Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 · 2016-05-25 · Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 Yukon State of the Environment ... Allison, Linaya Workman. Burwash/Destruction

Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002

YYYYYukukukukukonononononState of the EnvironmentState of the EnvironmentState of the EnvironmentState of the EnvironmentState of the Environment

Report 2002Report 2002Report 2002Report 2002Report 2002


© Yukon Department of Environment

ISBN 1-55362-157-3

Copies available from:Yukon Department of EnvironmentPolicy & Planning BranchBox 2703, Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 2C6Phone (867) 667-5634, Fax (867) 393-6213Email: [email protected]/soe/soe.shtml

Printed on recycled paper

Cover stock: Domtar Sandpiper Mushroom,100% recycled post-consumer contentInside stock: Xerox Multipurpose Recycled,30% recycled post-consumer content


This 2002 comprehensive State of the Environment Report is the latest full report on theenvironment since the 1999 report was published. Interim reports were provided in 2000and 2001.

State of environment reporting provides early warning of potential problems in the environ-ment, allows the public and government agencies to monitor progress on the objectives ofthe Environment Act and provides further baseline information.

This report is a compilation of data from a wide variety of sources and does not presentoriginal data. Although this report is not intended to make a policy statement, it is hoped thatit will be useful for decision makers throughout the territory.

Input from Yukon citizens is incorporated into this document through the "community view"sections.

Many thanks to the scientists, technicians and local Yukoners, who provided information forthis report.


Project Coordination:

Verena Hardtke, Yukon Department of Environment

Consultants:

Laura Prentice, WriterLeslie Kerr-Wedge, Coordinator, “A Community View”

Reviewers and Contributors:

Yukon Council on the Economy and the Environment: James Grattan, Chair, Ralph Nordling, Vice-Chair, Members: RogerAlfred, Louise Bouvier, Charlotte Hrenchuk, Bill Mann, Hilda Price, Curtis Shaw, Elaine Shorty, Malcolm Taggart, Randy Taylor.

Government of Yukon:

Environment: Bruce Bennett, Jean Carey, Diedre Davidson, Cameron Eckert, Rick Farnell, Rob Florkiewicz, Libby Gunn, RuthHall, Beth Hawkings, Katie Hayhurst, Richard Janowicz, Shannon Jensen, Thomas Jung, Janine Kostelnik, Kathy Kosuta, DennisKuch, Bryan Levia, Dan Lindsey, Val Loewen, Ramona Maraj, John Meikle, Phil Merchant, Angela Milani, Kate Moylan, SaraNielsen, Wendy Nixon, Pat Paslawski, Gerry Perrier, Bengt Pettersson, John Russell, Helen Slama, Barney Smith, Bob Truelson,Susan Thompson, Rick Ward. Community Services: Al Beaver. Tourism & Culture: Robert Clark, Paul Gort. Energy, Mines & Re-sources: Shirley Abercrombie, Matthew Ball, Dave Beckman, Diane Brent, Carl Burgess, Richard Corbett, Greg Cowman, HughCopland, Andy Crowther, Jesse Devost, Jesse Duke, Riona Freeman, Robert Holmes, Paul Inglis, Bonnie King, Bill Lebarge, JohnMasterson, Pat McDonnell, Dwayne Muckosky, David Murray, John Spicer, Ed van Randen, Angela Walkley, Dave Wiebe, DebraWortley. Health & Social Services: Patricia Brooks, Brian Kitchen, Christine Paradis, Lynn Richards. Highways & Public Works: ArtDell, John Knops, Debra Thibodeau. Executive Council Office (Bureau of Statistics): Paul Harris

Government of Canada:

Environment Canada: Wendy Avis (Vancouver), Canadian Wildlife Service: Joan Eamer, Mike Gill, Jim Hawkings, Nancy Hughes.Canadian Forest Services: Rod Garbutt. Meteorological Service of Canada: William Miller. Department of Fisheries and Oceans: PatrickMilligan, Kate Maddigan. DIAND: Brett Hartshorne

Others:

Northern Climate ExChange: Aynslie Ogden. Raven Recycling: Lewis Rifkind. City of Whitehorse: Sabine Schweiger. Energy Solu-tions Center: Don Flinn, Doug MacLean, Craig Olsen. Yukon College: Dave Mossop

Contributors to “A community view”:

Carmacks Renewable Resources Council, Selkirk Renewable Resources Council, Dawson District Renewable Resources Council,Mayo District Renewable Resources Council, Teslin Renewable Resources Council, North Yukon Renewable Resources Council,Mark O’Donoghue, Jan Adamczewski, Jerome McIntyre, Yukon College, Larry Gray. Renewable Resources Program Students:Dawson: Paul Peirson, Jay Farr, Anne Asher, Christine Russell, Erin Waterman, Shelley Brown, Sebastian Jones. Whitehorse:Deborah Fulmer, Jodie Pongracz, Chris Drummond. Watson Lake: Thomas Ulmer. Pelly Crossing: David Conley. Ross River:Robert Olson. Survey Respondents: Dawson: Ed Kormendy, Paul Peirson, Shelley Brown, Mel Besharat, Shelley Brown, JuliaMorberg, Gerry Couture, Debbie Nagano, Jack Fraser. Carcross/Tagish: Art Smith, Mark Wedge, Bill Barrett, Dan Cresswell,Colleen James, Frank James. Carmacks: Eric Fairclough, Larry Tricker. Mayo: Deb van Bibber, Dan McDiarmid, SimoneMcDonald, Frank Patterson, Dennis Buyck, Anne Leckie. Haines Junction: Lorne Laroque, Lloyd Freese, Dan Drummond, GordAllison, Linaya Workman. Burwash/Destruction Bay:Louise Bouvier, Marsha Flummerfelt, Joe Johnson, Mary Jane Johnson. RossRiver/Faro:Kirby Meister, Doris John, Diane Loan, Jason Acklack, Charles Jurasz. Watson Lake: Gordon Toole, Ernie Leach, ReinerRembe. Whitehorse: Josh Smith, Mark Rudyk, Ruth Massie, Bobby Vance, Tony Grabowski, Jodie Pongracz, Brian Lacey, RobFlorkiewicz, Geraldine Pope, Jocelyn McDowell(FWMB). Teslin: Ennie Sydney. Old Crow: Dennis Frost, Sharon Keaton, CarlCharlie (Lands Director). Beaver Creek: Joleene Murphy, David Johnny, Beat and Patty Lederberger. Pelly Crossing: Fred Green,Robert Van Bibber

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements


Introduction 2

A Community View Introduction 3

Highlights 3

Chapter 1 Air and Atmosphere 81.1 Air Quality 81.2 Stratospheric Ozone 9

Chapter 2 Climate Change 112.1 Drivers of Climate Change 112.2 Primary Indicators of Climate Change 122.3 Impacts of Climate Change 14

Chapter 3 Water 173.1 Drinking Water Quality 173.2 Water Quality, Quantity and Use 19

Chapter 4 Land 224.1 Protected Areas 224.2 Waste: Solid, Special, Recyclables and Compost 234.3 Contaminated Sites 254.4 Land Use - Mining 264.5 Land Use - Forestry 274.6 Land Use - Agriculture 284.7 Land Use - Tourism 304.8 Land Use - Oil & Gas 31

Chapter 5 Fish and Wildlife 335.1 Salmon 335.2 Freshwater Fish 355.3 Wildlife Populations and Harvest 36

5.3.1. Birds 365.3.2. Furbearers 395.3.3. Caribou 405.3.4. Moose 415.3.5. Grizzly Bears 435.3.6. Thinhorn Sheep 435.3.7. Wildlife Values 44

5.4 Species at Risk 45

Chapter 6 Ecosystems 486.1 Wetlands 486.2 Forests 48

Glossary 52

References 56

Evaluation 61

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Why produce a State of the EnvironmentReport for the Yukon?State of the Environment reporting is a requirement of theYukon Environment Act. The report’s purpose is to providean early warning and analysis of potential problems for theenvironment; allow the public to monitor progress towardthe achievement of the objectives of the Environment Actand to provide baseline information for environmentalplanning, assessment and regulation. State of the Environ-ment Reports (SOEs) for the Yukon have been produced asfollows:

• 1995 Yukon State of the Environment Report• 1997 Yukon State of the Environment Interim Report:

A focus on Air Quality and Climate Change• 1999 Yukon State of the Environment Report• 2000 Yukon State of the Environment Interim Report• 2001 Yukon State of the Environment Interim Report

State of the Environment reporting is also occurring nation-ally and provincially. Yukon SOEs feature the format set outand used by the Government of Canada. This is namely topresent a report that provides the responses to the followingquestions:

• What is happening in the environment?• Why is it happening?

• Why is it significant?• What is being done about it?

British Columbia, since 1998, has presented their SOEs in abullet style format called Environmental trends. This alsoanswers the above key questions. The Yukon first featuredthis format in its 2001 interim SOE. This format is carriedon in this document. Your feedback to the format and/orcontent of this report is welcome and can be provided to theGovernment of Yukon through the evaluation form pro-vided at the end of this document.

What is an indicator?Indicators are key measurements that can be used to moni-tor, describe and interpret change. Indicators cannotprovide all information on a particular topic, but can givekey information that shows how things in the environmentare doing. The indicators featured here are based on keycriteria including data availability, data reliability, useful-ness, and understandability.

How was this report developed?This report represents a collective effort from scientificexperts, government agencies, non-governmental organiza-tions and coordinators, who have provided information,data and advice.

IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction


Assembly a Yukon State of theEnvironment Report within threeyears of the date this sectioncomes into force and thereafterwithin three years of the date ofthe previous report.

(2) The Yukon State of the Environ-ment Report shall(a) present baseline informationon the environment;(b) incorporate the traditionalknowledge of Yukon First Nationmembers as it relates to theenvironment;(c) establish indicators ofimpairment of or improvement tothe environment and identify andpresent analyses of trends orchanges in the indicators; and(d) identify emerging problemsfor the environment, especiallythose involving long-term andcumulative effects.

(3) The Minister shall coordinatepreparation of a Yukon State ofthe Environment Report with thepreparation of a revision of theYukon Conservation Strategy and,to the extent practicable, with

Yukon Environment Act Ex-cerptsYukon State of the EnvironmentReport47. (1) The Government of Yukon

shall report publicly on thestate of the environmentpursuant to this Act.

(2) The purpose of a report undersubsection (1) is(a) to provide early warningand analysis of potentialproblems for the environ-ment.(b) to allow the public tomonitor progress toward theachievement of the objectivesof this Act; and(c) to provide baselineinformation for environmentalplanning, assessment andregulation.

Requirements for the Yukon State ofthe Environment Report48. (1) The Minister shall prepare

and submit to the Legislative

state of the environmentreporting of the Government ofCanada, circumpolar nations,and jurisdictions adjoining theYukon, and an audit undersection 39.

Review by Council49. The Council shall review a Yukon

State of the EnvironmentReport and submit a report ofits review to the LegislativeAssembly.

Interim Report50. (1) Commencing from the date of

the first Yukon State of theEnvironment Report, for everyperiod of twelve consecutivemonths in which a Yukon Stateof the Environment Report isnot made, the Minister shallprepare an interim report andsubmit it to the LegislativeAssembly.

(2) An interim report under subsec-tion (1) shall comment onmatters contained in theprevious Yukon State of theEnvironment Report.

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In past Yukon State of the Environment Reports (SOEs),traditional knowledge has been included through thepresentation of elder’s quotes within the various sections ofthe reports. The 2002 report features an innovative way ofincluding the community perceptions of environmentalchange. The results of this telephone survey are called “Acommunity view”. This represents a pilot project to includeYukoners’ environmental observations in the SOE.

