t I c a n n o t s e e w h y h e s h o u l d w a n t t o l e a v e

a v e r y p l e a s a n t e v e n t f o r o n e w h i c h i s l es s p l e a s a n t . " I n s h o r t , w h y d o n ' t w e a l w a y s d o j u s t w h a t

w e li k e m o s t t o d o ? A v e r y f r e q u e n t q u e s t i o n i n th i s w o r l d ! L e t u s t r y t o a n s w e r i t a c c o r d i n g t o

Relative Frequency. L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e e v e n t h a s a h i g h p o s i t i v e i n t e n s i t y , + A . N o w l e t u sa s s u m e t h a t t h e r e a r e , l i k e w i s e , -f- B a n d + C , d i f f e r e n t , b u t a p p r o x i m a t e i n i n t e n s i t y . L e t u s

n o w r es tr ic t o u r a c t i v i ty t o t h e m : + A - f B + C - f - C + B - f - A + B - | - C + B , e tc . B e i n g

l i m i t e d t o t h r e e e v e n t s , t h e y c a n h a v e o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f p e r m u t a t i o n s . N o m a t t e r h o w

h a r d y o u t r y , w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e t h e y w i l l d e v e l o p s e q u e n c e s , a n d w i t h t h e h i g h r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y

o f t h e s e q u e n c e s , o r d e r w i l l b e c o m e m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d . W i t h i n c r e a s e d c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o r d e -

t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r , e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y b e g i n s t o d e c r e a s e . A n d a f t e r t h e i n t e n s i t y d i m i n i s h e s

f a r e n o u g h i t w i l l b e l e s s t h a n t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o f e v e n t s o t h e r t h a n A , B , C , a n d t o t h e s e

o t h e r e v e n t s y o u t h e n p r o c e e d . F o r a s y o u c o n c e d e d a m o m e n t a g o , y o u c a n e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d

p a s s i n g f r o m p l e a s a n t e v e n t o r e v e n t s t o m o r e p l e a s a n t e v e n t s .

I f y o u w o u l d l i k e t o e x p e r i m e n t i n t h e m a t t e r , p i c k o u t t h e m o s t d e l i c i o u s a r t i c l e o f d i e t , o r t h e

m o s t e x q u i s i t e p i e c e o f m u s i c , o r t h e m o s t r e f r e s h i n g f o r m o f e x e r ci s e , m e n t a l o r p h y s i c a l , a n d c o n -

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g g e y o u r s e l f t o i t d a y o n e n d , w e e k o n e n d . Y o u w i l l b e c o m e t i r e d o f i t ? I a g r e e . F a t i g u e i s a

f t in c t io n o f r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y a n d s e r v e s t o k e e p y o u f r o m i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y t o o

g r t a s X h o p e t o e x p l a i n w h e n I h a v e m o r e a v a i l a b l e s p a c e . B u t in s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t y o u a r e

I n c o m i n g t i r e d o f y o u r f a v o r i t e d i s h o f l o b s t e r t h a t y o u h a v e e a t e n d a i l y f o r t e n d a y s , c o n t i n u e

g a t i n g l o b s t e r f o r a n o t h e r t e n d a y s . A n d n o w h o w d o y o u f e e l a b o u t l o b s t e r ? S o y o u a r e s i c k o f i t

| it d d o n ' t w a n t a n o t h e r ! A f t e r a f u r t h e r t e n d a y s o f f o r c e f u l f e e d i n g o f lo b s t e r y o u w o u l d m o s t

^ f i n i t e l y n o t w a n t a n y m o r e a t a ll . T h e e r s t w h i l e h i g h p o s i t i v e in t e n s i t y h a s b e c o m e a h i g h

itegative i n t e n s i t y . T h i s i s s u r e l y a n e v e r y - d a y p h e n o m e n o n , f a m i l i a r t o a l l . O v e r - i n d u l g e n c e

b r i n g s s a t i e t y . A n d y e t , t o m y m i n d , i t i s n o t h i n g b u t t o o r a p i d a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -

q u e n c y . T h e a t t e n d a n t d e r a n g e m e n t o f t h e substrata gestures w h i c h m a y b e b r o a d l y t e r m e d s i c k -

n e s s w h e t h e r i t b e a n u p s e t s t o m a c h o r c a n c e r o f t h e s k i n , i s i n m y o p i n i o n i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s d u e

t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a b r e a c h i n c r y s t a l l i z e d o r d e r , f r o m w h a t e v e r s o u r c e o r trauma t h a t y o u

w i s h . I n i n c r e as i n g t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f l o b s te r y o u h a v e b r o k e n t h e s t r i c t o rd e r o f t h e e v e r y -

• d a y ; i t i s b o t h t h e i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o n e a n d t h e b r o k e n o r d e r o f t h e o t h e r t h a t l e a d s t o

t h e r e s u l t a n t t r o u b l e . C e r t a i n l y t h e f a u l t i s n o t w i t h t h e lo b s t e r ; f o r c u s t o m a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e

a p p a l l i n g l y d i f f e r e n t a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s a n d e v e r y w h e r e w e n o t i c e t h a t w h a t i s f o o d f o r o n e m a yh e p o i s o n f o r a n o t h e r . I t is r e g r e t t a b l e t o m e t h a t r ig ht a t t h i s p o i n t w h e r e t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l , m e n -

" t a l , a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e Principle of Relative Frequency a r e b e c o m i n g s o p e r t i n e n t w e

m u s t r e t u r n to l i n g u i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . B u t b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o l i n g u i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , l e t m e

s a y h e r e f o r th e s a k e o f a n y m a t h e m a t i c i a n w h o m a y p l a n t o f o r m u l a t e t h e e n s u i n g d a t a m o r e e x -

a c t l y , t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e h i g h l y i n t e n s e p o s i t i v e t o b e c o m e t h e h i g h l y in t e n s e n e g a t i v e , i n m y

o p i n i o n , i n t r o d u c e s t h e d e v i l i n t o t h e f o r m u l a i n t h e f o r m o f V — i . A n d n o w t o l i n g u i s t i c s .

H i g h l y e m o t i o n a l m e n t a l e v e n t s a r e r a r e . I f t h e y a r e o f n e g a t i v e q u a l i t y , t h e y t e n d t o b e r a r e

b e c a u se of a n a t u r a l d e si r e t o a v o i d t h e m . I f t h e y a r e p o s i t i y e , t h e y t e n d t o o c c u r r a r e l y b e c a u s e

o f t h e ir t e n d e n c y t o s h r i n k i n e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y w h e n t h e i r f r e q u e n c y in c r e a s e s . A n d t h e y b y

t h e s a m e t o k e n t e n d t o b e m a n i f o l d i n v a r i e t y . F o r n o t h i n g c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n m e n t a l e v e n t s

e x c e p t m e n t a l e v e n t s ; a n d t h e s e i n t e r v e n i n g m e n t a l e v e n t s w i l l b e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e o r n e u t r a l ,

a n d s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e g e n e r a l l a w s of a b b r e v i a t i o n . T h i s t e n d e n c y o f m e n t a l e v e n t s t o b e r a r e

a n d m a n i f o l d i n v a r i e t y I s h a l l c a l l t h e life tendency. I n s i m p l e t e r m s i t i s t h e t e n d e n c y t o i n c r e a s e

e x p e r ie n c e b y a h a z a r d o u s s e e k i n g f o r t h e n e w . B u t , o p p o s i n g t h e life tendency, w h i c h i n c r e a s e s

v a r i e t y , i s a b b r e v i a t i o n w h i c h r ed uc es n u m b e r w h e n f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s . I s h a l l c a l l t h i s t e n d -

e n c y t o d e c r e a s e n u m b e r a n d v a r i e t y b y a b b r e v i a t i o n w h e n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a s e s , t h e

death tendency, b e i n g w i l l i n g t o a g r e e i f t h e r e a d e r i n s i s t s t h a t t h i s i s r o u g h l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h F r e u d ' s

death instinct, t h o u g h I h a v e n o s p a c e t o a r g u e t h e p o i n t . Life tendency a n d death tendency a r e

c o n s t a n t l y c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g e a c h o t h e r , — e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o n t h e o n e h a n d v e r s u s t h e s t a -

b i l i t y o f m e a n i n g a n d o r d e r o n t h e o t h e r . A s I l o o k a t l i f e , I t h i n k o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e o n e t e n d -

e n c y t a k e s u s f r o m o u r m o t h e r s ' w o m b a n d w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e h a n d s u s o v e r m o r e a n d m o r e t ot h e o t h e r t e n d e n c y w h i c h g i v e s u s s u r c e a s e i n t h e g r a v e . I n m a n y w a y s w e s e e m t o b e l i k e t h e

p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , w h i c h w e a r e t o l d e x p a n d s o n l y t o c o n t r a c t . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f i t b e

t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s t h i s b a l a n c e i n m i n d b e t w e e n t h e r a r e o c c u r r e n c e o f m a n y d i s s i m i l a r e v e n t s a n d

t h e f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f a s m a l l n u m b e r o f e v e n t s , t h i s b a l a n c e i s t h e b a s i c l a w o f l i f e a s w e l l a s

m i n d . L e t u s t r a n s l a t e t h e l a w i n t o t e r m s o f l a n g u a g e .

L e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e , " a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t w e s h a l l u s e a s o u r m e a s u r e t h e t i m e

t r i a n g l e . S h a l l w e c a l l t h e s o u n d s t h e e v e n t s ? I f y o u l i k e ; t h e r e a r e e i g h t o f t h e m a n d t h e s e -

q u en ce i s A B C D E F G H . T h e s e s o un d s o c cu r i n o t h er s eq u en c es , b u t t he ir o r de r i n t hi s s e-

q u e n c e , a s i n o t h e r s e q u e n c e s , i s v e r y f ix ed , a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o f a n y o n e is p r a c t i c a l l y

n i l. S o u n d s a r e m e a n i n g l e s s if n o t f ix ed i n s e q u e n c e s . A n d e a c h s o u n d r e p r e s e n t s p a r t i c u l a r g e s -

[ 2 1 ]

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ta res o i v a r i o u s o r g a n s of t h e m o u t h , p l u s t h e s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h e p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s a r e c r y s -

t a l l i z e d i n a r r a n g e m e n t a n d s e q u e n c e i n t i m e . A s a s o u n d i n c r e a s es i n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y , t h e s e

g e s t u r e s a r e a b b r e v i a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e , l o s i n g , t h e r e b y , w h a t I c a l l consficuousness. S h a l l w e

t a k e s y l l a b l e s a s t h e e v e n t s ? T h e r e a r e f o u r s y l l a b l e s i n " a u t o m o b i l e " a n d t h e s e q u e n c e m a y b e r e -

f er re d t o a s L M N O w h i c h i s r e a l l y a n a b b r e v i a t i on o f A B C D E F G H w h i c h a re s u b s t r a t a

w h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t i s o f s y l l a b l e s . L , M , N , a n d 0 e a c h o c c u r e l s e w h e r e p r e s u m a b l y . T h o u g h

f a i r l y c r y s t a l l i z e d , a c c e n t t e n d s i n t h e l o n g r u n t o h o v e r a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a s I h a v e s h o w n

e l s e w h e r e . 1 L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e L M N 0 , f o r o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , b e c o m e s r e l a -

t i v e l y m o r e f r e q u e n t . A n y o n e , t w o , o r t h r e e o f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s m a y b e a b b r e v i a t e d , t h o s e

g o i n g f ir st w h i c h a r e l e s s e s s e n t i a l , t h a t is , w h i c h o c c u r i n m o r e o t h e r s e q u e n c e s . S o w e m a y t a k e

" a u t o , " o r " b i l " ( as i n I c e l an d i c ) f o r e x a m p l e . I f " a u , " o r " a u t , " o r " t o , " o r " m o " d o n o t o c c u r

a s a b b r e v i a t i o n s , i t m a y b e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l r e a d y a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s y m b o l s o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e

a n d w o u l d l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n , o r i t m a y b e s i m p l y c h a n c e . C a n w e s h o r t e n " a u t o " f u r t h e r ? Y e s ,

b y s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w e c a n s u b s t i t u t e " c a r . " T h i s t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d s u b s t i t u -

t i o n i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e t e n d e n c y o f s h o r t w o r d s t o b e f r e q u e n t a n d l o n g w o r d s r a r e . 2

B u t n o w l e t u s t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e " a s a si n g l e s y m b o l , X , a n d co n s i d e r , a s s u b s t r a t a ,

s y l l a b l e s a s w e l l a s s o u n d s . V e r y g o o d , b u t t h e n w e m u s t h a v e a s t r e a m o f w o r d s i n w h i c h t h es y m b o l X o c c u r s a m o n g i t s f e l l o w s s o t h a t w e m a y e s t i m a t e i t s f r e q u e n c y . I f a ll w e h a v e s a i d

a b o u t Rdative Frequency, a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e b e t r u e , t h e n i n e x a m i n i n g a s u f f i -

c i e n t n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n t h e s t r e a m o f l a n g u a g e , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d m a n y d i f f e r e n t w o r d s

o c c u r r i n g r e l a t i v e l y r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w o c c u r r i n g r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t l y . T h a t w o u l d b e t h e

p r o o f o f t h e p u d d i n g ; a n d i t h a p p e n s t o b e t r u e , r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w i n f l e c t e d o r u n i n f e c t e d t h e

l a n g u a g e m a y b e .

I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e w o r d s o f 20 ,0 0 0 s y l l a b l e s o f m o d e m c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e o f P e k i n g ( t h e

s a m e s e l e c t i o n s o f w h i c h t h e s o u n d s w e r e e x a m i n e d i n P a r t O n e ) . T h e a c t u a l w o r d s w i t h t h e i r

f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e a r e t o b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x C . I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c -

c u r r e n c e o f a l l w o r d s i n P l a u t u s ' Aulularia, Mostellaria, Trinummus, a n d Pseudolus,3 a n d t h e

w o r d s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e s m a y b e f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x A . I n a d d i t i o n ,I h a v e t a k e n R . C . E l d r i d g e ' s a n a l y s i s 4 o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e i n A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s o f

s e l e c t i o n s t o t a l l i n g 4 3 , 9 9 0 w o r d s ( e x c l u s i v e of n u m e r a l s a n d p r o p e r n a m e s ) . I h a v e n o t u s e d F . W .

K a e d i n g ' s 5 e l a b o r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e u n f o r t u n a t e l y h i s r e s u l t s

a r e n o t i n a f o r m s e r v i c e a b l e t o s t a t i s t i c s . B u t K a e d i n g a g r e e s ( p a g e 5 4 f f . ) w i t h m y o w n r e s u l t s

a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e , t h a t m a n y w o r d s o c c u r r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w f r e q u e n t l y . B e l o w a r e t a b u -

l a t e d t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s a n d t h e t i m e s o f t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e , i n C h i n e s e , E n g l i s h , a n d L a t i n —

t h a t i s , i n a n e g l i g i b l y i n f l e c t e d , i n a s l i g h t l y i n f l e c t e d , a n d i n a f a i r l y h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d l a n g u a g e , s o

s e l e c t ed fo r t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e f o r f u t u r e w o r k . U n d e r e a c h l a n g u a g e t h e l e f t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s

t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h e w o r d o c c u r s , t h e r i g h t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s , e a c h o n e

o f " w hi ch o c c u r s t h a t m a n y t i m e s . I n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n C h i n e s e a n d L a t i n

a r e g i v e n t h e n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s . F o r C h i n e s e t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s i n e a c h f r e q u e n c y

w h i c h h a v e o n e , t w o , t h r e e , e t c . , s y l l a b l e s is g i v e n w i t h a s m a l l n u m b e r a t t h e u p p e r r i g h t t o d e s i g -

1 Se e supra, p. 1 .1 Se e infra, p. 23.3 According to the Oxford edition. Th e elision of est w i t h a p r e c e d i n g w o r d i s i n d i c a t e d b y i t a l i c s f e . g . i n o p i a j / ) ;

the elision of es is indicated by apostroph e (e. g. pessum u's). Differences in vowel qua ntit y were not recorded, norwould their consideration seriously alter the statistics, as the reader will see for himself by examining the l ist ofwords in the Appendix.

4 R. C. E ldr i dge : Six Thousand Common English Words, co pyr i ght i g n , pr i va te ly pr i nte d a t N i a ga r a Fa l ls ,N e w Y o r k .

s F . W . K a e d i n g : Haufiskeitsworterbuch der deidschen Sprache, Stegli tz, bei Berlin, 1898.

C a a D

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CHINESE

Number of Words with their Syllables

LATIN OF PLAUTOS

Averagenumber of

Syllables

2046 ( 3 1 5 ' 1 5 7 1 ' 1 4 4 ' 1 4 '

4 9 4 ( n o 1 3 5 8 ' 2 3 1 3 ' )3 1 6 ( 5 9 1 1 4 7 * 9 'to o ( 2 4 1 »' 3 ")

9 9 ( 3 9 l 58 * 2 ')6 6 ( 2 4 1 4 1 * I s )

4 1 ( 1 6 1 25")2 5 ( i o £ 1 4 ' 1 ' )

3 ° ( I 3 1 1 5 * l> I 4 )20 ( ' 3 1 in2 5 ( I 4 l !,•)22 ( I 5 1 7 ' )1 0 ( 6> 4«)

1 4 ( 7 ' 7s

)1 3 ( 5 ' «• )1 0 ( 4' 5 ' i 4 )1 0 ( 6 ' 4 1 )

6 ( 2 1 4 ' )

5 ( 4 ' >•)

5 ( 5 ' )4 ( 3' i 4 )2 < 2 ' !5 ( 4 ' 1 ' )

3 ( 2> **)

4 ( 3 1 1* )4 ( •> 3 ' )6 ( 4» 2 ')6 ( 4 ' 2 ')

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1 51 61 71 8i g

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4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

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4 74 8

4 0

5 °

5 15 2

5 4

5 55 65 86 0

29761 0 7 9

5 1 6

2 9 42 1 2

1 5 11 0 5

« 4

8 64 S

4 03 7

252826

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1 51 6

1 31 4151 61 71 8

1 9

23

2 42 52 62728

2 9

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3 3

3 4

3 5

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3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 3

4 4

4 54 64 74 8

4 95 °S i

5 35 4

5 55 65 86 1

5 4 ! 9J 1 9 S

4 9 22 9 9

1 6 11 2 6

8 7695 4

4 3

4 4

3 63 3

3 1

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i - 2 3 ).92)

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6 0 )

5 3 )

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3 5 )

32)

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'9 )

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(2.18)

(2.08)

(2.00)

(2.05)

(1.70)

6 1-4 2 9 0 7 1 6 2 - 5 1 4 7 1 (1.40)

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n a t e t h e n u m b e r o f s y l la b l e s , t h u s p e r m i t t i n g u s t o s e e t h e t e n d e n c y o f l o n g w o r d s t o o c c u r r a r e l y ,

w h i c h w e s h o u l d e x p e c t f r o m t h e Principle of Relative Frequency a n d A b b r e v i a t i o n . W h e r e t h e

n u m b e r of s y l l a b l e s i s n o t m a r k e d , t h e w o r d s a r e m o n o s y l l a b l e s . I n L a t i n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s e m -

b r a c e t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s o f a l l t h e w o r d s h a v i n g t h e g i v e n o c c u r r e n c e .

T h e a s t o n i s h i n g t h i n g a b o u t t h i s m a r k e d t e n d e n c y i s n o t t h a t i t i s n e w — f o r i t is w e l l - k n o w na m o n g l i n g u i s t s a n d a s s e l f - e v i d e n t a s g r a v i t a t i o n . T h e a s t o n i s h i n g t h i n g i s t h a t i t s h o u l d o c c u r

t o a n y o n e t o b u i l d u p a l a w o f l a n g u a g e a n d m i n d u p o n i t . B u t e v e n m o r e a s t o n i s h in g i t i s t h a t ,

l i k e g r a v i t a t i o n , t h e r e i s n o t o n l y a p u l l t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n , b u t t h e p u l l t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n

I — v a r i e s i n a n o r d e r l y f a s h i o n a s t h e f r e q u e n c y i n c r e a se s . T h a t is , r e g a r d le s s o f w h e t h e r t h e la n -

I g u a g e is h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d o r n o t ( a n d t h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o s h o w t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a ti o n -

' s h i p o f m o r p h o l o g y a n d s y n t a x ) , t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s d e c r e a s e s w i t h a m a r k e d s i m i l a r i t y u p o n

i i n c r e a s e o f u s a g e . B u t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g d i s c l o s u r e i s t h i s , t h a t t h e f o r m u l a f o r a b b r e v i a t i o n i s

a b * = k , a f o r m u l a e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f g r a v i t a t i o n .

F o r w e c a n p l o t t h e s e f i g u r e s o n d o u b l e l o g a r i t h m i c c h a r t s , m a r k i n g o f f o n t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s

t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s w h i c h o c c u r a t a g i v e n f r e q u e n c y , a n d m a r k i n g o f f o n t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s

t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h e w o r d s o c c u r . T h e c h a r t s f o r t h e w o r d s i n P l a u t u s a n d E n g l i s h a r e

g i v e n o p p o s i t e o n p a g e 2 5 . T h e u p p e r c h a r t o n p a g e 2 6 i s f o r C h i n e s e w o r d s . T h e lo w e r c h a r t

o n p a g e 26 , f o r C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s , s h o u l d b e d i s r e g a r d e d . T h e r e a s o n s f o r i t s i n c l u s i o n a r e g i v e n

b e l o w . T h e d i a g o n a l l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e f o r m u l a a b * = k , a n d t h e r e a d e r c a n j u d g e f o r h i m s e l f i f

t h i s d o e s n o t p a s s t h r o u g h t h e i n d i c a t e d p o i n t s w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c l o s e n e s s .