This project collected, analyzed and presents communityperceptions of recent environmental change in Yukon,comparing the years 1995-2000 to the years 2000-2002.This new approach is intended to achieve the following:

1. Changes in the environment may be discovered earlierthan they would have otherwise.

2. Yukoners will actively participate in the process ofreporting observations of environmental change,promoting increased awareness of the environment interms of change.

A Community VA Community VA Community VA Community VA Community View Introductioniew Introductioniew Introductioniew Introductioniew Introduction

Information was collected about certain environmentalchange indicators from people working in the field and a setof questions was developed to ask of selected members inthe communities, who regularly spent time on the landfrom 1995 to 2002.

Students at Yukon College, studying Renewable ResourceManagement by distance education, participated as inter-viewers in Watson Lake, Whitehorse and Dawson City.Interviews were conducted in person where possible,otherwise by phone. Between three and five people wereinterviewed in each community.

This unique addition to the 2002 Yukon SOE was not meantto be a statistically-sound survey but rather a way to includecommunity perceptions from those close to the land.

HighlightsHighlightsHighlightsHighlightsHighlights

Air and AtmosphereThe air in the Yukon is cleaner than in southern cities. How-ever, episodes of high ambient air pollution occur occasionallyin residential areas throughout the Yukon, mostly due toresidential wood smoke pollution. In downtown Whitehorse,there has been a downward trend of ambient carbon monox-ide levels since 1984, when monitoring began.

Depletion rates of the Arctic ozone layer have been as highas 45 percent since 1980. Globally the production of a primaryozone-depleting substance, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)declined by 88 percent between 1988 and 1997, as a result ofinternational phase outs of CFC products. However, fullrecovery of the ozone layer is expected to take 50 years or more.

Climate ChangeThe Government of Canada ratified the Kyoto Protocol tothe United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange in December 2002. The Northern ClimateExChange (NCE) opened in February 2000 at the NorthernResearch Institute, Yukon College, in response to growingconcern over the impacts of climate change on the land,life, and communities of northern Canada.

Globally, nine of the ten warmest years have occurred since1990. All of the Yukon communities measured, except forWatson Lake and Whitehorse in the summer, show increasesin mean monthly summer, winter and annual temperaturesover the period of record (between 40 and 100 years). Overthe course of the last century the average spring break-up dateof the Yukon River at Dawson City has advanced by six days.

2 Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 3


Federal Waste Management SiteClassification April 1, 2003

LegendA. Remediated (426)B. Remediation not required (257)C. Assessment required (121)D. Remediation required (87)

E. “Type I” site (6)F. “Type II” sites (7)G. Contained sites

(25-150 year warranty) (3)


While total Yukon emissions of greenhouse gases account for0.07 per cent of total Canadian emissions, per capita Yukonpeople produce emissions at just below the Canadian average.The most significant sector is transportation, which accountsfor 47 percent of total Yukon greenhouse gas emissions.

WaterReports provided annually by public water system ownersindicate that community drinking water quality is generallywithin the accepted Yukon health-related standards. The YukonCommunicable Disease Control reports that there have beenno diseases or illnesses or any documented waterborneoutbreaks attributable to public water sources or systems duringthis State of the Environment reporting period (1999-2002).

In general, Yukon baseline monitoring studies have shownsurface water quality to be good. Overall, sewage treatmentfacilities in Yukon communities are in good condition with afew exceptions. Water licenses have been issued, requiring theconstruction of a Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) mechanicaltreatment plant for Dawson City and a lagoon based system forBurwash Landing. Design and construction scheduling areunderway. A water license application including preliminarydesign is being prepared for a mechanical treatment system inCarmacks. An infiltration and dispersal treatment facility hasbeen approved for Carcross.

A study, jointly funded by DIAND, the Government of Yukonand the City of Whitehorse, resulted in the development of agroundwater database, which will be maintained by theYukon’s Water Resources Branch, Department of Environment.

Land

Protected AreasManagement planning for five special management areasunder First Nation Final Agreements was initiated duringthis SOE reporting period (1999 - 2002).

Waste: Solid, Special, Recyclables and CompostAs a result of the first eight months (May to December2002) of the City of Whitehorse’s city-wide curbside com-

post collection program, 34 percent of total residential wastehas been diverted from the Whitehorse landfill. Since 1994,through the special (hazardous) waste collection program,the Government of Yukon has collected and treated 290tonnes of special waste. In 2002 alone, more than 47 tonnesof special waste were collected.

In order to establish a higher, more uniform standard ofoperation, solid waste management plans for all solid wastefacilities in the Yukon are required, under the EnvironmentAct. Research is being completed to determine the costs andbenefits of a system of community transfer stations, usingcentral landfill site(s) in the Yukon.

Contaminated SitesThe source of contamination for the majority of Yukon sites isfuel (petroleum-hydrocarbon). The cause can be leaky tanks, orspills during fuel transfer (e.g. fill lines) or transport. Othercontaminant sources include heavy metals from ore handling,lead paint, asbestos, or even concentrations of road salt.

Amendments to the Contaminated Sites Regulation, underthe Yukon’s Environment Act, were made in 2002 to allowfor the use of risk-based standards and to require permits forland treatment facilities.

Under the Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (DIAND)Waste Management Program, 907 abandoned, potentiallycontaminated sites have been identified to date in the Yukon.The sites have been divided into seven categories according tothe type of remediation or further assessment required. Thefederal government has allocated $ 2 million per year for 10years for site assessment and remediation.

On Commissioner’s Land, Transport Canada, as part of theairport transfer agreement is assessing and remediating anumber of small hydrocarbon-contaminated sites at theWhitehorse and Watson Lake Airports.

4



Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 5Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002

MiningSince 1998 the number of active quartz and placer claimshave declined 35 and 28 percent respectively. Placer goldavailability is decreasing as reserves in traditional placermining areas are becoming more difficult to find. In 1998the Mining Environment Research Group (MERG) formedwith a goal to promote research into mining and environ-mental issues in the Yukon.

ForestryApproximately 60 percent of the Yukon is covered by forest.Of this area, less than 25 percent is capable of producingeconomical timber. The primary marketable species arewhite spruce and lodgepole pine.

Timber harvesting increased significantly in the early 1990s,peaked in 1994/95 and tapered off in 1999 as demanddropped and permitting was reduced by DIAND.

Responsibility for forestry will be transferred from DIANDto the Government of Yukon on April 1, 2003. In this newrole, the Government of Yukon has committed to thedevelopment of new forestry legislation to replace thefederal Timber Regulations.

AgricultureAn estimated 118 sq km (1.8 percent of Yukon’s 6,680 sq kmof arable land) has been disposed of, for agriculture. Grossagriculture sales in 2000 totalled $4,194, 864, representing a19 percent increase from 1996.

Although more agriculture land is estimated to be used forfarm purposes now than in 1999, under-utilization is still asignificant problem. With more regional-scale land useplanning, cumulative impacts from agriculture and land usethresholds can be assessed and monitored.

Tourism A strong component of Yukon’s tourism trade continues tobe concentrated along major transportation routes. Thedemand for accessible and safe wilderness viewing sites andeducational centres, such as Swan Haven and DempsterInterpretive Centres, is increasing.

New niche markets, that include learning-based, winter andextreme wilderness adventure travel, are being activelydeveloped in the Yukon. Off-road wilderness travel is increasingin the summer and seems to be increasing in the winter.

Yukon tourism strategies, developed with industry partnerstarget high yield, as opposed to high volume markets, whichallows for a manageable increase in tourism numbers. Astourism markets change, different types of environmentalimpacts will have to be anticipated and managed.

Oil and GasOil and gas royalties tripled between 1999 and 2000 buthave not yet exceeded one percent of Yukon’s Gross Domes-tic Product (GDP).

Yukon’s gas reserves are estimated to be more than 20trillion cubic feet. Oil reserves are estimated at over 900million barrels. However, Yukon’s oil and gas basins remainrelatively unexplored. Global demand, the future constructionof a major gas pipeline in the north, completion of outstand-ing land claims and promotion of Yukon’s resource potentialwill all have an impact on the timing and extent of thedevelopment of Yukon’s oil and gas resources.

The Yukon’s oil and gas regime has been developed with agoal to minimize environmental risks including requiringindustry to: apply for a licence and complete an environ-mental assessment of all oil and gas activity; provide afinancial deposit for abandonment and reclamation workand; negotiate a Benefits Agreement for training, employ-ment and business opportunities.

Yukon State of the Environment Report 20026 Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002

Fish and Wildlife

SalmonOverall, the number of Yukon salmon returning to theirspawning grounds (escapement return) is declining, exceptfor some species in the Alsek River basin. Fisheries biolo-gists speculate that ocean conditions (poor marine survival)may have an influence on the recent declining salmonnumbers.

Yukon chinook salmon may be the first wild population ofpacific salmon documented to have a fungal parasite,Ichthyophonus. The parasite causes a change in the flesh,which renders some fish unmarketable. An expanded studyof the management and conservation implications ofIchthyophonus is underway.

The Canada-US Yukon River Salmon Treaty was signed onDecember 4, 2002 to rebuild and conserve Canadian-originsalmon stocks.

Freshwater FishIn the Yukon, there are commercial, domestic and FirstNation subsistence food fisheries along with sport orrecreational angling. Sport fishing accounts for the vastmajority of the freshwater fish harvested.

The number of licensed anglers in the Yukon has beenslightly declining this decade but numbers are relativelystable in comparison with some Canadian provinces, whereinterest in fishing has declined dramatically. According tothe five-year recreational fishing survey, last completed in2000, anglers are using live release techniques more nowthan five years ago. Baseline information has been estab-lished on fish stocks in approximately 70 lakes in the Yukon.

BirdsBased on the limited surveys completed there are no indica-tions of significant trends in Yukon’s waterfowl numbers.The Gyrfalcon is the largest species of falcon and breeds inArctic and sub-Arctic regions, including the Yukon. TheYukon’s Coast Range Gyrfalcon population dynamics appearnormal, with the young population following the 10-yearpopulation cycles of their main food source, ptarmigan.

During low ptarmigan years Gyrfalcons do not breed or mayabandon nests. Bird Studies Canada initiated the BC-YukonNocturnal Owl Survey in 2000 to monitor long-term trendsin owl populations.

FurbearersOverall furbearer populations are stable. The annual furharvest has been low since the early 1990s, and decreasedeven further between 1997/98 and 2001/02. The economic,social and cultural value of trapping is significant as itprovides a winter revenue source in smaller communitieswhen unemployment is traditionally high.

CaribouThe woodland and barrenground caribou ranges are distrib-uted throughout the Yukon. The status of the herd popula-tions vary.

In October 2002, for the first time in 50 years, caribou fromthe Fortymile caribou herd migrated across the Yukon River,following its historical migration route. The return of theFortymile herd from near-extirpation is a reflection of theeffectiveness of management efforts.

Without interven-tion, the woodlandChisana caribouherd could be indanger of extirpa-tion. A pilot captivebreeding project forthe herd is expectedto begin early in2003.

Biologists believethat the recent

declining trend of the Porcupine caribou herd is related toweather conditions such as high snow accumulations andshorter summers that are causing an increase in adult mortality.

MooseOverall, moose populations are stable or increasing. Theareas where moose populations are declining are generallymore easily accessible by hunters and/or closer to largerpopulated areas.

Moose are widely distributed throughout the territory.However, their numbers tend to be concentrated in shrubhabitat near creeks and marshes, which make up a smallportion of the Yukon. Although their numbers are healthy,habitat protection is still critical.

Grizzly BearsAbout 30 percent of the Canada’s grizzly bears live in theYukon. Globally, grizzly bear habitat has been reduced byapproximately 50 percent. Grizzly bear habitat has nothistorically been monitored in the Yukon but as a result of adecrease in human population since 1997, habitat pressuresare unlikely in the short-term.

Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 7Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002

Thinhorn SheepSheep are believed to be at, or near, historical populationlevels and have re-colonized some ranges where they hadpreviously disappeared (probably due to over-hunting). Thepopulation is considered stable, with short term fluctua-tions.

There is growing evidence that population trends occurroughly in 10-year cycles and may be related to Pacificclimate cycles known as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. Winterweather, in particular snow conditions, affects the birth rate.Weather during lambing in May affects lamb survival.

Wildlife ValuesThirty-nine percent of Yukon visitors and 28 percent ofYukon people participate in wildlife viewing activities while11 percent of Yukon people participate in hunting activities.

The number of resident hunting licences sold has beensteadily decreasing and non-resident hunting licencesincreasing since 1982.

The number of visits to the Dempster Interpretive Centre, atTombstone Park, has increased by a factor of 5 since 1986.

Species at RiskThe federal government assented to Canada’s Species at Risk Act(SARA) on December 12, 2002.

In the Yukon 13 species at risk have been identified by theCommittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada(COSEWIC). Both populations of the Trumpeter Swans(Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain) in northwesternCanada and Alaska are presently increasing at a healthy rate.The Tundra Peregrine Falcons are recovering from a periodin 1982-87 when no breeding birds were found in theYukon. In the 1970s Peregrine Falcons were judged to be indanger of extinction.

Ecosystems

WetlandsBecause the Yukon is a mountainous region, wetlands coveronly 3 percent of the land base, a much smaller portion ofthe land base than many jurisdictions in Canada. In manyparts of Canada there has been a substantial loss of wetlandsas a result of drainage for urban expansion, agriculture andflooding by hydroelectric development. Comparatively,there have been fewer negative impacts on Yukon’s wet-lands.

Old Crow Flats, a large system of lakes and wetlands,provides habitat for peregrine falcons, songbirds, aquaticand terrestrial mammals and breeding and moultinggrounds for a variety of waterfowl species. Between 1973and 1999, there has been a 6.8 percent decline in the watersurface area in Old Crow Flats.

ForestsThe number of natural and human-caused fires, and hect-ares burned per year, has been increasing since the 1950sbut to an even greater degree in the 1990s. The number oflightning-caused fires has been increasing faster thanhuman-caused fires.

The forests affected by the spruce bark beetle in southwestYukon increased from 22,600 hectares in 2001 to 69,415hectares in 2002. The rate of infestation increased by morethan 300 percent and the cumulative area of infestation nowexceeds 250,000 hectares. A number of projects, such as theCanadian Forest Service’s Forest Health Assessment, arebeing carried out to better understand the impact on forestecology as a result of the spruce bark beetle infestations.


1.1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

What is happening?• In partnership with Environment

Canada, and as part of the National AirPollution Surveillance (NAPS) network,the Government of Yukon monitors:carbon monoxide; nitrogen oxides; groundlevel ozone; and particulate matter. Theseand other air pollutants are monitorednation-wide because of their contributionto Canada’s ambient air pollution.

• The air in the Yukon is cleaner than insouthern cities because there are fewerindustrial activities and smaller, dis-persed populations. However, episodes ofhigh ambient air pollution occur occa-sionally in residential areas throughoutthe Yukon, primarily because of residen-tial wood smoke pollution.

• In downtown Whitehorse, there has beena downward trend of ambient CO levelssince 1984. CO levels rarely exceedNational Ambient Air Quality Objectivecategories.

• The National Ambient Air Quality Objec-tives (NAAQOs) set the maximumdesirable and acceptable levels of CO andNO

x. The Canada-wide Standards set

acceptable levels for fine PM and O3.

These are voluntary standards recom-mended for achievement by 2010.

Chapter 1 Air and AtmosphereAir and AtmosphereAir and AtmosphereAir and AtmosphereAir and Atmosphere

Why is it happening?• All ambient air pollutants tend to vary seasonally

and geographically. Pollutants can come from:

- point sources – such as community dieselgenerators or burning of solid waste (see also 4.2Waste: Solid, Special, Recyclables and Compost);

- area sources – such as residential and commer-cial oil and wood space heating;

- mobile sources – such as vehicle exhaust; or

- local or regional natural events like forest fires orwindblown dust.

• Wood smoke episodes occur throughout the Yukon,often as a result of a combination of weather,topography, poor burning practices and inefficientwoodstoves. For example, Whitehorse’s Riverdalesubdivision is on a valley floor where temperatureinversions are more likely to trap wood smokeduring cold weather.

The air in theYukon iscleaner than insouthern cities.However,episodes ofhigh ambientair pollutionoccur occa-sionally inresidentialareas through-out the Yukon,mostly due toresidentialwood smokepollution.

What is it?• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a

gas produced primarily bythe incomplete combustionof carbon-containing fuelsfrom sources such asvehicles, woodstoves andfurnaces.

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) arereleased during combustionof fossil fuels such asgasoline, diesel and heavyfuel oil.

• Unlike other pollutants,ground level ozone (O3) isnot emitted directly fromhuman activities. It is

generated by a photochemi-cal reaction betweenultraviolet light from the sun,NOx and volatile organiccompounds (VOCs).Ground level ozone is themajor component ofphotochemical smog.

• Particulate matter (PM 2.5) iscomprised of a suite ofpollutants that spans arange of sizes-coarse PM(diameter >2.5 micrometres(mm) and <10mm) and finePM (diameter <2.5mm).

• Coarse PM primarilycontains materials derivedfrom the earth's crust, suchas soil and mineral dust aswell as pollen. Fine PM isclassified as a toxic sub-stance and is usuallyproduced from humanactivities, such as fossil fuelcombustion, road andconstruction sites as well asforest fires. Fine PM maycontain sulphate, nitrate,ammonium, metals andhundreds of differentorganic compounds.

8

Community View• Most people asked perceived a reduction in

wood smoke from heaters in houses inWhitehorse/Laberge and Carcross/Tagishareas.

• Of those interviewed in Mayo most said therewas an increase in wood smoke.

• Most people asked in six other communities,observed no change.

• A majority of the people interviewed in sevencommunities agreed that the amount of woodburned for heat and cooking has not changed.However, most people interviewed in Pelly thoughtthat there was more wood burned.


In downtownWhitehorse,

there hasbeen a

downwardtrend of

ambient COlevels since

1984.

• The downward trend of carbon monoxide since1984 in downtown Whitehorse is shown in Figure1.1.1. It generally corresponds with a winter warm-ing trend in Whitehorse.

Why is it significant?• Based on Yukon’s one NAPS monitoring station in

downtown Whitehorse, CO levels, with only a fewexceptions, are within national standards. However,episodes of local and regional poor air quality dooccur. Natural events such as forest fires, cold winterdays or windy spring days can amplify poor air qualitycaused by wood smoke, vehicle exhaust or dust.

• Fine PM can decrease visibility and harm humanbeings, especially infants, children, pregnant womenand senior citizens. Particles can be deposited in thehuman respiratory system decreasing the lungs’ability to function.

• Ground level ozone (O3) pollution is not expected to

be a health issue in the Yukon because levels are low.At greater levels it not only affects human health, itcan damage vegetation and decrease the productivityof some crops.

What is being done about it?• The Government of Yukon operates the air monitor-

ing station on First Avenue in downtownWhitehorse, as part of the NAPS program. Thisprogram is part of a network of air monitoringstations across Canada designed to monitor andassess, on a continuing basis, ambient air quality inurban regions of Canada.

Programs• Vehicle Emissions Clinic: Hosted by Environment

Canada in partnership with the Government ofYukon and the City of Whitehorse, this clinicprovides free vehicle efficiency testing and pollution-reduction recommendations.

• Commuter Challenge: Held during National Environ-ment Week, the Commuter Challenge is a friendlycompetition between Canadian cities to cut their airpollution through active modes of transportation. In2002 the City of Whitehorse achieved the secondhighest per capita participation rate in Canada.

• Clear the Air: This annual advertising and educa-

tional campaign, sponsored by the City ofWhitehorse and Government of Yukon,targets reduction of wood smoke andvehicle emissions.

• Wood Heat Education: Burn it Smart is anational wood heat education campaignsponsored by the federal government inpartnership with provinces and territo-ries, industry and non-governmentalorganizations. As part of this campaign,the Riverdale Woodstove Changeout PilotProject, one of eight projects acrossCanada, was initiated in the fall of 2001. Ithelped educate homeowners and encour-aged them to replace old, inefficient woodburning appliances with new highefficiency stoves. The Energy SolutionsCentre continues to provide educationabout efficient wood heating.

• National Air Pollution Surveillance Network(NAPS) Web Services: In the near future,data from all NAPS stations will beavailable on-line in the Canada-Wide AirQuality Database. Publications andannual reports are available at http://www.etcentre.org/publications_e.html.

1.2 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

What is happening?• Based on studies since 1980, scientists

have determined that the stratosphericozone layer, the only natural shieldprotecting the earth from the sun'sintense ultraviolet rays, has been thinningover Canada and other parts of the globe.

• On average the global stratospheric ozonelayer thinned by about three per centbetween 1980 and 1991. In Canada,ozone depletion is usually greatest in thelate winter and early spring. Depletionrates of the Arctic ozone layer have beenas high as 45 percent and 100 percent inthe Antarctic ozone layer, where massiveholes have formed almost every springsince 1982.

Why is it happening?• Natural phenomena such as the oscilla-

tion of stratospheric winds, El Niño, thesolar cycle as well as large volcaniceruptions will temporarily change theozone layer thickness.

• However, scientists believe that thedramatic thinning in the ozone layer

Depletionrates of the

Arctic ozonelayer have

been as highas 45 percent

and 100percent in the

Antarcticozone layer,where mas-

sive holeshave formedalmost everyspring since

1982.

9


since 1980 has primarily been caused bythe manufacture and release of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). ODSs aremade up of a range of chemical com-pounds including: chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs); hydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs); bromofluorocarbons (halons);carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroformand methyl bromide.

• ODSs have been used, since the 1930s, inmany applications including refrigera-tion, air conditioning, foams, solvents,pesticides and fire extinguishing equip-ment.

• Greater ozone losses over both the Arcticand Antarctic are the result of extremelycold winter winds that isolate the polarstratospheres and allow polar strato-spheric clouds (PSCs), made up of ice,nitric acid, and sulphuric acid to form.These PSCs cause a series of chemicalreactions that destroy stratospheric ozonefar more effectively than the reactionsthat take place in warmer air.

• Scientists are in the early stages of study-ing the link between global warming andozone depletion. Both processes may becausing changes in circulation patterns inboth the stratosphere, where the ozonelayer exists, and the troposphere, theearth's lower atmosphere. The net resultof the changes and atmospheric interac-tion may be more cooling of the strato-sphere. In turn, this may be causingwidespread PSC formation resulting inincreased ozone depletion and increasedglobal warming of the troposphere (seealso Chapter 2 Climate Change).

Why is it significant?• Scientists predict that the ozone layer will

continue to thin over the next 10 to 20years while concentrations of ODSsreleased during past decades continue tobuild up in the stratosphere. Full recoveryof the ozone layer is expected to take 50years or more.

• Thinning of the ozone layer allowsincreases in concentrations of ultraviolet

(UV) radiation to reach the earth's surface so thatUV-related conditions such as sunburn, skin cancer,eye damage and suppression of the human immunesystem may become more prevalent.

• Increased UV exposure can affect animals in theirearly development processes and may inhibit thegrowth processes of almost all green plants such ascrops or phytoplankton in marine environments.