T h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e l i n e a b ! a r e i n a l l t h r e e c a s e s r e m a r k a b l y s l ig h t . I f i t d e v i a t e s i n E n g -

l i s h a t t h e v e r y l o w f r e q u e n c i e s , t h a t i s b e c a u s e E l d r i d g e o m i t t e d p r o p e r n a m e s a n d n u m e r a l s

w h i c h a r e a s m u c h w o r d s a s a n y o f t h e o t h e r s . B u t t h e s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n i s d u e t o t w o o t h e r c a u s e s :

( 1 ) t h e n a t u r a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f e r r o r ; ( 2 ) t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e b a s e d o n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e a n d n o t

s p o k e n o r t h o u g h t , a n d h e n c e t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e l e c t i o n s , i n m a k i n g a n y e r a s u r e f o r r e - w r i t i n g ,

h a v e a r t i f i c i a l l y d i s t o r t e d w h a t w a s t h e n o r m a l c o u r s e o f e v e n t s .Y o u m a y a s k , " w h y d i d y o u n o t a ls o p l o t t h e w o r d s w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s w h i c h , a c c o r d -

i n g t o t h e l i s t s o n p a g e 2 3 , w o u l d m a k e t h e d i a g o n a l l i n e s u d d e n l y j u m p , a n d n o t f o l l o w t h e

s t r a i g h t l in e o f t h e f o r m u l a a b s = k i n t h e w a y y o u i n d i c a t e b y t h e d o t t e d l i n e o n a l l t h r e e

c h a r t s ? F o r P l a u t u s , f o r e x a m p l e , y o u d i d n o t i n c l u d e w o r d s w h i c h o c c u r r e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n

fifty t i m e s . A n d s o t o o , c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , f o r E n g l i s h a n d C h i n e s e . "

Y o u w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e l i n e w o u l d j u m p a t e x a c t l y t h a t p o i n t w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a . ,

f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s a r e c a l l e d f o r . I s h a l l c a l l t h i s t h e scattering point a n d i t i s w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m s o f

s y n t a x , m o r p h o l o g y , a n d s e m a n t i c C ha n g e m e e t . F o r w h e n w e s a y t h a t the square of the frequency of

occurrence times the num ber of word s possessing thai frequency remains constant, w e m u s t p e r f o r c e

h a v e , w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s , f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s w h i c h d o n o t e x i s t . T h i s d e m a n d o f t h e f o r m u l a f o r

f r a c t i o n a l w o r d s i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s u d d e n s p u r t o f f r e q u e n c y w i t h e v e r g r e a t e r i n t e r v a l s i n

b e t w e e n .

T h e c h a r t f o r C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s I i n c l u d e h e r e s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e p r e s e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s e e m e d

i d e a l f o r t h e i n c l u s i o n ( in A p p e n d i x D ) o f t h e f r e q u e n c y l is t s o f C h i n e s e s y l l a b l e s a n d t o n e s , o f

w h i c h I s h a l l m a k e f u t u r e u s e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o w t h a t t h e d e g r e e of i n fl e c t i o n o f a l a n g u a g e i s

p o s s i b le o f r o u g h c o m p u t a t i o n .

I t i s w i t h t r u e r e g r e t t h a t m y s p a c e n o w n e c e s s i t a t e s c o n c l u s i o n , w i t h o u t m y e v e n b r o a c h i n g

t h e q u e s t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a s a p e r c e p t i o n . I f o n e c h o o s e s t o r e g a r d w h a t I c a l l a s e q u e n c e a s a

Galalt, o r t o c o m p a r e m y d e f i n i t i o n o f e m o t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e F r e u d i a n s c h o o l , w e l l a n d g o o d .

T h a t I h a v e n o t d o n e s o m y s e l f i s p a r t l y b e c a u s e I w i s h e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency t o

L 2 4 1

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F R E Q U E N C Y O F O C C U R R E N C E .

O F T H E W O R D S I N T H E

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s t a n d o n i t s o w n f e e t , a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Gestalt, a s I u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ,

d e f i n i t e l y d o n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e p h e n o m e n a o f l a n g u a g e a s I o b s e r v e t h e m .

A n d a s w e h a v e a r g u e d o f w o r d s , s o w e m a y a r g u e of p h r a s e s , c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , r e g a r d i n g i n

t u r n t h e p h r a s e , t h e c l a u s e , t h e s e n t e n c e , a s t h e s y m b o l , a n d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e w o r d s a s s u b s t r a t a ,

e v e n t h o u g h i n d o i n g t h is , o r d e r a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n p l a y a l e s s p e r c e p t i b l e r o l e . T h e w o r d s e e m sr o u g h l y t o b e t h a t u n i t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n w h i c h t h e d e g r e e o f d e t e r m i n a c y o f o r d e r a n d t h e i n -

t e n s i t y o f e m o t i o n a r e w i t h i n s u c h a r a n g e a s t o b e b o t h p e r c e p t i b l e . A n d w h e r e d o e s t h e Prin-

ciple of Relative Frequency s t o p ? I t s t o p s w h e r e n e i t h e r o r d e r n o r v a l u e a r e e x i s t e n t . I n o t h e r

w o r d s i t i s a l l p e r v a s i v e i n l i f e . 1 b e l i e v e t h a t f r o m t h e s i n g l e c e l l t o t h e m o s t h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d

s o c i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s t h e l a w p r e v a i l s t h a t F r e q u e n c y t i m e s C o n s p i c u o u s n e s s i s C o n s t a n t .

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sic simul uideo

4 W o r d s O c c u r 3 0 T i m e s

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4 W o r d s O c c u r 2 9 T i m e s

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1 2 W o r d s O c c u r 2 8 T i m e sfactumforas

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9 W o r d s O c c u r 2 7 T i m e s

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7 W o r d s O c c u r 2 6 T i m e s

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8 W o r d s O c c u r 2 3 T i m e s

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fieri Iuppiter8 W o r d s O c c u r 2 2 T i m e s

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1 0 W o r d s O c c u r 2 1 T i m e s

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2 5 W o r d s O c c u r 1 6 T i m e s

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dudumeiusepistukmfaxofores

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3 3 Words Occur 1 3 T i m e scertumecquidegoneeiiusestisetsi

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iliaistis •istocloqueremanum

minisminusmultanobisnusquam

oculisrebussalutemStasimeuides

3 6 Words Occur 1 2 T i m e s

co rcorded e tdicasdicta

d ie

dotemeloquarfaciasfaciuntgenus

iiiuc

iussitLenomarumemeaemolestusnimium

officiumpudetquamquamquemquamsaluom

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4 4 Words Occur 1 1 T i m e s

capitecertecupiod e mdixitessetfateorfit

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minaemod ismultummutuomn e uostiumpostea

praedícaspuerequadragintareddamrogitasrogoscin

seruomsolettandemueniatuerauerbumuidi

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decet

emitepistuiasEuclioface/ortefrugi

habent

haberehabitathisceistamiubelenoni

meas

milesmiseromiserumnostrumomnempalam

probus

Pseudolusquidumquoniamsaluossanesoror

sororem

sumustenetuaeuiamuideturultro

5 4 Words Occur 9 T i m e s

dedisseeaser eexemplumextempioiaciant

fecifietfuge

gratiahabeasistacistosmeliusmentem

méritomillemodum

moremmoribusmorornatusnihilinimio

nugasobuiamoptumum

perdantPhoeniciumposseproperaFseudolumquoiquam

redderediioga

Scapbasequorsicutsu bterrat u n

uirtuteuoluiuolunt

69 Words Occur 8 T i m e s

aulamcapecensescitoconsiliaconuenitcredamdebetducere

ecquiseheueorum

eo sfacilefecerisfecistigaudeognatusho shuiusibidemistei tLesbonice

magnamagnummalusm e imirumnegotiumnequamoccidiomni

oppidoOS

pectuspedibusperdiditPhiitopostulaspotinpridemproperequaero

rationemruri

ru ssciaasermonemspondeostultethensaurumu a huideoruitamuostrautrum

[ 3 3 ]

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8 7 W o r d s O c c u r 7 T i m e s

a c c i p e r e d a t e fact i s m a t e r p a t r i s s exa c t u n u í d e a e q u e f e c i s s e m a x u m a m pet o s ientaequoms/ d é o s ferre misere p l a n e spesa m i c a dici ñliae m i s i t pot es suisa m i c u s d i c i t o for is m o r e propt er t aceasa q u a m d i c t i s frat er n e q u i q u a m q u a n t i uel i sa r b í t r a t u e genere n u l l a q u e o uenirea u d a c t e r ecast or i l l ius num mo q u i n q u é uia

C a l l i c l e s e loquere int e i lego nup t ias quisque uinocert o epist u la Iouis n u p t i i s repperi uiuerecert um sí erga ius omne responde uiuoc o n t r a eri lege o p t u r o e sciunt uixc o q u i er is Lesbonicum p a r t e m seni u s q u a mcredere fac iat locum pat re seruo u t r u m q u ed a b i t f a c i t o m a n i b u s

p a t r e

126

a c c e p i s t i a u s c u l t o F i d e sa d i r é C a l l i d a m a t e s f o r e taduenis censeas for ibusa d u l e s c e n ti c u n c t a f u e r i t

a e q u e c u r a g n a t a ma g e r e d a b i s g u a t oa g i t d a b i t u r h e ma g r u m d e d e r i s h o m i n i sa l i o d e s h o m o i ia l ios do horu ma l i u s d o m o i n g e o i u malt era m dos int er ima m a b o d u c a m I o n ia m a r e d u c o i p s ia m a t d u o i p s u mamic os egest a t em i t idemamo ris emi iubeoamplius et iamne loqui t uraper i t e faceres lubensaud i facies t udosa u d i n f a c i t e m a i o r u m

O c c u r 6 T i m e s

m a n u f e s t o p r a e t e r s o r t emM e g a d o r e p r o p e s p e c u l om e o s p r o x u m o s t !m o r t u o m P s e u d o l o s ú b i t o

mulier quapr opt er suim u f l í s q u i p p ia m s u m m on a m q u e q u i s q u í s s u m p t un e g a t q u o i u s m o d i t a c e snem inem rat io t eneonequ eo rogas t ib ic inamnescis rusum t r ibusnost ra s sa lua uendidi tnouom sapis ueniooculos sce lest us u idenolim scies uiderepaz sci t u i r ipet i t secum ui t ap lacid e sedulo uoc antpossis sent io uolesp o s t r e m o s i n u s u spraed ico so leo ut inam