• Some scientists have particular concerns about theeffects on Arctic plants and animals. Having evolvedin low-UV-level environments, they may be moresensitive to increased UV levels.

What is being done about it?• The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that

Deplete the Ozone Layer has provided the founda-tion for a range of actions to mitigate ozone deple-tion. These actions include local and national-levellegislation, education and training, changes intechnology and voluntary actions by industry.

• Canada has eliminated or significantly reduced theproduction, import and export of ODSs. Newsupplies of ODSs fell from a high of 27.8 kilotonnesin 1987 to 0.9 kilotonnes in 1998.

• Globally, CFC production declined by 88 percentbetween 1988 and 1997 as a result of internationalphase outs of CFC products.

• Environment Canada operates 12 ozone monitoringstations across Canada and is targeting research tobetter understand the link between climate changeand ozone depletion. They also host an ozoneinformation website at http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone/en/index.cfm and provide daily UV Index forecasts.

• The Government of Yukon passed regulations thatgovern the use and disposal of ODSs in 1996 andamended them in 2000 to include halocarbons. Theresulting Ozone Depleting Substances and OtherHalocarbons Regulation under the Environment Actprovides for the harmonization of regulated pesti-cide activities with other governments.

Globally, CFCproductiondeclined by 88percentbetween 1988and 1997 as aresult ofinternationalphase outs ofCFC products.

Full recovery ofthe ozone layeris expected totake 50 yearsor more.

10


2.1 DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

What is happening?• In the early 1990s, the United Nations Intergovern-

mental Panel on Climate Change concluded that thereis a discernible human influence on the globalclimate. While the study of climate change is anemerging and complex science, scientists continueto find new and stronger evidence that humanactivity is producing greenhouse gases in highenough concentrations to enhance the naturalgreenhouse gas effect and affect global climate changes.

• Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),

methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N

2O), have the

ability to absorb infrared radiation in the atmo-sphere. Human actions can produce greenhousegases (e.g. by burning fossil fuels) or reduce theability of the earth to re-absorb carbon.

• Figures 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 show where these human-produced emissions come from in the Yukon andacross Canada, respectively. The data comes fromEnvironment Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory

Chapter 2 Climate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate Change

(1990-2000). Some assumptions that areapplied in more populated and industrialparts of Canada may not be the best fit forthe Yukon. Nevertheless the data providesa general idea of Yukon’s quantity andsource of emissions.

• In 2000, Yukon produced a fraction—approximately 0.07percent—of Canada’stotal emissions. However, per capita,Yukon people produce emissions at justbelow the Canadian average.

• As shown in Figure 2.1.3 Yukon’s totalgreenhouse gas emissions have fluctuated,between 420 and 720 kilotonnes of carbondioxide equivalent, since 1990.

• The most significant sector in the Yukonis transportation, which accounts for 47percent of the territory’s emissions.

• Energy industries include electricity andheat generation as well as mining. Thissector produces almost one third ofCanada’s and one fifth of Yukon’s emis-sions. In 2001, 87.7 percent of Yukon’selectricity production came from hydrosources, 11.9 percent from diesel genera-tion and 0.4 percent from wind genera-tion. With the Mayo-Dawson transmis-sion line, diesel generation is anticipatedto be reduced by 4.3 percent through theuse of electricity from existing hydrofacilities in Mayo.

• The industrial sector includes manufactur-ing, construction and industrial processes,which was negligible, on a large scale inthe Yukon in 2000. Residential emissionsare primarily generated from the burningof fossil fuels for space heating. TheCommercial and Institutional sectorincludes small business and all levels ofgovernment. Land Use Change includestree harvesting and clearing of land.

While totalYukon

emissions ofgreenhouse

gases accountfor 0.07 percent of total

Canadianemissions, per

capita Yukonpeople

produceemissions at

just below theCanadianaverage.

11


• Emissions associated with Yukon’s oil andgas sector come from natural gas extractionat the Kotaneelee Gas Plant in the southeast.

Why is it happening?• Because of Yukon’s small population and

low levels of industrial activity, totalgreenhouse gas emissions are low on aglobal, even national scale. However,because of the Yukon’s northern locationand large distances between communitiesand transportation hubs as well as lowereconomies of scale, Yukon’s per capitaemissions are relatively high.

• Fluctuations in Yukon’s total emissionsprimarily reflect resource sector booms,specifically openings and closures of theFaro Mine and the associated energy needs.

Why is it significant?• The impacts of climate change as a result

of human-made greenhouse gas emissionsare far-reaching (see also 2.3 Impacts ofClimate Change).

• Climate change is a global, national,regional, local and individual issue. Noindividual or region is free from thepotential negative impacts and everyindividual, region and nation are producingsome portion of the total global emissions.

• Having accurate Yukon greenhouse gasemission data is critical to developing alow-emission, sustainable Yukon economy.

What is being done about it?• The Government of Canada ratified the

Kyoto Protocol and came out with anational climate change action plan inDecember 2002, which outlines a broadscope of actions to be taken by individuals,industry and governments to reduceCanada’s overall greenhouse gas emissions.

• The Yukon is an award-winning leader inenergy efficiency and climate changeeducation. The Government of Yukon isfinalizing a climate change action plan. A2001 Yukon Inventory of Climate ChangeInitiatives is available at http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/ epa/content/initiatives.pdf.

• The Northern Climate ExChange (NCE)opened in February 2000 at the NorthernResearch Institute of Yukon College. Itwas created in response to growingconcern over the impacts of climatechange on the land, life, and communi-

ties of northern Canada. The centre carries out abroad range of activities to achieve its mission: toprovide a credible independent source of informa-tion, develop shared understanding and promoteaction on climate change in northern Canada.(http://www.taiga.net/nce/index.html)

• The Energy Solutions Centre opened its doors in thefall of 2000. It is a service and program deliveryagency for the federal government and Governmentof Yukon’s programs relating to energy efficiencyand green power. (http://www.nrgsc.yk.ca/)

2.2 PRIMARY INDICATORS OFCLIMATE CHANGE

What is happening?• Global temperatures are changing. Globally, nine of

the ten warmest years have occurred since 1990,with 2001 being the second warmest year sinceclimate records have been kept. The global averagesurface temperature has increased by 0.6 oC since thebeginning of the Twentieth Century.

• Yukon temperature and precipitation records havebeen kept—the period of record—since 1900 inDawson City and the 1920s to the 1960s for anumber of the communities. The frequency of datacollection varies among communities.

• Figures 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 show the data points andincreasing trend lines of Mayo summer precipitationand mean monthly temperature. Plots of other communitydata are available at the Yukon’s Department ofEnvironment State of the Environment website

The NorthernClimateExChange(NCE) openedin February2000, inresponse togrowingconcern overthe impacts ofclimate changeon the land,life, andcommunitiesof northernCanada.

12

Globally nine ofthe tenwarmest yearshave occurredsince 1990


(www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/soe/soe.shtml).

• Based on the data collected, Table 2.2.1 providessummaries of summer, winter and annual precipitation andtemperature trends in a number of Yukon communities.

• All of the communities measured, except for WatsonLake and Whitehorse in the summer, show increasesin mean monthly summer, winter and annual temperatures.

• Precipitation is more variable: seven of the ninecommunities show an increase in total summerprecipitation; five of the nine communities show adecrease in winter precipitation; and six communitiesshow an overall annual increase.(see Figure 3.2.1Map of Yukon Hydrologic Zones)

Why is it happening?• Over time, the Earth’s climate has been variable as a

result of changes in the Earth’s orbit around the sun,the reflective and absorption qualities of the Earth’svarious atmospheric layers, and occurrences such asvolcanic eruptions.

• Natural global and local climate variations occur as aresult of numerous land and atmospheric interac-tions. However, increasing evidence is leading mostclimate scientists to believe that current climatewarming trends are caused primarily by humanproduction of greenhouse gases. Global temperaturetrends match the trends of carbon dioxide levels inthe troposphere, which appear to be at unprec-edented high levels.

• In addition to global changes, there are local andregional climate phenomena such as El Niño, LaNiña and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) thatinfluence a number of the environmental indicatorsin other sections of this report.

Why is it significant?• Primary temperature and precipitation data collec-

tion and analysis provides a foundation for under-standing and predicting climate changes andpotential impacts, globally and regionally.

• Climate change scientists analyze long term weather

data in different ways to try to predictfuture weather patterns. Measuringmaximum and minimum temperaturetrends and their seasonal occurrence maytell a different story than mean monthlytemperature trends. Changes in winddirection and speed over time may alsohelp determine future weather patterns.Extreme weather events appear to beincreasing in parts of the world but theyare difficult to scientifically define as anindicator of climate change.

• Overall, climate change scientists predictthat the north may experience earlier andgreater climate changes.

• Changing climate patterns could negativelyimpact and alter economic, environmental,social and cultural structures in the Yukon.

What is being done about it?• The Northern Climate ExChange carries

out a wide range of on-going and targetedprojects to promote and coordinateclimate change research and educationin, and about the north.

• Globally, including the Yukon, an increas-ing number of multidisciplinary studies,such as ice core dating to determinehistorical weather patterns, are beingundertaken to advance climate changescience and better understand and predictglobal and regional climate patterns.

• Environment Canada and the Yukon’sWater Resources Branch are participatingin a 3-year, $2.7 million international,multi-partner project to study the interactionof vegetation and snowpack distribution,and assess the influence of this interactionon hydrological and atmospheric exchanges.

• Environment Canada continues tooperate weather stations in many ofYukon’s communities.

All of thecommunities

measured,except for

Watson Lakeand

Whitehorse inthe summer,

show increases in

mean monthlysummer,

winter andannual

temperaturesover the

period ofrecord.

13

Primarytemperature

and precipitation

data collectionand analysis

provides afoundation forunderstandingand predicting

climatechanges.


• Environment Canada is continuallyimproving the accuracy of climate modelsand contributes scientific climate dataand analysis to the United Nations Intergov-ernmental Panel on Climate Change.

2.3 IMPACTS OF CLIMATECHANGE

What is happening?• The impacts of a changing climate are

complex and difficult to forecast andequally challenging to measure. However,the impacts could be far-reaching andaffect Yukon’s environment, culture,society, and economy. A few Yukon-specific potential indicators of climatechange impacts are outlined below:

Ice Thickness and River Break-up Dates• Over the course of the last century the

average spring break-up date of the YukonRiver at Dawson City has advanced by 6 days.The trend can be seen in Figure 2.3.1. January1 is 1 Julian Day. April 30 is 120 Julian Days.

• This trend towards earlier spring break-updates has been more acute in the lastdecade, as five of the seven late April break-up dates over the last century, have occurredsince the mid-1980s. By comparison thereare no significant changes in the break-updates of the Porcupine River at Old Crow.

• Ice thicknesses are variable but show ageneral decreasing trend since the mid-1970s.

Mean Annual Flood Trend Distribu-tion• The mean annual flood trend distribution

is a measure of annual peak river flowsover time. Peak river flows show aprogressive decrease moving northward.Peak river flows from glacially-fed St.Elias and Coast Mountains in southwestYukon have increased significantly. Seealso 3.2 Water Quality, Quantity and Usefor an analysis of these trends.

Snowpatch Melt-out• Over 70 mountain-top snow and high altitude ice

patches, some as old as 8000 years, have beenmelting in southwest Yukon – an area betweenCarcross and Burwash Landing – since August 1997when the first melting ice patch was discovered. Asthey melt they expose ancient biological specimenssuch as caribou dung and archaeological specimenssuch as ancient hunting tools. Since the end of 1999,the rate of melting slowed and no melting wasobserved during the summer of 2002.

Porcupine Caribou – Available Forage• Figure 2.3.2 shows the relative amount of green

plant material within the Porcupine caribou calvinggrounds on June 21 between 1985 and 2001. Normal-ized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a measureof the amount of green plant biomass present at agiven time. There is no apparent trend over thisperiod of record.

Spruce Bark Beetle Emergence(see also 6.2 Ecosystems: Forests)• The forests affected by the spruce bark beetle in

southwest Yukon increased from 22,600 hectares in2001 to 69,415 hectares in 2002. The rate of infesta-tion increase is more than 300 percent and thecumulative area of infestation now exceeds 250,000hectares.

Why is it happening?

Ice Thickness and River Break-up Dates• The break up of river ice depends on a number of

factors including snow cover, wind speed anddirection, solar radiation and channel andstreamflow characteristics. It is also influenced byice thickness as well as ice integrity—how jumbledthe ice is. However, break-up dates can be fairlyaccurately estimated by the summation of spring airtemperatures above freezing.

• The trend of warmer winters (see also 3.2 PrimaryIndicators of Climate Change) in both Dawson Cityand Old Crow has generally resulted in thinner icecover, which has likely contributed to earlier break-up dates in Dawson City. However, warmer winters

Over thecourse of thelast century theaverage springbreak-up dateof the YukonRiver atDawson Cityhas advancedby 6 days.

14


can also lead to premature break-up events thatsubsequently re-freeze, creating thicker “jumble ice”.This can delay the final break-up but increasepotential for ice jamming.

Mean Annual Flood Trend Distribution• The significant increase of peak river flows from

glacially-fed rivers may be directly associated withwarmer winter and summer temperature trends,that may be causing increased glacial melt.

Snowpatch Melt-out• Alpine climate patterns are complex and locally

variable. Ice patches may be melting because ofgeneral warmer summer and winter temperaturetrends in the region but this is by no means certain.Studies have shown that the same ice patches mayhave experienced a melting period in the 1950s.

• Ice patches may now be static or even advancing insome cases. Short term weather patterns such as ElNiño or longer term patterns such as the PacificDecadal Oscillation (PDO) may also be influencingmelting patterns. More information is needed tobetter understand the causes of the melting.

Porcupine Caribou• Early summer plant growth is temperature-depen-

dent. For example, low biomass in 1992 is linked tothe cool conditions associated with the eruption ofthe Pinatubo volcano. High biomass in 1998 mayreflect the warmer 1997/98 winter associated withEl Niño.

Spruce Bark Beetle• Insects may be expanding their range to the north, in

part, as a result of warming conditions and lowerthan average levels of winter precipitation in some

areas. The infested areas are generallyolder forests and in zones that experiencedrecent drought conditions. Older treesare more prone to disease or insectinfestation and drought further diminishesa tree’s resistance to beetle damage.

Why is it significant?

Ice Thickness and River Break-up Dates• Spring break-up represents the end to

winter and the opening up of key trans-port and recreation routes as well aschanges in patterns of wildlife move-ment. Spring break-up also brings the riskof flooding caused by ice jams, which isgenerally the most severe type of flooding.The majority of Yukon communities aresituated on floodplains along rivercorridors. Old Crow and Dawson City areparticularly susceptible to ice jam flood-ing while other communities haveexperienced flooding from rapid snow orglacier melt, or intense rain events.Changing climate, particularly warmingwinters and increasing precipitationcould impact the frequency and/orseverity of these events.

• Increased risk of flooding has a directimpact on buildings and infrastructure.

Snowpatch Melt-out• The melting patches—their melt rate and

location—provide an opportunity formultidisciplinary research and someclues to understanding climate changes.Pollen from exposed patches providesinsight into changes in climate; ice coresmeasure oxygen isotope ratios, whichreveal temperature shifts over time;assessment of ancient caribou bonesprovide information on contaminantlevels such as heavy metals; and muchinformation can be gained from the DNAfrom elk and sheep bones as well as plantmaterial and seeds collected from dung.

• The ice patches have also become thefocus for archaeological research forscientists and First Nations. The exposureshave revealed the historical abundance ofcaribou. Hunting blinds and weaponsindicate the location of historical hunt-ing grounds and hunting methods.

• There is an urgency to collect much ofthis information if the ice patchesresume melting at the same rate as in thelate 1990s.

The significantincrease ofpeak riverflows from

glacially-fedrivers may be

directlyassociated

with warmingwinter and

summertemperature

trends.

15

Community View• More unknown insects, some of which are

described as large beetles and bees and somekind of ladybug, have been seen in Mayo,Carcross/Tagish, Burwash/Destruction Bay,Whitehorse/Laberge, and Pelly Crossing bymost of those asked in those communities.

• One person in Ross River observed unknownmoths (and spiders), another saw an unknownspider in Dawson.

• At Sulphur Creek, one person saw a black andgreen beetle for the first time. One personreported seeing a tiny red biting fly.

• Although most people asked in Teslin, Dawsonand Watson Lake agreed that the days kidsneeded insect repellent on to play outside hadremained the same, most of those asked in sixother areas (Burwash/Destruction Bay,Whitehorse/Laberge, Haines Junction, Old Crow,Carmacks and Pelly Crossing) indicated thatthere were more such days.


Porcupine Caribou• Climate change predictions of earlier

snow melt and continuation of thecurrent warming trend could lead to atrend of earlier green-up in cariboucalving areas. Scientists have determineda positive relationship between the timingof green-up and early survival of calves.

Spruce Bark Beetle• The significant increase in spruce bark

beetle activity follows a recent droughtperiod in the area that has appeared tohave subsided. The effects of insectpopulations that build up during adrought often take years to be noticed.Therefore it is not known at this pointwhether insect activity will subside overthe next few years or whether the dura-tion and intensity of insect and diseaseactivity may continue to increase beyondhistoric levels, as a result of longer termclimate conditions. The infestation couldaffect the short-term ecosystem resilience ofsome Yukon forests.

Alpine climatepatterns arecomplex andlocally variable.Ice patchesmay be meltingbecause ofgeneralwarmingsummer andwinter tem-peraturetrends in theregion but thisis by no meanscertain.

16

What is being done about it?

Ice Thickness and River Break-up Dates• The Water Resources Branch of Yukon’s Department

of Environment monitors ice conditions upstreamand downstream of Dawson City and Old Crow toestimate timing of break up and predict floodingpotential.

Snowpatch Melt-out• The snowpatches are the site of a number of ar-

chaeological, biological and climate change-specificresearch studies as well as youth science camps. Newmethods are being explored to assess the artefactswithout relying on summer melting conditions.

Porcupine Caribou• A range of caribou studies and monitoring programs

are on-going, particularly as part of the ArcticBorderlands Ecological Knowledge Co-operative.

Spruce Bark Beetle• A number of projects such as the Canadian Forest

Service’s Forest Health Assessment project are beingcarried out to better understand the impact of recentbeetle infestations on forest ecology.

Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 17

3.1 DRINKING WATER QUALITY

What is happening?• The safety of drinking water continues to be a significant

public concern in the Yukon and Canada-wide.

• The Yukon continues to use, as it has for many years,the most current edition of the Guidelines for Cana-dian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ) as itsstandard for interpreting drinking water test results.A summary of the GCDWQ is available on HealthCanada’s website www.hc-sc.gc.ca.

• Standards for safe, quality drinking water are differentfrom standards for water quality required to maintainaquatic ecosystem health in fresh water environments.(see also 3.2 Water Quality, Quantity and Use)

• Reports provided annually by public water systemowners indicate that community drinking waterquality is within the Yukon health-related param-eters of the GCDWQ. An exception is the City ofWhitehorse, which exceeds the guideline of 1 NTUfor turbidity. While not a health risk, some suppliesalso exceed aesthetic limits for parameters such asiron and manganese.

• The Yukon Communicable DiseaseControl (YCDC) reports that therehave been no diseases or illnesses orany documented waterborneoutbreaks attributable to public watersources or systems during the 1999-2002 SOE reporting period.

• Although not every person who isinfected or ill due to a waterbornedisease seeks medical attention,communicable disease records areconsidered to be the main indicatorof waterborne outbreaks in acommunity.

• On two occasions in 2002, treatedwater samples (one from a wellwater source and one from a watertruck) tested positive for coliforms;in both cases, a precautionary “boilwater advisory” was issued whilemeasures were taken to ensure thewater was safe. No cases of illnesswere reported during these events.

• The reliance on surface water to meetthe City of Whitehorse’s drinkingwater needs, in the absence of afiltration system, means that fromtime to time, water samples will testpositive for Giardia and, possibly,Cryptosporidium. It also means that

Chapter 3 WWWWWateraterateraterater

turbidity levels will be exceeded at times,particularly during spring run-off.

Why is it happening?• Poor drinking water quality may be human-

or animal-caused (e.g. contamination fromfaecal matter) or the result of natural condi-tions. Contamination may come frommicrobiological, chemical or physicalsources. Contamination can occur at thewater source or during distribution.

• In order to keep drinking water clean, safeand reliable, the components of the watersupply system – from source protection tothe treatment and distribution of drinkingwater to consumers – must be understoodand managed as a whole, using a multi-barrier approach that focuses on all threeelements (source protection, treatment, anddistribution) in an integrated manner.


Reportsprovidedannually bypublic watersystemownersindicate thatcommunitydrinking waterquality isgenerallywithin theacceptedYukon health-relatedstandards.

18

Community View:• Of those asked, in six communities,

most indicated they buy morebottled water. Some said they buy itto take with them when they go outonto the land.

• The majority asked in two communi-ties noted that they do not buybottled water at all.

• Most people asked in three commu-nities agreed they boil water more incamp to prevent sickness.

• No one reported wells running dryas a problem.

Why is it significant?• Recent outbreaks of waterborne disease

in Walkerton, Ontario, and NorthBattleford, Saskatchewan have height-ened Canadians’ awareness of the factthat threats to water quality and quan-tity can have a profound impact on theirhealth, the environment, and theeconomy. Drinking water quality is acritical human health issue.

• Assessment of drinking water qualityincludes tests that measure risks tohuman health as well as aestheticqualities such as taste and appearance ofwater.

• Outside of Whitehorse, most of Yukon’sdrinking water comes from groundwaterbut very little is known about the resource ingeneral.

What is being done about it?

Drinking Water Management andMonitoring• Environmental Health Services,

Department of Health and SocialServices, Government of Yukonmonitors Yukon’s drinking waterquality under the Yukon Public Healthand Safety Act and its regulations.

• The Yukon Communicable DiseaseControl, Department of Health andSocial Services, Government of Yukonmonitors and reports on infectious andcommunicable diseases throughoutthe territory, including waterbornediseases.

• Public water system owners (includ-

ing communities, Yukon and First Nationgovernments) must have a

bacteriological monitoring program in place. TheCity of Whitehorse submits weekly water samplesfor analysis while smaller communities (popula-tions of up to 2000) submit water samples monthly orbi-monthly.

• Environmental Health Services operates a waterlaboratory for the bacteriological analysis ofdrinking water.

• The Government of Yukon is considering optionsfor enhancing the regulation of drinking watersystems, including one or more of the following:source protection, distribution systems, inspec-tions, water quality, sampling, record keeping,operator training and certification, permitting,enforcement, and water works management.

• As of the writing of the 2002 State of the Environ-ment report, Health and Social Services, Govern-ment of Yukon is consulting on guidelines forregulating public drinking water systems and thebulk delivery of drinking water.

• The City of Whitehorse has taken action to ensurethat water entering the distribution system doesnot exceed 5 NTU. Further reductions in turbiditywould require the city to install a water treatmentplant with appropriate filtration technology.