161

abis canes gent iumaccepisse cena gerat na d ô n i t a t e m c e s s o g é r a sa d u e n i o c o c t u m g n a t ea d u e n i s s e c o n d i r i o n e m h a b ea d u o r t e c u l p a r n h a b u i taes dedist i hia e t a t i d i c a n t h u i i u sa g e r d i g n u m i a m n eagi t u r d imid ium incedi ta ib at d isper i i in imicos

ai io d ixer is inprobisal i i s doct e inspicerea l i q u i s d o c t u m i r a t u sa m a n t e m e c c e i t a i ia m a n t i e r a s l e n o ne ma m e t e s t n e l e p i d aa m i c i t i a m e z i l o c oa m o c e m C a b u l a m l o q u a ra n u m f a x i n t L y s i t e l e sa p s c e d e f e r o M a c e d o n i oapsent e f ides magist erAt henis f locci xnagnama u f e r a m f u a t m a g n i sb o u e s f u r m a l i sC a l l i c l e m f u r e m m a x u m oC a l l i p h o f u t u r u m M e g a i o n i d e s

O c c u r 6 T i m e s

m e n t i o n e m p e t u n t s i n a mm e t u a r a P h i l i p p u m s i nomet uro Phi lo lac hem siquidemmil i t i p ist r inum sol im i o i m e p o s s i m s t r e n u emult o s possunt st u lt usneuis post ulo suosn i h i lo p o t i s s u m u m t a m q u a mn o c t u p r a e d a m t e n e snost er pret io Theoprapidesnost ra pr incip io t ot um

nost rae probo t r igint anul lam proinde uaenupt ura. prope ras u idea soccasio quaer i t u id isseopere quid que uinopor t ui t quique uirgínemo p t u m a q u o r u m u i t a eo p t u m o r e d e o u l l a mordine rerum unamp a e n e r e u o r t a r u o l u i tpar í t e r saepe uort an tpat r i sc iant uort atp a t r i a m s e c u s u o xpessum e sent ent ia urbepet a m serui uxorpet ere serui t ut em

[ 3 4 ]

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abe&niábeatabinaddecetaderitádhucadueoiadueníetis¿duenientemaquiescente

-as tas: agedumagiteagitisaiebataliasalicundeaUquantumaliquidalíquoalterálterialterumamant

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a h

aiebant

2 9 9 W ords Occur 4 T i m e s

clam facto magtioclanculum factuntt/ maioremcogito f actus malaecommodum famam maxumumconduxit feram Megadorusconsili /erat m e l i u sconsilio ferunt meminicorruptum filia mensescred idi filial meq uecredis frustra meridieculpa furcifer metuontcures fures meumj*currere gloriara minorisdam.no gnatae miseretdanunt gnati miserlsdapsilis gnatum mittamdato gradum mittedatura habeam mitteredaturum habui mittideceat h a e monesdedero heia m o t a mDelphium heri mortalemdemum h e u mortal is

denuo hosce mortuosideum iltae mulieredicat illaec m u c u sdictum indicium neminidiues inímicum nominedivitias ioíuriam nosceredolos insidias nostrodomino interii nouistidormi t u m iauitus nouoduas ipsa noxiamduce istanc nulloducit istinc oblituseadem itaque occepiecfodiam iubes occludeegon iaborem oculiémisse leges o h

erilem legibus onustamerili Ienone oppidumesses Lesbonico orasEucli'onis liber orateuenit liberauit ornamentisexperiar liceat ornataexsequi licebit ornatusextra litteris ostendefac/Iius longe pactumfacinora ludo p a rfactiones magni pars

4 9 2 W o r d s O c c u r 3 T i m e s

a i o argentario carnufexalibi argenteam centum

aliquam arraboni certaaliter atta t ceteraallatum attuli ceterisaltéra audiui ceterumamabit aufer cibumamabunt auribus circumspiceamatorem ausim cluetamicae auxilio coepitamice Baiiionem colasamittat beluam comissatumangiportum beneficium comoediisantenac beneuolentem compellaboantidhac bibam concedamact iquom bibere concessero

anus Calidore. condimentisapstrudam CaUicIi condiunt

apstulerit canem conductusapstuli capio congrediararam capitis conloquar

paruipat ipatiarpaucipauperpedespenesperdidipergeperiisseperiitperitPhilematiumpigetplaceatPolymachaero-

pla^idespopulipopulopossintpossitpotarepotepoteropotuipotuitpraepraedapraesenspraesentipretiprocuJproloquipromisipueripultaboquaerasquamuisquidnam.quiduis

quindecim.quippequispiam.quoiiusquoiusredearnrefertreliquisalternsapio

conlocjuiconspicio

consulerecontemplacopiaitcoquerecordicornicemcredatcrederetcredideriscrepuitcruxcupitcurarecureracurocurram

cursuramcustodesdamni

scelestascelestescilicets d m u ssermonesiessignumsimilesimilissimusSolentsolumspectaspeculumStrobiles u asuamqueSurustabellastaceotalentumtemperitempestas

temp u stergumtotustristuneualideuellemuellesuenerisueniamuenisseueriuesperumuicissimuideamuidisti

uinumu iruirginiuirosuiuisunguentisuolturiosuoluptasuostramuostrumuterque

danistadarem

datadebenturdecerndeindedeliciaedemissisdentesdeturdicesdicitdictodignu'sdiqued isdiuinisdiuites

dixeramdixistidixti

[ 3 5 ]

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4Ô 2 "Words Occur 3 T i m e s — Continued

doleodolisdolodo'iumdominumdonicumdormit

dotisdrachumamdubitasduintdulcee a tebriumecfectaecierriedimeduntegereegetehernelocutusemoriar

em ptaerameruseueueniateueniuntexemplisexistumatexitexpetoexpetuntexturbauitfabrifabulafabulaefabulare

fabularierfaciefacturusfactusffallaciisfamil iafamil iamfassu 'sfaxisfeceroferesf cr m eflagitiumforiformidoFor tu nafugiamfustibusfuturumsfgereregestiographicum

gratiasgregemgynaeceumhabeathabenhabetohabitatio

habitethaeretherbashominehominibushonoremhospeshostisianuaianuamibit

ig n oseasiflinciUorumilluncimpera

ImperiuminaaisinnoxiuminopsinsanuminsidiisinsipientiorinterdiusvnUTtainuenireinuentuminuitoipsamistaeistunci t e

it oiubetiudicemIunoiureiusseratiusseroiussilaníosIaudantlenonislepidislepidumLesbonicil e sliberosliberumliceretlignaliquetlubeantlubenter

lucrimaceEummachaeramagisquemagnuñeemalasmalos

maneammatremmatrimoniummaxumam e lraendariismendaciummentiarmessismetumihiquemilitem ¡litismiserammoraemortuis

mortuosm o sm o xmulieresmulierumnatenatonauemnecauitnegetNeptunenequiorneuoltnoctesquenormenosce

nosmetnostramDOStrisnouissenouosnullumnullusnumerumnummosoccasionemoccepistioccultooccupatusoculumodiooletopinooportereopperiaropgeruareopsignatasopgonium

optutmum/optumusorationemoratoro r ootioseotium

paenissumepaenitetpalliumpar ataparentespañetesparumpaucispaullopauperempeccauipecudespeculiopecuniapeiuspendere

perdasperdídistiperditperductetpergamperpetuompessumpessumispetasPhilulachetempietatempigeatpiscisplacentplenamponepoploposcamposcereposeopossetpossiesposthacpostulatpostulespostuletpoterispotiorpraeceptispraesentepraetoremprimumdumprior

probumprofectuspromisitproraittepromittere

1 1 9 8 W o r d s O c c u r T w i c e

abducere accepti actum adgrediarabduceres acceptum adde adiit

abduceret accersam addideris adleçauit

ab eam u s accerse adducam admjsitabeas accessit adduxi admoenireabibam acd pias

accipiatadeam adsiet

abieritacd piasaccipiat adeas adsiste

abire accubas adferre adsum

accepi accu b at adferret adueniataccepit acerrume adfinem aduenire

propemodumproperoprosusproxumaproxumumpublicopuer

pueropugnampulchrequaerisquaeritasquaeruntquaestioniquattuorqueatquicquidq u k u mquidamquoquamquoquoratemrecipere

reciperecipitrectareddereregemreliquitreperirerepudiumrogessacruficemsalueresaperesauiasce\erumscelussciâtscibamsciboscites e iSeleuciasempiternumsenectasententiamserioseroseruatseruatumseruemseruetseruissimitusinas

solasolessollicitâtsomnissomno

adulescentiaaduorsusaduortasaegreaegrotantaequiusaequoagedum

ageremagimus

speciemsperospondenstasstultas u m a msumes

s u m m i ssump tu ssupersurgesuspicertabéllistantatemereterramtetigit ibisi

totaetriatr i umtuastuorum

tutelamualeuelintuelituelutuenalemuendidisseueneritueniuenbausueniuntuerberasuerberouestisueteraueteresuetusuicinouictuuidenturuidetuillarouirgouiuomuiuosuitiumullumunguent aunguBsu n ounusuoltisuolumus

uostrorumuterutorututuxores

ag i tatagninisagundaeaguntaiuntaliaealienoalienum

aliorumaliquanto

[ 3 6 ]

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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continued

aliquialto

amantumamaraamas

amataresamatonbusambasambosambulacrumamesamiciamisistiamoUminiamoueamplexabereancillasangíportoángulosanimaianimamanimatusánimosannoannonannuosannuman uaperiaperisappareatappeilaboappellareapscesseroapsentemapsentiapsoluamapsolutos

apsqueapstulerasapstulerisapstuiitaquaarbitrarearbitranarbitroarboremarcaarcanoargén tariumargumentoartearteroartibu'

artisaspiceaspiciasastaastasastatoastuastutumAthenasatiamentoattuleritattúlxstiauaritiaauaruaauctoxaudacissume

auíerenauferriaugent

auídis clamoris cupis campse faenoriaunculo clitellarios curas ebrius fallaciamaunculus cogita cu rassis eccere falladasaurem cogitare curriculo ecíecero . falsoauris cogites dabin ecfecturum famaauspicioausu's

cognatos dares ecficiam famemuspicioausu's cognosco das ecfodiebam familiaeau turnen t coloniam daturin edicam íamiliaremau tumo columine debetu r edico farailiaribusbacchanaí coiunt deceptus edictioaem fanoBallioni comedit decretum edidi fan umbeatus comes dedam edit fastiditbeneuolens comeíf dederat edixit faterebénigne comitia dederim educat fateturbibat commendaui dedírnus eduxi faximbibi commentusí dedistin egeris faxitbibite comminisci dedíta egredere feceritbonaque commit ta m deferam egreditur fecissetbonos commoda deferre eire feminabonus commode defodit eiulans fertbonu-rf commutet defrudaui eloquor ' fideicadam compedis deludif icatuj í eraere öducia

cades compendi demonstrauit emigrauit ßduciaecáelo concede demutabo emptae fidusCalidorum conceptis denique emuuxti fieretcalidum concíliarem dent enicasso fiuntCallicle concrepuit derisum enicem fiescallidum condalium deseram eodem loderecanto condam deserunt eosdem foeduscapiamcapias

coüdecet desinat erant fretusapiamcapias condidi desponde erimus fructuscapiatur condimenta despondisse errabo frugemcapillum condio deuorti erras frumenticapiti condita dice erunt fucaram conducibile diceret eruom fuerantCarysto conductor dicuii t essent fueratcassam confer differam esto fugiatcastigatorem confido digitum Euclionem fugis