Building Knowledge• A groundwater inventory for the Yukon has been

initiated to assess physical, chemical and waterquality characteristics of Yukon’s aquifers. (see also3.2 Water Quality, Quantity and Use)

• The City of Whitehorse is developing a watershedprotection management plan.

Training and Public Education• With the formation of the Yukon Chapter of

British Columbia Water and Waste Association(BCWWA) in 2001, training courses andcertification exam opportunities are nowreadily available in the Yukon. Most operatorsof community water systems have attendedtraining courses put on by the BCWWA andmany have obtained certification.

• Recognising that there are limitations in thereporting of illnesses, YCDC promoteseducation for the general public and healthcare providers to encourage people to betested when suffering from gastrointestinalsymptoms, such as diarrhea. Identificationof the disease-causing organism assists indetermining the source of the illness andenables YCDC to take steps to curb thespread of the infection.


Outside ofWhitehorse,

most ofYukon’s

drinking watercomes fromgroundwater

but very little isknown about

the resource ingeneral.

Drinking waterquality is a

critical humanhealth issue.

3.2 WATER QUALITY, QUANTITYAND USE

WHAT IS HAPPENING?

Seasonal flow and Peak Flow Trends inYukon’s Hyrdrologic Zones (Flow)• The Yukon is divided into four hydrologic zones as

shown in Figure 3.2.1.

• Streamflow regimes, specifically peak flowtrends are changing in a number of Yukon

rivers, as shown in Figure 3.2.2.Annual peak flow or “mean annualflood” trends have not changed muchin the Interior hydrologic zone. There is aprogressive decrease of peak flowtrends moving toward the Northernand Arctic zones. But peak flows ofrivers with headwaters in the gla-cially-fed St. Elias and Coast Moun-tains (Glacial zone) have increased.

• Seasonal flow variation, as shown inFigure 3.2.3, is greatest in glacially-fedrivers like the White River andsmallest in the flatter and colderNorthern and Arctic hydrologiczones. Flows from glacially-fed riverstend to peak later in the summer andtaper off drastically as glacier meltdiminishes. Flows in northern riverspeak late spring and taper off slowly,directly influenced by precipitationlevels. Flow rates are lowest in latewinter for most rivers.

Water Use and Allocation• Figure 3.2.4 is based on water licence

use allowances and provides someidea of how water is used in theYukon. However, it doesn’t tell thewhole story.

• It doesn’t show actual volume ofwater used or all of the water users.For example, a number of the smallerYukon community wells may notrequire a water licence so wouldn’t beincluded.

• Placer mining shows the largest waterallocation but the actual use in thissector has likely decreased along withthe number of active placer minessince the last SOE reporting period.

• A water licence is based on annual use.Adjustments have been made to reflectseasonal uses such as placer mining andagriculture. “Other” uses includeaquaculture.

Groundwater and Water Quality(Quality)• In general, Yukon baseline monitoring

studies have shown water quality to begood. Water quality can be affected byinstream users, withdrawals, effluentdischarges, runoff from adjacent landuses and physical changes to streamsections, including the removal of bankvegetation (e.g. inadequate tree buffer


In general,Yukonbaselinemonitoringstudies haveshown waterquality to begood.

Overall,sewagetreatmentfacilities inYukon com-munities arein goodcondition witha few excep-tions.

20

Community View• Most people in ten communities saw

an increase in the use of four strokeoutboard motors on boats (moreenvironmentally friendly). Some ofthose noted that cost is a factor inpreventing people from changing overfrom two stroke outboard motors.

• Human land use on shorelines isreported to have increased inCarcross/Tagish, Whitehorse/Laberge,Haines Junction, Watson Lake andCarmacks, by most people asked.

• The majority in Pelly Crossing reporteda decrease and in three other commu-nities (Teslin, Mayo and Burwash/Destruction Bay) most asked saidthere was no change.

left after logging or other site clearing).

• In general, Yukon baseline monitoringstudies have shown surface waterquality to be good.

• Many Yukon people rely on groundwa-ter for domestic purposes, yet very littleis known about the resource. (see also3.1 Drinking Water Quality)

Sewage Treatment (Sewage)• Overall, sewage treatment facilities in

Yukon communities are in goodcondition with a few exceptions:Dawson City, Carcross and BurwashLanding are currently being upgraded.

• Many of Yukon’s smaller communitiesuse individual septic or holding systems.Holding systems are pumped out andtrucked to central lagoons or infiltrationpits. The larger piped collection systemsare most often treated in multi-celllagoons where the treated effluent isoccasionally discharged into nearbyrivers.

Why is it happening?• (Flow) Stream flow and seasonal flow

variations are dependent on physicalcharacteristics such as topography,sediment load and vegetation and, moreimportantly, climatic elements such asprecipitation and snow or glacier melt.

• Temperature and precipitation levelshave been changing in the Yukon andas a direct result so have mean annualflood regimes. (see 2.2 Primary Indicators ofClimate Change and 2.3 Climate ChangeImpacts).

• (Quality) Yukon’s good quality water is

attributable, in large part to the small popula-tion and lack of heavy industry in the territory.

• Groundwater comes with natural filtration andprotection from surface contamination, so oftenprovides a good source for drinking water.

• (Sewage) The screened-only continuous effluentdischarge into the Yukon River at Dawson Citywas deemed unacceptable by the Yukon WaterBoard, so constructing a new facility has beeninitiated.

Why is it significant?• (Flow) Hydrometric (streamflow) monitoring is

carried out to estimate water availability forhuman use, forecast flooding, predict levels ofcontaminants downstream from industrialeffluent discharges, and monitor long termenvironmental change. Changes in mean annualflood trends affect these types of analyses.

• Increasing peak flows increase the magnitudeof design floods used for engineering design ofbridges, dams, water supply and effluenttreatment facilities etc. Existing structures thatwere designed using lesser design floodspecifications may not be structurally adequate forgreater flows. This may be of particularconcern for abandoned mine sites.

• Changing streamflow regimes can impactaquatic life and habitat, and shoreline ecology.

• (Quality) The water quality of runoff frommine sites that are abandoned, or undergoingdecommissioning, is being monitored. Thisincludes the large metal mines at Faro, Mt.Nansen and Elsa. At some sites ongoing watertreatment is being carried out.

• Groundwater is often warmer than surface waterso it doesn’t have to be heated for winter distri-bution when used as a source for domestic water.


Groundwatercan be a heatsource as wellas a source forquality drinking

water.

In fact groundwater can provide space and waterheating through the use of a ground source heat pump.

• (Sewage) Untreated sewage can contain componentsthat are toxic to fish and micro-organisms that cancause human illness.

What is being done about it?• The Wolf Creek Research Basin project is a

multidisciplinary, international research site originallydesigned, in 1993, to improve knowledge about Yukonwaters. Currently more than 30 individual research andmonitoring projects are underway or completed,contributing information to areas such as hydrologicmodelling, climate change impact assessment and floodforecasting. It hosts the first groundwater observationwell in the Yukon, established in March, 2001.

• A study, jointly funded by DIAND, the Government ofYukon and the City of Whitehorse, resulted in thedevelopment of a groundwater database, which will bemaintained by the Yukon’s Water Resources Branch,Department of Environment. In addition, a preliminarygroundwater inventory of the Whitehorse area is beingcompleted. This work is being carried out by the EnergySolutions Centre and will include assessment of groundsource heat potential for Yukon communities.

• A pilot study, about aquifer usage, quality and characteristicsin the Wolf Creek and Pine Ridge areas of

Whitehorse, was completed duringthis SOE reporting period.

• The Canadian EnvironmentalQuality Guidelines are used to assessthe quality of fresh water to main-tain healthy aquatic ecosystems. Insome cases, BC’s water qualitycriteria are used if they more closelyreflect conditions and aquaticspecies found in the north.

• A Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)mechanical treatment facility hasbeen designed for Dawson City andconstruction scheduling is under-way.

• The existing mechanical treatmentplant in Carmacks will be replacedby a new facility for which prelimi-nary design and a water licence.

• A ground-based lagoon system hasbeen designed for Burwash Land-ing and construction scheduling isunderway.


Figure 4.1.1 Map of Yukon Protected Areas

4.1 PROTECTED AREAS

What is happening?• Management planning of five special

management areas was initiated duringthis reporting period (2000-2002). Theseareas include: Tombstone and, FishingBranch Territorial Parks; Ddhaw Ghro andLhutsaw Habitat Protection Areas; andTa'tla Mun Special Management Area.

Why is it happening?• Protected areas in the Yukon are being

established through Special Manage-ment Areas (SMAs) as provided for inFirst Nation Final Agreements(FNFAs).

• Ta'an Kwäch'än First Nation is theonly First Nation that finalized andratified its Final and Self GovernmentAgreements since 1999. No SMAswere included in its Final Agreement.

• On March 31, 2002 Carcross/Tagish,Kluane, Kwanlin Dun and White RiverFirst Nations each signed a Memoran-dum of Understanding with Yukonand federal governments signifyingthat substantive negotiations had beenconcluded and that the parties werecommitted to the next steps. As FNFAsare completed and ratified, the in-cluded SMAs will be implemented.

Why is it significant?• Globally and locally, protected areas

provide a cornerstone for protectingbiodiversity and ecological and culturalheritage. They are also important forresearch and education, and contributesignificantly to local communities andregional economies, most obviouslythrough tourism.

• In 1992, Canada and 167 other coun-tries signed the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity. The establishment ofnetworks of protected areas, to conservebiodiversity, was part of this agreement.

• Later in 1992, federal, provincial andterritorial ministers responsible forparks, wildlife, forestry and the environmentsigned a commitment to completeCanada's network of protected areas,Yukon was included in that commitment.

Managementplanning offive specialmanagementareas wasinitiatedduring thisreportingperiod.

Chapter 4 LandLandLandLandLand

• In the Yukon, protected areas are important to FirstNations, particularly when established as SMAsthrough their FNFAs. Protected areas are also criticalto tourism (see also 4.7 Land Use - Tourism) andprovide recreation destinations for Yukon people.

22


What is being done about it?• The Yukon Parks and Land Certainty Act was

passed in late 2001 and gives the Government ofYukon the legal authority to manage park lands.Habitat protection areas can be established underthe Wildlife Act and SMAs are established underFNFAs.

• The International World Conservation Union(IUCN) is an international organization estab-lished to encourage societies throughout the worldto conserve the integrity and diversity of nature, inpart, through the creation of protected areas. It hasdeveloped standardized categories, as shown in theFigure 4.1.1 chart, to enable protected area account-ing around the globe. (http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wcpa/protectedareas.htm)

4.2 WASTE: SOLID, SPECIAL,RECYCLABLES AND COMPOST

What is happening?• The waste we produce can be classified as solid,

special, recyclable or compostable.

• There are 26 solid waste disposal sites in commu-nities throughout the Yukon. Data on the type ofwaste deposited is only available for theWhitehorse landfill.

• "No-burn" pilot projects were carried out atthree solid waste disposal sites between 2000and 2002. Research is being completed by theDepartment of Community Services, Govern-ment of Yukon to determine the costs andbenefits of a system of community transferstations, using central landfill site(s) in theYukon.

• Scales were installed at the Whitehorse landfill inlate 1999 to track waste amounts and allow fortipping fee charges.

• In 2000, 16.8 percent of City of Whitehorse wastewas diverted from the landfill through recycling,

New FirstNation FinalAgreementsmay provide

for furtherprotected

areas throughnegotiated

SpecialManagement

Areas.

composting and other programs.

• As a result of the first eight months(May to December 2002) of the Cityof Whitehorse's city-wide curbsidecompost collection program, anadditional 34 percent of total residen-tial waste has been diverted from thelandfill.