cauere confregi dignam EucHoni fumuscaui confregit dígnis eumpse fundituscaussae conspectu dignumj/ eumque fustemcaussaeí/ conspectum dignus euocem futuracautum conspicatus díscipuiis exanimatus gallocedit consuadet distrahitur excruciari gallumceiata consulis diui exercitor gaudiiscelatum consulit diuidere existumo gerecenat consutis díuinam exite geritcenseam conueniant diuitem exitium germanamcenseat conueniunt diuitiis exorare gesseritcensebam conuiuarum dixerit exorari gestacensen conuiuas dixero exoritur gladiumcensuí conuiuis dixin exarna-uit gloriosumcera copia dixisse experior gnatacerebrum coque doce experiri grandem

cernitur coquinatum docta expetis grandiscerti coquinum docuit expetit gulamcertiorem coquo doctos exprobras gutturemcerussam coram dolet exsolatum habeboceteri corium doli exspectatus habemusCharine cornix dolorem exspectetis haberemCharinus corona dominus exstinguere habenCharmide coirumpit domisí exta habitarechlamydate coruos dono fabrorum hahitochlamydatus crapulam dormiam facerem harumcircum creaa nt dormiens faciamus harunccircumspicedum credas dormitet faciet bastíscita crede dormiunt facílem herbacitius crederem dotaüae faciiesí hoccirteciuibus cribrum d uc faciundum honoreciuitas crucior ducat facta« honoris

clamas cubitum ducis facti hortumclamat cultru m duorum facturura hospitemci ami tant euncti duritia factu' s hospitiumclamore cupiat eae faenore hostíbus

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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continue^

iamdudumibisignemignisignobilisiliacillasillastillequidemillisceillosimagineimaginemimperasimperatumrtimperauitimperiaimperoimpetratumimpetrauiimpleuistilmprobiimpulsuincedereincenatusincipitindequeindicemindignumindiligensindoctusindustriainestineunteinfamiaminfectuminfelizinfitiasingetiiingereinhiat

inicereinimiciinimicisinopiaInopiaminprobiinprobiorinprobuminprudensinpuneinpureinquitoinridereinridesinsciensinstituí

intemperiaeinterestinteruisamintrainueniaminueniatinuenio

louemipsuSKáiremistaistiusistoitaneitur

iubeam

iura memorem nominatiusseram mendacia nouaiuuentute mensa nouistiniuues meopte nouitiuzta mercatus nudiuslabore mercedem nugarilabra mercedis nugatorlabris mercimoni nullustlacrumas merenti nummuslacrumis meres numquislaetus meriti nutricemlapidem merui obiurigemlatum meruisti obnoziuslegionem metuas occasiostlegiones metuere occidamlepidam metuit occidisLesbonicus míhiraet occidistilibera mihis/ occipiasliberare militarem occludamlibere mina occupaboliberi minimi occupesliberis minimo ociuslinguam minore octogintaliquido mira od ilitterae miror odos

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[38]

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1 1 9 8 Words Occur Twice — Continue^

rectamreetiusredreddetredditeredditurredeattedii

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scietscires

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turbaturbare

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uirum

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uoluisseuoluntateuorteuortituosmetuosteruostrasuotatuoteturbemusuiutamurutendamutereutimurutram

6429 Words Occur Once

abalienareabalienarierabalienaturabdideruntabducantabducasabducatabducetabducitoabduciturabducturumabducturusabduxisseaberataberisabesabeundumabeuntabieruntabhincabiboabiectasabieroabiisseabiissesabiistiabimusabiretahit

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accubans adaxintaccubantis adcurareaccubes adderesaccubitum addideroaccubo addiditaccumbas additoaccumbe additumaccumbere addituraccurarier adducaccurassis adduceremaccusas adducite

accusem adduintaccusites adduntacerui adduxitaceti adegeroacidissumi ademitacie aderatacrem aderoacriorem adessesacriter adessunuitacrius adesteacta adeundiactam adeuntactast adfatimacturu's adíectatacturus • adferaculeus adferat

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adsentaboradsentari

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1198 W o r d s Oc cu r Twice — Continue^

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aerumnasaerumnisAeschinumAeschrodoraaestateaetatisaetatuiaaetatulamaeternumafluamag antAg ath ocl emAgathocl iag eb atagetisa g i

agitandumj/

agitantagninamagnoagnosa g o u sagrumqueagundamahena

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amoliriamolirieramoreamoresamoriamorinamoueremamouerim

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annisannonaanno r u mannusarvtecesserisantemnasanteueniatantepertaantepotensanteuenianteueniamAnth r axantidiboantiditAntimachusantiquaantiquaeantiquamantiquisantiquoantiquosanu*anuianuliaperientaperioaperitinaperiunturapertasapisciturApollo

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aurumquespicioasseres ausculta b oassus auscultan*a s t auscultasastate auscúltateastitisse auscultesastíterunt ausumastrinxeris aususa s tute autumasatríensem autumaui

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a u i l u s

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blandís cantas cautoblsuditerne cantat cautosblanditur cantharus ceciditblandios cantheríis cecideroblandus cantores Cecropioblandurf ca n trices cedisblitum caperratam cedodumborabax capessere ceduntbonan capesses celebrabonasque capitale celembone capitali celerebonisne Capitolio celerembonítf eapitur ceJeribonumíí capiundas celeriorbos capram celeriterbouem capsit celeriusbracchia capta celesbracchium captandums/ celobrassicam captas celocembreuis captat cenaenebreuem capti cenandumbubula cap ti 0 cenasbubulam captioni cenati

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Callidamatem caudicali CharrnidatusCallidamati caueam CharmideiCallidemides caueant Charmidicallidiorem cauebo cblamydeCallimarchus cauendum cblamydemCallinicus cauendumrí choragoCaUiphone caueo ChrysidemCaUippus cauerem cibocallum caueres cibujíCampanica cauero cícímandroCampans cauet CUiciamcampos cauiiiam cínaeduscáncer caupones círcitercandef acere causificor circumcircacandida caussam circumdaricandido caussasi circumdücamcandorem cante rircumducatcantantem cautiojí circumducecantari cautiores circumspectabam

5429 Word s Occur Onc e — Continued

circumspectatcircumspectatrixcircumstabantcircumuectusdrcumuortantcircumuortorei scisteüatricescitiscitusicjuemciuiciuisciuitateclamaclamitatíoíiclamoclamoresclaraclaramclaroclarumclaudamclaudus

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confugisticongerronemcongerrones

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congeruntcongestaecongestumcongialemcongl iscatcongrediricongriocongrionec o n gram

cohibcrentconicereconiecitconiecturaconiuentconiunctusconlaudantconlaudeconlegitconl ibitumconligatisconl igiconl inuntconlocataconlocauiconlocem

coal ocetconlocutu 'sconlutulentetconqueriturconquerorconquiescereconquiestitoconquiniscetcooquiniscitoconrepseritcoosciusconscribitoconscriptamconscriptisconsectarierconsenserunt

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6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c

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demeretdemeritasdemeruideminuamdemonstra t a edemonstretisdempseratdemumí/demutantdemutauitdenegemdenisdenosdentatumdenumeratodenumerauerodeorsumdeorumdeosquedepellardependídeperitdeplorabundusdepromedeponatdeportatumdeporteredeposiuitdepromidepromptumdepugnatdeputasderepente

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O c c u r O n c e — Continued ,

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6 4 2 9 W o r d s

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eueniunteuentuseugepaeeundemEunomiaeunteuocaeuocaboeuocadumeuocaremeuocateeuoluam.euomunteuortateuortisset,euortit

exactuscxaedificaretexaedificatasexaedificauissetexamussimexaudiatexballistaboexcesserisexcetraexcideruntexcietexcipiesexdssosexd u i texclamaiexclamemexcluditoexcruciantexcruciorexcucurreritexcuratoexcusareexcuscmusexcutedumexcutiuntexdorsuaexeatexedintexegerimexegitexemi

exemplaexemploexercentexercitumexercitusexeundumexheredemexhibamexhibentexhibesexiboexigasexigatexigereexiiexillis

exinexindeexis

èxistumaexistumasexîtexmouetisexoptatissumeexoptemexoriaturexorarier

exordiriexoremexomasexornataexoraatisexornatumexornaueroexorneturexomoexortusexossaboexóticaexpediamexpediantexpelleexpensiexpensoexperirierexpertemexpertusexpetamexpetantexpetasexpetebantexpetessamexpiareexpietisexplica t a mexploratoremexpolitaeexpoli un texpostulareexpotumerpressamexprobremexpugnatumexpugnauitexpugnoexputemexquaereexquiraturexquireexquirendiexquirereexradicitusexsignaueroexsiliatis

exspectabamexspectareexspectatexspectatiorexspectesexspectoexspuantexstatexstillentexstinctumexstinguiexstruitoexsulatumexsurgeexsurcexiextempulo

extentatumextergeextimueras

C 4 3 ]

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ext is feras fluontextoll i feratur focoextol lunt ferebat focumextrudit ferentar ium fodiextrusisti feret foedarime x t u d i feriam foedee x t u r b a ferias folleme x t u r b a s t i ferio fontemexuuiis fer i t forabunt

exussum ferocem forentf a b a ferratile f o r m a lf a b e r ferreis formicisfabr is ferret formidasf a b r u m ferriteri formidolosasf a b u l a b i m u r ferriterium forsfabulatas i ferritribaces fortassefabulor ferrum fortemf a c e t e fertur fortisf a c e t i s feruefaciunt for t i terf a c i e b a t f e i u o n t fortuitofaciem fest ínate f o r t u n a b u n tf a c i e n t fest ine fortunamfacÜJumum fest inet for tunasf a c i m u s fest ino fortunatamf a c i n festo fortunataque

facinorum f e t a fortuna tasfacit is 6 am fortúnatef a c t a m fiamus fortunatorumfa c t i o fictor fortunatusfact iosum fictorem fortunatu 'sf a c t i u s f jcturae frangatfacto;/ fideli frangeref a c t u fideliam frangí tisf a c t u r i fidelis fratef a c u n d e fideli tasqu e fratremfaeceos fideli tatem fratr ifaenor is fideliter fraudefaenusculum F i d i fraudemf a l a s fidicinas fraudulentafa l laciae fido fraudulentefallere fierem fraus

fa l l is fierent fricarif a U u n t fieres frígidaf a l s a filias f r i tfa ls id icum finem fronsfa ls is firma frontemfalson firmiora frugaliorf a m a e firmiorem frumentar i isf a m a s firmitate frumentof a m e firmi tatem f r u m e n t u mf a m e q u e firmum frustraminif a m e s firm us frustrat ionesfamigerat io fissile frutexfamigerator i fissorum fuantf a m i g e r a t o r u m &xae fuasfamil iar i ter flabelliferae fucof a r t i m flagitabere fu ef a s flagitare fueramf a t e a r flagitator fuerisf a u c e s flagiti fueruntf a u c i s flagitio fugamf a u s t a flagris f u g a tf a x e m flagritribae fug a tisfebr im flammarii fugerefecer im flare fugerequef e c e r u n t fleam fuginf e c i m u s •fleas í u g i tfe lat f lentem fugita tfeliciterque fleueris fugitiuamfel ix fioccum fugit iuefemin as floreas fugitiuo;/feniculum fluctibu' fugitoremf e r a n t fluctus f u g i u n tferare fluctusque fuist i

6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued

fu itne glandium hereditasfulgur itae gloriae heresfullo gnaruris hesternumfullones graderere hibernafullonius gradibus hicinfulm entas gradie tur hieinefundamento gradu hiememfundamentum Graece hi lar ifundes grandinem hi larus

fundis grandibo Hilur icafundus gtandior hircumfungar is graphice hircusfungatur graphicus hirquinafungi grat iae hiscuntfungino gratiasq ue historiamfungit grat i is hiu lcafurandum grat is hocinefuratu m gratulator hodie;/furcil les g ra turn holerafur ibus grauabor hol i toresfur inum grauar is bolusfuru m graue m hominirffurt i f icas graui ' homo'sfust i grauida homuncul igalea grauior honeste

Gal l ic is grauiter honestetgal l ina g rauius hom ogallinácea greges Honorgal l inacio Grum io honor igall inacius gurguliorf honosgall inae gustare horagallus gus tato horriolagarriré gus taue rit horridularumgaudeant gu tta hort igaudeas gutta m hospitegaudent gym nasium hospit igaudere gym nast ica host iasgaudia habea nt host icasgaudüsque habeb am bost i l ibusgaudium habebis host isnegemit i habem ur huccine

gemitu habeon huiusmodigenera h abitas humanigenere;/ hab itatum humanisgener ibus habitauit huncinegenerum habitent iaceamgeniumque habit i iaceantgens habituru m iacebisgentium;/ habituru;/ iacentemgenua habitus iacentisgenuerunt habuer im iaceregerat habuist i iac iturgeratur habu itne iactar igerebat haecine iamquegeretur haec j/ ibamgermana haba e ibasgerrae haha hae ' ibatgerundu m hallec ibir/Geryonaceo hamu m ibiturgessi hapalo pside ictusgessisse ha ra idcircogess it har io lus identidemgestam harpa ga ideogestant harpa gatum idnegestandu;/ harpagauit idoneumgestas Ha rpage idoneusg e s t a sl b a i p a g o l a s o n e mgest ire He dyl iu m ignarissumisgest is herbasqu e ignauigestores herbis ignauiagignitur hercle;/ ignauiamglabrae Herculem ignauissumusglabr iorem Hercules ignauomgladio Hercu l i ignauos

[443

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-jgnorandurfgnlgnoscor^gnota

jgnotam

"Hffcet"ílianc1 íllef/

UJidnej/ifflic'í/

lllisíaiocImagoImberimbre-¡¿ibremqueímbres

4mbncesqueímbrimimbuasynmigratíjmmgrauiinmutare

^mmutassisimpeliereimperaboimperata

-imperatorimperatumímperauerimimperesímpetusimperioimperiosusimperitasimpertió

-impertitimpetrabilisimpetrabit

impetrareiiopetrariimpetrassereimpluatimpluitimponamimporiasimponenturimposisseimpulsorimpulsoreimpuneinaneminaniisinanilogistaeincedo

inceduntincenatiincendesincendorinceptatincertaincertiincertoincertumííincessiincidíindpissisincitasinclementerinclutaeincohatam

incoiaeincommode

incommodiincommoditatesincommoduminconciliareinconciliastininconsultuincrepitauitincumbatincursentincusincusesincutíesindagatorindagetindaudisseindaudiueritindicabisindicantindicareindicassisindiceindidemindidiindidit

indignisindipiscesindipiscorindue tiindolesindomitoindotataindotatamindotatasinduiturinduntindusiariiindus triaeindustriisindus triorinduxeris

induxeruntin 'inepteineptusineusebemeinfamisinfectainfectoresinfensaeinferiinferioreminfertinfidelisinfiduminñtinfortunioinfortuniuminfumoingeniaingenuomingerimusingredereingrediriingrediturinhiauitinhonestisinibisinicitiniecistíiniimusinimico

inimicusiniquióreiniuria

6429 Words Occur Once — Continued ,

íniuriuminiusteinlexitinlocabileminluuiesinmaneminmemorinmemoreminmoeneinmortaleinmortaliainmortalisínmundusinmuniinmunisinnocenteminopeminopia^inpiainpiuminportunaminpotiinpransusinproba

inprobaeinprobeinprobioresinprobissumuminprudenteininprudentiinpudensinpudiceinpuraeinpura-teinpurisinqueinquinauiinquitinrideasinrideat

inridetinriquain ructasinsaniaminsaniaequeinsanininsanisinsatietatibusinscendaminscienteinscitainsciteinscitissumusinscribitinsepultuminseruibisinseruireinsidianturinsimulasinsipiensinsipientiaj/inspectasinspec tasqueinsperatainspiceinspiciatinstipulatusinstrenuosinstruereÍnsulaÍnsulas

insulsuminsuperintegra

integumentum iocus laetitiaintellegara Iónica laetitiasintellegas Ioue laetointellegere ipsissumus laeuaintellegis ipso lacuamintellegit ipson lamberasintempestiuos ir a lamentareintende iram lanariusinterbibere irasci latiiiinterbitat irati languoremintercedat irato linternaintercepi iratum lapidesinterduim ires lapidiinterdum iret laqueointerfecero isque Lareminterfjciant isse largeinterfieri is t largiriinteribí istacin largiter

largitu'snteriit istacinelargiterlargitu's

interimam istest Lariinterminatusí istiusmodi Iaruaeintermissum istocine lasciuiaeintermortui istorum laserpiciinterpellatio itan lassus

interpolare iterant lateinterpoles iterari latebisinterp retari iterum latebricolaruminterpretes itidemque latebrisinterrogare itinera latebroseinterrumperc ituruí* latentinterstringam iubeat laterainteruias iubebis latesinteruorteret iubebo Iatitabatintestina iuben latiu'intestinis iubent latrocinatuminstituta iuberes latuintolerabiles iubeto latuitintolerandum iucundumíí lauabointroiérit iudex lauatintuli iudicare lauatio

intuor iudicium lauationerainuasit iudico lauatuminueneris iugis laudariinuenerit iuisse laudasinuenero iunculae laudasseinueni iurando laudauisseinuenias iurandum laudeminuenies iurauistin laudentinuenietis iuratori laudisinuenimus iuratus laudoinuenires iussisse Lauernainuenisse iusta lauiinuenisti iustus lauisinuento iuuabo lauitinuentu iuuas lautaqueinuenturum iuuerit lectaeinuentu's iuuentis lectisterniatorinuestigare . iuuentutem lectoinuideat iuxtaque lectusinuident labella lectusíinuidere labellis legaminuides labitur legeiitinuidia laborent legerupainuidus labores legerupaminuisam labori legioniinuises laboris legisinuitet labos lemniscosinuoca Lacina lenaminuoco Laconicam lenoniaminuolem Iacrumam lenoniuminutilem lacrumans lenoniumí/

iocaris lactibus lenoniusioculo laetantem lenonumiocum laetiñcantur lepidas*

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6 4 2 9 W o r d s

lep idi \uc'i maVi&cusIepidissume lucrifuga s malimIepidissummn lucta tor maliqueJepido luculentu m malitiamlepid us luc us roalitias/leto ludam malorumleuem ludere malumqueleues ludibundu s malum;/

leuiorcm ludicram malu;/l ibe l la ludl f icabo mamm iculalibellai ludific at mandassel ibe llam ludif icatorem mandata;/l ibel lo ludif icatu ' mand atusliberam ludvficatust mandatus/l ibérant ludif icauerit maneatlibérasse luditicetur man eboliberasso ludimu s manerelibera;/ ludiu;/ manesnel ibérât ludus manicasliberate lumb rice man iplatimliberaui lupos mansil iberet lupus man tantl iberorum luscus manubriumliberosque lustrantur manufesta

l ibertam lut i tan t manulear iil ibertas luto manuleatamlibrara luto;/ manum ;/l ibro lutum manuplaresl icentiam iuxantur manuplar isl icetne Luxu r iae marel icetque Lyco nides maril ictum;/ macchaera marial ignean maccidem marisl imbularü Macedoni mar itumisl imen Maced onia Massic il iaeam Macedoniensem mastigiaeUnguis Maced onius mater iaelin teones ma céran t matrona el inteum macero matronarumlinum macet matronisl inquere Mach aer io matulal iqueant machinas matulamliquida mac tant maturaliquidu-r/ mac tari ma tura mliquitur macto matu ratel i tat ionem madeam mauel iml item mad efactat is mauel isl i t teram maden t mauel i tl i t teras madeo mauisl i t terasque mad et mauololocassem madide maxum aslocass im madidum maxum ilocata madulsam maxumi;/locos maerens meailoco;/ maerore meanlocuples maeroris meaqueIocutus maest i t iaeque Med ea

longae maest i tudoque mediamlongi maestur i medicaboIongissuma mage medicamentolongo magisterio medicoloquaces magnas meditabarloquendi magnisque meditaborloquentis magn uâcus meditat iloquerer magn us medita tu mloquer is maiiores mcditatuslora malaque medul l i tusloris malcdicis meherclelubeat malefacta Mel inu mlubentissum o maie fi ce mellamlubitu m maléficos mellil laelubu it malef icura mem entolucem maleque meminerunt

lucernam malesuada meminist i

OccurOnce — Continued ,

meministin mimtare mordicibusmeminit minor morermemorarier minusculum morimemorat mirabilis morigeraememorato mirare morigeru'smemoret m i r a n moriormemoriam miremini morologism en mirimodis morosmendacem mi rum;/ morososmendaci loquius m is morsmendaci loquom Misargyr ides morsiunculaemendax miscent morta lesmendicabula misceres mortar iummendicare misces mortemmendice misera mortuamendicis miserae mortuammendico miseras mortuomendicus misereret mostram e n s misereri mostraremensam miserescat m o u e a n tmense mÍ5eri mouesmensulam miseriae m o u e tmensum miseras m u c c imentiré miser itumji muíamentís miserius mulcar i

men ti tu;/ miseros mulcetmeosque miserrume mulimequidem miserrumeis mulierculammera miserrumus mulieremquemera;/ mi se rum;/ mulsimercatum misi m u l t a b omercatura misisse multaemercaturan misissem multammercede;/ misisset multasquemercimonio missus multauitm e r c u í mist i muí t imerear mittatur mult i loquommerendam raitteres mult ipotentim e i e n s mitteret multoquemerere mitt imus muñerameret mitt is munerigerulí

meretricis m i t t i t m u r m u r â tmeretricium mixtum murobatbar i imeretur modesti murr inammerita modest ia murummeritam modes tiam musicemeritus modicis mussar imeritu;/ moenia mussitabasmeruerunt M o l a s m u t a b i tmeruisse moles tam m u t a mmerum moles tiaeque

molestu'smutt ire

messemmoles tiaequemolestu's m u t u a m

messim molestu;/ mutuism e t e i e molles m u t u m i fmetimur mollior myropolaem e t i t moUiter nacm e t u a n t mollitiis nactus

metuculosa molocinarii naeniam e t u e b a m mone nanctu 'sm e t u e n d a moneas naremetuis monendu's narrabitm e t u s m o n e t narrabom e u ' s monstra narrasmigrare monstrare narratm i g r a t monstres narratominin montem narrauimi l ia montes narretmil iens moramur narromilitariis morare natalemmilitaris m o r a t u r n a t imilitem moratus natumüuinis morbo naturamiluom morburn n a u i

miluos morbus nauis

C 4 6 D

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J , . :