Why is it happening and why is itsignificant?• There are significant direct and indirect

risks and costs associated with wastedisposal including fire, public health andsafety, waste disposal site developmentand operations, and air and waterpollution.

• Recycling can generate income andemployment: For example the mineralvalue from aluminium, scrap metal andlead batteries received by Raven RecyclingSociety in 2001 was approximately$130,000. Raven Recycling Society has 14full time-equivalent employees. Figure4.2.1 shows the waste product types andamounts the Society is recycling.

• In 1994, the City of Whitehorse deter-mined that 69 per cent of residentiallandfill waste could be composted orrecycled.

• Landfill use can be extended by changingand/or diverting the waste stream andimproving landfill techniques.

• Diverting compost helps to extend the lifeof the landfill and protects groundwaterby decreasing the likelihood of producingacidic leachate that can draw out heavymetals. It also reduces greenhouse gasemissions by reducing methane and itproduces a useful product.

As a result ofthe first eight

months of theCity of

Whitehorse'scity-widecurbside

collectionprogram, 34

percent of totalresidentialwaste has

been divertedfrom the

landfill.

23

Community View• Of those asked, most people in Teslin, Mayo,

Carcross/Tagish and Faro/Ross River arefinding there are more green spaces avail-able for recreational or traditional use, whilemost in Whitehorse/Laberge, Watson Lakeand Carmacks have noticed no change.

• A majority of people asked in twelve out ofthirteen communities reported an increase inthe use of motorized vehicles off road. Manypeople commented that it has been adramatic increase.


What is being done about it?• In May 2002, the City of Whitehorse initiated a city-

wide curbside compost collection program.

• Since 1994, through the special (hazardous) wastecollection program, the Government of Yukon hascollected and treated 290 tonnes of special waste. In2002 alone, more than 47 tonnes of special wastewere collected. In 2003, the City of Whitehorse willpartner with Government of Yukon to hold fivehousehold hazardous waste collection days.

• Through the Waste Reduction and Recycling Initia-tive, the Government of Yukon has been investing inrecycling and composting infrastructure and remov-ing troublesome wastes (tires, waste oil, appliances)from Yukon landfill sites.

• Since 1995, more than two million litres of waste oilhave been transported within the territory for use asan alternative fuel or outside the territory for treat-ment and re-use. There are currently 34 waste oilburners operating in the territory.

• In order to establish ahigher, more uniformstandard of operation, solidwaste management plansare required, under theYukon Environment Act, forall solid waste facilities inthe Yukon.

• The number of commu-nity recycling centres hasincreased from 22 in 1995to 32 in 2002.

• The Beverage ContainerProgram provides refundsfor all beverages (exceptmilk) in glass, plastic, tin,aluminum and tetrapak

containers. In 1994/95 the program onlyprovided refunds for aluminum cans andliquor containers. Yukon people returnedapproximately 25 percent more contain-ers in 2000/01 than in 1994.

• In June of 2001, the Yukon BrewingCompany brought a bottle washing systemon line, which has reduced the shipmentof empty beer bottles out of the Yukon, toVancouver by approximately 14 percent.

Community View:• When asked about the number of trips to the recycling center they made, most people in eight

communities reported an increase.• No increase in the storage of special waste, such as paint, solvents, cleaners, waste oil and other

petroleum products, at homes was reported, but most people that were asked in Whitehorse/Laberge, Old Crow and Watson Lake have seen a decrease. Some said it was due to the availabil-ity of disposal sites.

• Use of free stores at landfill sites has increased in Mayo, Carcross/Tagish, Burwash, Whitehorse,Old Crow and Carmacks according to most people asked. The majority in three other communitiesreported no change.

• Litter on the roadside within 20 km of the community was less in Burwash/Destruction Bay, thesame in Teslin and Carcross/Tagish and more in Whitehorse/Laberge and Watson Lake, by mostpeople asked.

• Most people asked in Pelly Crossing said they found less garbage dumped in the bush, while themajority of people asked in five other areas found more garbage in the bush. In five more commu-nities most found there had been no change.

24

In 2002alone, morethan 47tonnes ofspecial wastewerecollected.

Landfill usecan beextended bychangingand/ordiverting thewastestream andimprovinglandfilltechniques.

Recycling cangenerateincome andemployment.


4.3 CONTAMINATED SITES

What is happening?• Under the Indian and Northern Affairs

Canada (DIAND) Waste ManagementProgram (WMP), 907 abandoned, poten-tially contaminated sites have beenidentified to date in the Yukon. As shownin Figure 4.3.1, the sites have been dividedinto seven categories according to the typeof remediation or further assessmentrequired, and the responsible party.

• On April 1, 2003, administration andcontrol of water, land and natural re-sources will be transferred from Canadato the Government of Yukon in accor-dance with the Devolution TransferAgreement (DTA). As part of this transfer,the management of most land in theterritory will be transferred to the Gov-ernment of Yukon, including waste andcontaminated sites on federal land.

• Under the DTA, the federal governmenthas allocated funding for the assessmentand remediation of contaminated sitesaccording to the above categories. TheDTA also provides for a process to identifyand assign responsibility to newly discov-ered contaminated sites.

The source ofcontaminationfor the majorityof Yukon sites

is fuel(petroleum-

hydrocarbon)contamination.

Under theIndian and

NorthernAffairs

Canada(DIAND)

WasteManagement

Program(WMP), 907abandoned,

potentiallycontaminated

sites havebeen identi-fied to date.

What is it?• A contaminated site is defined as:

- "a site at which substances occur at concentrations: above background levels and pose, or arelikely to pose, an immediate or long-term hazard to human health and the environment; orexceed levels specified in policies and regulations;"1 or

- "an area of land in which the soil, including any groundwater lying beneath it , or the waterincluding the sediment and bed below it, contains a contaminant which is an amount, concen-tration or level in excess of that prescribed by regulation or allowed under a permit."2

• The source of contamination for the majority of Yukon sites is fuel (petroleum-hydrocarbon)contamination. The cause can be leaky tanks or spills during fuel transfer (e.g. fill lines) or trans-port. Other contaminant sources include heavy metals from ore handling, lead paint, asbestos, oreven concentrations of road salt.

• Contaminated sites can be large areas with multiple contaminant sources, such as some minesites, or small areas with one contaminant source, such as a one-time fuel leak.

• Not all contaminated sites pose a threat to human or environmental health. The sites that do,however, must be properly managed to ensure human and environmental protection.

• The Yukon and federal governments both have regulatory responsibilities for contaminated sitesthrough the Department of Environment and Environment Canada respectively.

• The Government of Yukon's Contaminated Sites Regulation (CSR), under the Yukon EnvironmentAct, applies to all non-federally-controlled land. This includes Commissioner's, municipal andprivate land as well as First Nation land, where there is no First Nation legislation equivalent to theCSR.

• The CSR's purpose is to protect human health and the environment from harmful contaminants insoil and water. The CSR outlines what is required for the investigation, assessment andremediation of a contaminated site. Additional powers under the Yukon Environment Act allow foraction to be taken for those sites considered to pose a threat to human health or the environment.

• Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (DIAND) Contaminated Sites Management Policy providesguidance for the management of contaminated sites and applies to all federally-controlled landnorth of the 60th Parallel.

25

LegendA. Remediated (426)B. Remediation not required (257)C. Assessment required (121)D. Remediation required (87)

E. “Type I” site (6)F. “Type II” sites (7)G. Contained sites

(25-150 year warranty) (3)

• For categories C and D (assessment and/orremediation required), Canada has allocated $ 2million per year for 10 years for site assessmentand remediation. This work will remain theresponsibility of DIAND under the WMP afterdevolution.


• Category F (Type II) refers to mine sitesthat could result in unfunded environmen-tal liabilities for government. Under theDTA, Canada has allocated additionalfunding in this category to pay for interimcare and maintenance/site management,abandonment planning, and reclamation.(see also 4.4 Land Use-Mining)

• On Commissioner's Land, TransportCanada, as part of the airport transferagreement is assessing and remediating anumber of small hydrocarbon-contami-nated sites at the Whitehorse and WatsonLake Airports. At the Whitehorse GraderStation, where contamination may befrom multiple sources, an assessment isbeing completed and the responsible partywill then be determined.

• The Marwell Tar Pit is a contaminated site,created during the dismantling of theCanol Refinery. It is on Commissioner'sLand, as a result of land transfer, and theGovernment of Yukon is working todetermine all the responsible parties sothat further remediation steps can betaken.

• Seven mine (type II sites) sites that couldresult in unfunded environmental liabili-ties for government were identified in theYukon, under the Indian and NorthernAffairs Canada (DIAND) Waste Manage-ment Program (WMP).

Why is it happening?• Devolution of management of water, land

and natural resources is part of an ongoinginitiative to transfer administration andcontrol of responsibilities from Canada tothe Yukon.

• The Government of Yukon has on-goingregulatory and educational responsibilitiesfor contaminated sites under the YukonEnvironment Act, particularly the Contami-nated Sites Regulation. The federal govern-ment will have on-going responsibilitiesfor contaminated sites as outlined in theDTA as well as a few parcels such as Reserveland and national parks in the territory.

Why is it significant?• Most complex contaminated sites in the

Yukon and in other parts of Canada areolder sites, where contamination occurredwithout today's better practices andlegislation.

• The reduction and management of con-taminated sites has a direct impact on

human and environmental health.

• The party responsible for causing a site to becontaminated is responsible for any requiredassessment and remediation. However, in somecases the responsible party (or parties) is difficult todetermine. Where there is no site operator, Canadais financially responsible for contaminated sitesthat occurred prior to April 1, 2003 , the date of theDevolution Transfer Agreement, and the Govern-ment of Yukon will administer those that occurredafter April 1, 2003.

• The requirements in the DTA are intended to firstand foremost, ensure protection of the environ-ment and human health. It also provides anadministrative structure to remediate and closesites in an orderly manner and reduce risk andliability to the Government of Yukon.

What is being done about it?• The Contaminated Sites Regulation has been in

place since 1997. Amendments were made in 2002to allow for the use of risk-based standards, inkeeping with most other jurisdictions, as well asrequiring permits for land treatment facilities toencourage proper siting and operations.

• Under the CSR, the Department of Environment,Government of Yukon maintains a public registryof designated contaminated sites.

• The Government of Yukon is working with DIANDto establish procedures and working arrangementsunder the DTA to ensure that the Government ofYukon’s interests are being fulfilled.

• The Yukon Housing Corporation has included theremoval of residential underground oil storagetanks in their low-interest Home Repair Program.Although these tanks don't easily degrade in Yukon'sdry climate and well-drained soils, this program isan example of pro-active prevention of contami-nated sites.

4.4 LAND USE - MINING

What is happening?• The number of active placer mines has been

declining since 1995 as shown in Figure 4.4.1.There has been a 28 percent decrease since 1998.

Most complexcontaminatedsites in theYukon and inother parts ofCanada areolder sites,where con-taminationoccurredwithouttoday's betterpractices andlegislation.

The number ofactive quartzclaims hasdeclined 35percent since1998.

26


4.5 LAND USE - FORESTRY(see also 6.2 Ecosystems - Forests)

What is happening?• The Yukon is divided into 13 separate

watershed-based management units. Themost productive forest are concentrated inthe southeast Yukon with the harvestpotential gradually diminishing westwardand northward. The promary marketablespecies are white spruce and lodgepole pine.

• Timber harvesting increased significantly inthe early 1990s, peaked in 1994/95 andtapered off in 1999. This activity is reflectedin the forest product volumes shown inFigure 4.5.1.

• A small volume of wood harvested in theYukon is processed into value-added, nicheforestry products. Products from Yukonmills include mouldings and tongue andgroove siding.