;

ií u '

I

ûebuJamaecdumâecessitasiiecuilum

"'negabonegauit

negiegens»RegentesBeglegentiaméegleçere

. aegotiisnegotionegotiosus/negotis/negotiums/lientNeptuniNeptunonequams/

-. nequaquam. nequeat: nequeunt

Nerineruo

nesdatnescioquidnescioquoaesciuntneutrubinidoricupinihilís/nimiaenimiasnimioquenimirumniteantnitidiornitidiusculenftidiusculumnitoremnitunturniueaobilerfnobilisnobiscumnoceasnoceatnocetnoctemnoctesnoctisnoenum

nolebamtiolintnolitnoluinominaboüomininonumnoramooscitatnoscocosquenosse

nostramonostrinostrorum

üostros/notaüotisüotisque

nouamnouaruranouasnouercamnouerisnouerisnenouerit

nouiciumnouorumnoxnoxianunubantnubentnucemnudanugacissumenugaenugamininugarenugatoremnugatorinugatorias

nugatoriumnugaturnugigerulisnugisnullinuUiw'nullums/numerasnumera ta enumeratisnumeratumnummisnummorumnumnamnumquinundinales/nuntiaretnuntiasnuntiatenuntiesnuntietnuntieturnuntiinuntiumnupsístinuptanuptiaenusquams/nutricenutrixobambulatum

obdormiuiobducamobestobicereobiciasobiciturobiciuntobiectareobiectasobiectasíobiectentobiectesobiurgandusobiurgansoblectemoblinam

obiitumobnoxiosobnoxíosaeobojuisti

6429 Words Occur Once — Continuedobrepatobrepserisobrepsistiobsonasobueneritobuolutoobuortatoccasiuncula

occedamusoccepistisoccepitoccep turns/occessitoccideretoccideritoccidimusocciditoccidoroccipiamoccipiatoccipítiooccisaoccisus

occlusaocclusaeocclusioremqueocclusiiocculantoccultabooccultandaes/occultatumoccultassisoccuitumocculuntoccupassisoccupatooccupatu'soccupauitoccupiasoccurritoccurroocelleocclJooceliu'soculataoculeusoculicrepidaeoculisqueoculusoderitodiosasodiossaequeodiosusodorem

odoresoffendamofficiooffiganturoffudamoffusamoggeruntoh eolentoleoolesoliuioliuomOlympicoomineomittis

ómnibus/onerabi'oneratonere

oneremonerisonusoperaes/operamqueoperas/operi

operirioperitoopibusopifexopinioneoporteatopperiamopperiareopperiboropperireopperituiopperitusopplebooppletaeoppletusopponam

Opportunitasopportuniusopportunumopportnnusoppressiunculaeopprimâtopprimituropprobraopprobrarieroppugnandooppugnasopsaeptas/opscurasseopsecraúeramopsecrauissetopsecrauitopsequentemopsequentisopsequiop se rendoopseriopseruaboopseruauitopseruemusopsessoropseuerisopsidioneopsignatamopsignatoopsistiopsit

opsonateopsanariopsonauitopsoniopsoniumqueopstantopstinauitopstringitopstrinxerooptegereoptempéremoptemperasoptinesoptiooptrudereoptrunco

optuerieroptumamoptumasoptumas/

optumisopturatopulentiaeopulentioresopulentissumusoraboorant

orasqueorationeorationisoratios/orauitordinemorditurordoor eorgiorumorituroriundiornatumossaostendamostenta rier

ostendiostentatostiootiosseotiosusouesouispacempaciscipactapactampactas/pactionempaedagoguspaenulasípalams/pallampallaspallíopalliolatímpallíos/palpumpanempañispanticesquepantopoüumpapaueFempapillarumparabitparaboparare

parasiteparasitosparasitusparatparataeparatas/paratisparatragoedatparatumparauiparcereparciorparcissumumparcuntparentparerem

paripariantparietemparietum

pari ta sparricidaparsiparsimoniaparsimoniaeparsisparsissempartapartasparteparticepsparturaparturitparuaparuisparuistiparuolusparuomparuoms/pascitepassimpassumpastum

patagiariipateantpatefecipaterepatererpaternampaternipaterquepatibulatumpatientiapatientissumums/patinispatiorpatiundapatiundums/patres

patriapatriumpatronepatronopatronumpaucapaucaspauciorespauciorumpaucorumpauepaullulumpauperantpauperculumpauperioris

pauperiorumpauperispauperrumumpaupertatepaupertatempauperumpauxillopauxillulopaiurillumpeccarimpeccatapeccatumpeccauistipectoripeculiarispedisequa

pedísequospeiiurarepeiiurauistipeiiure

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5 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued

p e n u npeiiurissumepeiiuriuspeiiuspeiorPel iampellegopellcrem

pellispellucetpendampendeantpendenspendentempendespendetpendispendopenetrarempenetrauipenetrauitpenituspensilempeperceris

peperissepeperitperambulaperacuitperbeneperbitereperbonamperbonoperbonumpercepipercolespercontaberepercontaripercontarierperculsu;/percussi

percussissespercussitpercutiamper d atperdeperderesperdideroperdidiciperdidisseperditaperdocesperdocteperduellibusperduellisperduimperduxeruntper eatperegriperegrinaperegrinosperegrin u mperegrinusperendieperendinum•pereoperfacileperfecerisperferamperfidiamperfidiasperfidiisperfossorper f r ig ef ad t

pergere

pergitepergitinpergraecamineipergraecaminipergraecaripergraphicusperguntperhibeatur

periclipericlum;/periclopericuloperiissemperiissesperindeperireperisperistromataperitissumusperlongums/permadefecitpermanascerepermanauitpernam

pernegarepernegatpernegopernouipernouitperaixperperamperpessu'sperpetiperpetiarperpetíorperpetrauiperpetuaeperpétuâtperp lacentperplexarierperpluantperpluitperpluontperpotasseperpotauiperscrutaborperscrutatusperse rutauipersentiscatpersequorperspectaperspexiperspicuepertegitoperterruitpertimescitpertundat

perturbâtpertussumperuenantperuenerisperueneritperuenistiperuiam;/peruigilatperuiumperuolgatunLî/pessuiispessumapessumu'spestepetasopetasus

pete

petetpetispetitumPhaniscepharetramPhiiemoPhilemoniPhilippeum

PhilippusPhilolachePhilolacheiPhilolachesnePhilolachetePhiJolachetiPhilolachetisphilosophatumphilosophaturPhil tonemPhoenicioPhrugiaphyrgiopicepicispicta

pictampictumpicturapietaspietatipietatispigerepigmentumpigrapilapilumpinguiorempipuloPirenampirumpiscatorpiscatupisca t u mpisciumpistillumpistorpistrinopiusplacariplaceamplaceantplacendaplaceoplacida;/placidoplagasplagigeraplagigeruli

plagipatidaepl anamplateaeplauditeplaudoplauduntplaustro r u mplausumplebiplenasplenoplenumpíen u spleriqueploraplorans

plorat

plumaplúmbeosplumbeumplurapluribusplurimisplurisplurumae

plurumiplurumisplurumosplusquepoculapoeniceopolliceorpolliceturpollicitatiopollicitospollucibiliterPolymachaero-

plagidemPolymachaero-

plagidipolyposponamponatpondoponereponiturPontoP ontu mponuntpopulärempopularespopulumporcinamporgeporiciamporree t a mporrexiporta;/

portenditurporticusportitoremportitoresportitoriportoriumportupor tu mposeasposeeposceremposceretposcisposiuerisposiuipossespossiderepossidetpossietpossimuspossumusposte

posterorumposticuloposticulumposticumpostideapostularePostumuspotapotanduspotantis

potarier

pótatepota t u mpotempoteratpoteriíspoteritpoteruntpotestaspotestatempotipotiaturpotiorempotituspotuistipraebeopraeberipraecelletpraecepipraeceptapraeceptorpraecidampraeciperepraecipitauitpraecipitempraecipuepraecipuospraecurrampraedaepraedatoribuspraedicempraedicetpraediciturpraeditipraedopraefectumpraefectuspraeficiopraefulciorpraegnatempraehiberempraemandatum

praematurepraemostrauitpraemostroPraenestinuspraeoccupabopraeoptauistipraeponerespraeripiampraerodatpraerodatispraesagibatpraesegminapraesensissetpraesentariapraesentariispraesentarium

praesentempraesentespraesertimpraesidebop r a estâtpraestinempraestituta;/praestopraestolaborpraestrigiatorpraeterhacpraeuortarpraeuortarispraeuorterepranderoprandio

p r a t a

precatorprehendamprehenderitprehenduntprehensipremampretiumpretium;/primariaprimoribusprimusprincipipriuataepriuatumpriuosproauoprobasseprobesíprobiorprobioresprocedereprocellaeprocesseruntprocessiprocessit

procreandisprocudamprocuratorprocuresprodegerisprodiprodigiprodireproditprofanumprofecturusproíeroprofertoproferuntprofestoproficisci

profugiensprofúndeleprogigniprognatumprogrediminoprogrediturprohibeasprohibereprohibesprohibessisprohibessitpromatpromerepromerespromeritapromi

promiscampromiserampromisissepromissipiomittit ispromptaspronuperpropemodoproperantprop erarep ropera t epropera to;/properesproperetpropinarepropinqua

propinquitate

[ 4 8 ]

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6 4 2 9 W o r d s

propíor putid um quotu mo-pfopitia puto quouispropitii q radeb at

-wopolae quadrigis radicibus;£ r 0 prio quaedams/ rapacidaru m

propterea quaen rapaxpiopromptu quaepiam rapiamftforogare quaepiam s/ rap i'

-firorogatur qua eq' rapiturtjroscmditur quaeq uom que raptasíjrosilui quaeram raptoresprosint quaerat latkraesque

^ prospere qua ere ratispropereque quaerebas rauimprospicere q uaererem rean turprostibulum quae rite rearprostituam quaeritem rebiturprostituat quaeritem us recensprosum qua eritet recentiproterritum quaerito recepitpro thym e quaeritur recipiampjotinus quaerundum recnarmidaprotollet quaesso recita-protractum quaestio recludat

proueniant quaestu s recludeprouenit quaeuis recomm entatu'sprouidero quali recomminiscarprouinciae qualine Re cord atu'proumciam qualubet rectenprouincias quam obrem recurreprouocas quamu e recursemprouorsus quan tas redactu siprox quantilio reddatproxumam quanti l lum reddaturproxumas quan tis redderemproxume quaquam redderespioxumumsf quaqu e Teddesproxumus quartus reddeturnepube quasiqu e reddipublicae qua ssas redd ¡di

>publicisne qu ater redd itpueros quem piam redditaepuerum quemque reddituru'spugnabo querimonia reddituruspugnis queunt reddundumpulchram quian redduntpulchrior quibara redduxitpulchriores quidd am redemipulchrius quiddarm/ redhiberepulmento quietae redieritpulmentum quieto redieropulpamentis quina m redigetpuitabit quinauicenaria rediguntpultadum quine to rediitpultandi quingen tos redipisci

pultau i quiñis reditiopuitem quintibi réditopultiphagus quintus rediturumpumex qui's reducempumiceos quisquan u/ referampungit quoad referasPúnica quoc um referxetpuplicis quodam referspure quo iam referturpurget quoidam regespurigant quoii regipurpurata quoipiam reginaepurpurissum quoiuismodi regioneputa quoium regnoputa s quoiums/ regredereputa t quom odo relictae

putatu r quopiam relicuiputefacit quotiens relicuosputent quotumas re linques

[

O n c e — Continued l

relinqui reuocamus sapiesrelinquo reuocas sa reinareliquiae reu'que sarcinatoresremisit R h a d a m a n t e m sarcireremittam rides sarcirirem itta l ridetis sarmen taremitte ridicularia Sarsinat isremittere ridicule sarta

remoramqu e r iuabo satell itesremoran tur rogamus satiasremoratu r rogandi sat ietaterenuntiabo rogant sat iusrenuntiantur rogare satius/renunciare rogat saucaptidemrenuntiatum rogaturu's sauiisrenuntii roget sauiumreor rogitant saxor e p a r c u n t rogito saxumrepente r u a n t sea b raerepentino rubicundo scaenamreperias ructare scaeuastreper iatur ructus scalpurrirereperiri ruere scanditreperit rufus Sc a p ha e

repertam rumicem Sc a p ha mr e p e t a s rumori scapulisrepetundi ruont scata tr e p e t u n t rustici scelerareposcam rust icus scelestaereposco rusus scelestamrepperero sacerrumus scelestiorrepperissem sacrilege scelestumreprehendam sacris scelestu'sreprehende sacruficassem scibisreprehendit saeclo sciensreprehensi saeculum scinda ntrep utes saepissume scinderereputo, saeuiendum scintillamrequintas saeuomque scirpearere sagina scitaresciscat sagittas scitisresciuerit sagit tat is scitiusresciui sagittis scitneresciuisse saGat scitoresciu isti salicto scitus/ —resecroque salillum sciuiresigna tas salit sciuin . rresonat Salsipotenti s c o r t i n t u rrespicere saisis scribatii- ^respiciamrespicis

saluae scr ibuntür^espiciamrespicis saluete scrobes : •respondeam saluomque scrutar i —respo ndea t saluomi/ scurrarespond endi Sal us scurrasrespondeo salutabant scuta

respondí salutant secatrespondisset sal u tare secretoresponset salutas sectaturr esponsiones salute sectorresponsum salut i secundares tat salutigerulos securirestim saluto securimrest inguas sanae sedebasrestio ' sanctaj/ sedemrest i teras sanctums/ sedensrestitit sandaligerulae sedentrestituís sanein sedentariiretiñere Sangarionem sedetret inen sanguinis seduxiretullit sapiat segesretunsas/ sapienter segnities

retunsumrf sapienti segregantreueniat sapientia segregentreuenit sapientiam segreges

]

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Seleuciamsemitasenectussenectutisenissenserimseoseritsensisensimsensitsententiasquesentiatsepeliuiseptems e p turnassepulcrosequiturserasereresermonatussermonessermonisermonisqueseruaseruanda

seruandoseruariseruassoseruatorseruaueioseruauiseruauistiserueseruentseruiantseruitumseruitusseruitutisseruiuiseruiuntseruorumque

seruosnesescentaesesquipedeseuerumqueseuocassexagintasextumsibiqueSibul lasiccoculumsiccusSicyoneSicyonemSicyonisignissigno

sileatioSiluanosimiaSimiaeS im iamSimonisimulacrumquesimulantsimulassimulauitsimulessimultatemsimultersinapissincerumsingillatimsinistera

sinitosintnesiquidsirissistendaesisteresis tisitasitast

si tisitumsituimísiturfsiuesiuerissobriesobriu'soccosocerumsociennosociofraudesocordiamqueSocratemsodalissodalitate

sodess o lsolamsolassolésoleamsoleantsolearüsoleassoleatissolitussolitu'ssolstitialisolstitialissoluamsoluere

soluitesolutumsoluturmísomniatissomniauitsomnu'sonantsonatsonitumsonitussoporsorberequesorbitionesororissorssospitalis

sospitentsparsaspatiumspeciequespecimenspectabitspectantspectarespectatospectatorumspectospeculaborspeculatumspeculaturspeculoclarasSpemnesperas

6 4 2 9 W o r d s 0 <

speresspernerespernisSphaeriosplendoremspoliaspolierasponsionesponte

spopondispurcificums tastabilestabitstactas ta m u sstantStasimumstatstatinstatisstatuamstatuistiStaturstemuas

stilisstimulatricemstimulatricistimulorumstimulumStipendiumstipularierStirpestolidestolidiusStratastratioticumstratioticusstratu'strenuistrenuom

strenuososstrepitaîistrigibusStrobilumStrobilusStrolumstrophiariistrophiisstructastudeatstudeostudesstudetstultamstul t istultiloquentiam

stultisstultitiaestultitiarfstultitiisstultiusstultumstultu'ssuadeamsuadeassuadessuadetursuarumsuassuasoresuauisuauiorsuauis

c

O n c e — ConiinusuauisauiatiosuauitateSubbalüosubblandiebarsubditiuomsubducemussubductasubegerosubegisubestsubeuntsubigeresubigissubigitsubigorsúbitos*subitumsublegamsubleuisubleuitsublinatsublingulosubnigersubolebatsubolemsubueni

subuenissetsubuenistlsubuenitsuccieueresucopbantissudorsuessulcosumassumensumeresumeretsummamsummatumsuramussumpserosumpsi

sumpsimussumpsissesumptisumptibussumptuisumptumquesumptumsísumptusquesupellexsuperantsuperaresuperauitsuperbesuperbumsuperciliumsuperi

superioressuperosuperstessuppeditatsuppetantsuppingisupplexsupplicabosuppl icatsuppl icatumsupplicisuppositiciumsupremisupremumsupremus

o ]

supsequarsupsequeresupsequitursupsequorsupsíetsupstruontsuramsurdu'Sure

surgarasurgedumsurguntsurisSurosurruperesurruperemsurruperentsurruperessunuperetsurrupiosurrupuissesurrupuitsusceoseassuscensessuspendito

suspendiumsuspícaminisuspicentursuspicetursuspicionesustinentsustinetsusumsuturessycopbantaesycophantiosesymboloSyrustabernatabernáculotabernam

tabulastacebotácentetacettaciturnitatitactu 'taesuauítaeterrumetaetrioremtaetriustaletalentatalentotametsitang amtangerestangitetantamtantast a n tillotanti l lumtantont a n t utantumsítappetiatardetardustarpezitaetarpezitaratarmestaurustaurumtecbinae

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5429 Words Occur Once — Continued

tuaique uein uicerit uisitatus uoluptatestuams/ ueis uici Visso uolup tati

uoluptati'uapte uela uicine uisu'uolup tatiuoluptati'

tuar/ uelintne uicinos uiuam uoiuptatibu'tuisque uellent uicit uiuamus uolup ta tumtuli uellicat uictibus uiuat uolutauitulissent ueluti uictis uiue uomitumtumultuoso uenales 'uictitabam uiuito uoremtune uenalium uictit are uite uorsatúnica uenderes uictoria uitia uorsabatu rtunicam uendidisti uictorum uitilena uorsari

túnicas uendito •uicturaque uitio uorsa tu rtuomrf uenditurum .uictus/ uitu linam uorsotu o st uendundusf uideare uituperarier uorsoriamturarme ueneficae uideat uituperas uorsusturbae ueneficu's uideatur uiuam uorsuteturbant uenenis uidebis uiuere uorsutusturbat ueneram uidebo uixerít uortereturbaui mus uenerare uidebunt uixirous uorteritturbauit uenerim uidelicet uixisse uortiturbellas uenias uidendum uixit uortiturtúrbidas/ uenient uidendumsí ulciscare uostraetúrbidos ueniet uideon Vlixem uostrarumturbines uenibit uideri Vlixes uostroturbo ucniisse uideto ulmearum uostrosturget ueniret uidetque ulmeis uotemturpes ueniri uideturne ultumas uotesturpi uenisti uidit umerum urbaniturpilucricupi- uenítne uig ilan s umiditate urbanus

du m uenti uigila nti unae urbisturpitudinem uentriosus uigilas unctí urittuquidem uenturum uigiliam unct itant urnamturtures uentus uigilias unctiusculo uspiamtu's uenustates uigiliis unctor usquams/tu s uerberabilissume uigilo undam usquequaquetusculum uerberare uües/ undique usquintutin uerberari uiliores unguem ussuraetutor uerberarier uilissumus/ unguendam USSUJÍuaginam uerberate ui m unguis us uualeat uerberauisti uinarium ungulas usumualen uerbeream uincere uniuorsis usuraualent uerberonem uinces uniuorsum usurpari

usurpauialeo uerbií/ uincite unosusurpariusurpaui

ualete uerbo uinciti ' uoca USUJÍualui uerbumst uinctam uocabo utarualuisti uereare uinctus uocari utareualuistin uerecundari uindex uocauerit utend a

uana uerecundiam uinolentum uoces utendums/uanidicis uerumsí uiolarii uocis uterumuapulem uerus uirgarum uocitantur utibileuapulo uesanum uirginis Volcano utibilesuaria uestibulum uirgis uolebam utileuasa uestipica uiris uolebas utit uruasis uestitu uiritim uolgo utrauastities uestitu's uirium uolpes utramqueuaticinamini uetere uiro uolsus utriqueuberi ueterem uirtus uolturi um utrisqu euberrume ueteris uirtuti uolueram utrumuisuberrumos uetulae uirtut ibus uoluere uxorioubiquomque uexillum uirtutis uoluimus Xyt ili suecturam u i uisam uoluisses zamiamuehar uiaticum uise uoluisti zonariiuehementer uicem uisitata uolup zonariusuehunt

uolup