• There were 43,176 quartz mining claims in 2002.This represents a drop of 35 percent since 1998.

• As shown in Table 4.4.1, the percentage of theYukon land base that contains quartz mineralclaims and leases has declined.

• During this SOE reporting period an emeraldexploration program in the Yukon began and wasexpanded in 2002.

• In December 2002, the Minister of Fisheries andOceans made what proved to be a controversialannouncement that the Yukon Placer Authoriza-tion (YPA), a class authorization under the Fisher-ies Act that has regulated placer gold mining inthe Yukon since 1993, would be phased out over aperiod of four years.

Why is it happening?• Placer mining operations are very sensitive to the

price of gold as well as the cost of diesel. Gold pricesbegan to decline in 1996 and diesel prices havefluctuated but increased over this period, particularly in2001 and 2002.

• Placer gold availability is decreasing as reserves intraditional placer mining areas are becomingmore difficult to find.1

• The basis for the decision about phasing out theYukon Placer Authorization (YPA) was "to betterprotect fish and fish habitat and to be moreconsistent with its treatment of other industriesacross Canada."2 The Klondike Placer Miners'Association argued that this decision went againstthe consensus recommendations of the Minister'sown YPA committee and it could put more than50 percent of Yukon's placer miners out ofbusiness.3

Why is it significant?• Placer mining has a long history in the Yukon. It is the

Yukon's second largest industry next to tourism and isitself a major tourist attraction. Mining explorationand development has historically left the largestenvironmental footprint compared to other Yukonindustries.

• Better industry practices, technology and aneffective, balanced regulatory regime are criticalto ensuring a viable industry as well as adequateenvironmental safeguards to avoid environmen-tal liabilities. (See also 4.3 Contaminated Sites).

What is being done about it?• On April 1, 2003, the administration and control

of water, land and natural resources, includingmineral resources and contaminated mine sites, will betransferred from Canada to the Government of Yukon

in accordance with the DevolutionTransfer Agreement (DTA).

• In 1998 the Mining EnvironmentResearch Group (MERG), a cooperativeworking group made up of government

agencies, mining companies, Yukon FirstNations and non-government organiza-tions, formed with a goal to promoteresearch into mining and environmentalissues in the Yukon. The group identifiespriority areas for research and fundsprojects that work to reduce negativeenvironmental effects from mining opera-tions. Non-technical reports of projectresults are provided for general publicconsumption.

• The Geology Program, a joint venture of theYukon and federal governments, carries outgeoscience research in the Yukon anddisseminates information to industry andthe public.

In 1998 theMining

EnvironmentResearch Group(MERG) formed

with a goal topromote

research intomining and

environmentalissues in the

Yukon.

Better industrypractices,

technology andan effective,

balancedregulatory

regime arecritical to

ensuring aviable industry

as well asadequate

environmentalsafeguards to

avoidenvironmental

liabilities.

27

Timberharvesting in

the Yukonincreased

significantly inthe early

1990s, peakedin 1994/95

and hastapered offsince then.


• Community-based forest planningprocesses, which include both public andsettlement land, have begun with theTeslin Tlingit Council and Champagne &Aishihik First Nations. In southeastYukon, the Kaska group of First Nationswill be involved in collaborative forestmanagement planning.

• On April 1, 2003 the responsibility forforestry will be transferred from DIAND tothe Government of Yukon under theDevolution Transfer Agreement (DTA).

• A forest renewal program was initiated in1993, using funding provided through asurcharge assessed for each cubic metreharvested. The reforestation charge iscalculated yearly and is based on theactual cost of reforestation activities. Thecharge in 2002 was $6.60 per cubic metreharvested.

• Figure 4.5.2 shows the cumulative areaharvested and planted in the Yukon. Asteeper curve indicates a higher rate ofharvesting or planting. Over sevenmillion seedlings have been planted todate through the forest renewal program.

Why is it happening?• Approximately 60 percent of the Yukon is

covered by forest. Of this area, less than25 percent is capable of producingeconomical timber.

• Across the Yukon there is a demand andneed for strategic forest managementplanning to ensure the wise use of thelimited, but renewable resource.

• First Nations have the ability to undertakeforest management planning forsettlement lands under First Nation FinalAgreements (FNFAs).

• Renewable Resource Councils as perFNFAs, may make recommendations onforestry planning and policydevelopment.

TheGovernmentof Yukon hascommittedto thedevelopmentof new forestrylegislation toreplace thefederal TimberRegulations.

Community-based forestplanningprocesses,which includeboth publicandsettlementland, havebegun with theTeslin TlingitCouncil andChampagne &Aishihik FirstNation andRenewableResourceCouncils.

28

Why is it significant?• Yukon's boreal forests may be as resilient as coastal

forests but they are slower growing and may,therefore, take longer to recover from a majordisturbance such as fires or a spruce beetle infesta-tion.

• As a result of devolution, there is an opportunityfor a review of forestry management under theGovernment of Yukon.

What is being done about it?• Changes were made to the federal Timber Regula-

tions in 2001, which provided for market-basedstumpage, a broader range of permit options, andrevised the permit application requirements andapproval process.

• The Government of Yukon has committed to thedevelopment of new forestry legislation to replacethe former federal Timber Regulations. To beginthis process, the development of a forest policyframework in collaboration with First Nationsand Renewable Resource Councils has beeninitiated.

• The Government of Yukon sponsored the multi-stakeholder Yukon Forest Summit in April 2001 tohelp form a long term vision for forest manage-ment and development in the Yukon.

4.6 LAND USE -- AGRICULTURE

What is happening?• Gross agriculture sales in 2000 totalled $4,194,

864, representing a 19 percent increase from 1996.

• As shown in Figure 4.6.1, the number of farmsincreased by six percent between 1996 and 2001.The area of farm land increased by 20 percent andthe average Yukon farm size increased by 12percent, during this time period.

• An estimated 118 sq km (1.8 percent of Yukon's6,680 sq km of arable land) has been disposed of foragriculture. This accounts for 0.02 percent of Yukon'stotal land area.

• Twenty new agriculture land titles were issued in2000/01.


• In 1999, 40 percent of land that had beendisposed of, for agricultural use, was actuallybeing used for farming. This figure was based onan aerial survey of farms in the Whitehorse area.Current estimates of land utilization for farmingare between 60 and 65 percent, based on agricul-ture production, investment and land usestatistics.

• As shown in Figure 4.6.2, there was a 24 percentincrease in agriculture land used for growingforage crops, which still lead the development ofagricultural lands. "Other" includes all otheruses of agriculture land such as livestock andunderutilized land-land not being used foragriculture.

• Livestock production was down in 2001 afterprevious slow and steady growth. Overall green-

house production increased from 1996. There hasalso been a 72 percent increase in natural landused for pasture.

• Climate data on growing degree days and frostfree period collected at the Takhini Forestry FarmDemonstration Site since 1995 are used tocalculate agroclimate classification. Calculationseach year have indicated that the site continuesto have an Agroclimatic Class 5 rating.

• Note: The definition of an agricultural operationin the Yukon was expanded in 1991 to include:game farming; breeding sled dogs; horse outfit-ting and rigging; and harvesting indigenousplants and berries.

Why is it happening?• Yukon agriculture is a growth industry. There are

now a sufficient number of farm operations tomake Agriculture Census statistics more usefuland accurate as a tool to measure the growth.

• Agricultural land allocation is consideredthrough land use planning processes and newland titles are only issued in association withapproved farm development plans.

• Although more agriculture land is estimated tobe utilized for farm purposes than in 1999,under-utilization is still a significant problem.

The under-utilization statistic is affected bythe disposition of new land that has not yetbeen developed for agriculture.

• The industry is not without its challenges.There are climatic and geographic limita-tions to Yukon's agriculture industryespecially for growing crops. Agriculture isgenerally limited to the major river valleysand suitable for forage and cold hardycrops only. Most of the Yukon is close tothe limit of arable agricultural land,especially due to short and variable frost-free growing seasons.

• Production such as some livestock, egg andgreenhouse crops have more growthpotential because of fewer climatic andgeographic limitations.

• Although some changes in regionalclimate data are measurable in some partsof the Yukon, anecdotal evidence suggeststhere is a lot of variation in local climates.Agroclimate class data, generated fromclimate data collected at the Takhini FarmDemonstration Site may conceal changingclimate trends because it isn't primarydata. Provided the thresholds are accurate,agroclimate class data could, over time,provide a measure of the significance ofclimate change to agriculture.

Why is it significant?• The agriculture industry is important as a

means of diversification and importsubstitution in Yukon's economy, which inturn has a positive environmental impactthrough reduced goods transport and likelybetter food and product quality. Forexample 20 percent of eggs consumed inthe Yukon are now from local producers.

• There are also significant economic spin-offs through farm machinery sales andmaintenance and construction of farmbuildings.

• There are challenges associated with theimpacts of agricultural land conversion onwildlife and other land users, particularlyin the Whitehorse area, where 80 percentof Yukon's farms are located. Area land useplanning has been effective in identifyingand working to balance land uses and theland application review process addressestechnical issues.

• There are also risks of disease transmissionto wildlife from game farm animals.

• As devolution is implemented, all agricul-ture land applications will require anenvironmental assessment.

• The impact of a changing climate onYukon's agriculture industry is challengingto predict.

An estimated118 sq km

(1.8 percent ofYukon's 6,680

sq km ofarable land)

has beendisposed of for

agriculture.

Although moreagriculture

land is esti-mated to be

utilized forfarm purposesthan in 1999,under-utiliza-tion is still a

significantproblem.

29


What is being done about it?• The Agriculture and Grazing Lease

policies were evaluated in 2001. Reviewand revisions are expected to be com-pleted in 2003.

• A Risk Management Agreement wassigned with Canada in June 2001 toallow federal and territorial funds toflow to farmers for forage crop lossessuffered in 2000, when half of the harvestwas lost to heavy rains.

• In June 2001, a commitment was madeby federal, provincial and territorialMinisters of Agriculture to develop aNational Agriculture Policy Framework(APF) to guide the future direction ofagriculture and the agri-food sector. TheAPF agreement was signed in 2002.

• In January 2001, a surveillance programfor chronic wasting disease was initi-ated for game farmed elk in the Yukon.

• An Agriculture Products Directory wasproduced for the first time in 2002.

• The Government of Yukon AgriculturalBranch has operated the TakhiniForestry Demonstration Farm since1988 to test varieties and cash cropprofitability, investigate soil conserva-tion techniques and measure grainmaturity.

4.7 LAND USE - TOURISM

What is happening?• The number of visitors to the Yukon is

gradually increasing over time, asshown in Figure 4.7.1. Non-residenttourism revenue increased by 22 percentbetween 1998 and 2000.

• As shown in Figure 4.7.2, by far the topreason for visiting the Yukon is "tour-ing." A strong component of Yukon'stourism trade continues to be concen-trated along major transportation

routes. These visitors are travelling in tour buses or privatevehicles and not venturing far off the road. The road-sideviews are an important contribution to their overall experi-ence. Forty-three percent of visitor groups stay in hotels ormotels and 39 percent stay in campgrounds.

• Figure 4.7.3 indicates that the top visitor activities includenatural attractions, shopping, history, and wildlife viewing.

• The demand for accessible and safe viewing sites andeducational centres, such as Swan Haven and DempsterInterpretive Centres, is increasing. (see also 5.3.7 WildlifeValues).

• New niche markets, that include learning-based, winter andextreme wilderness adventure travel, are being activelydeveloped in the Yukon. The Yukon College's SummerInstitute and English as a Second Language Tour programsand the 2002 Raid the North adventure race are examples ofprograms that are tapping into these new markets.

• Off-road wilderness travel is increasing in the summer andseems to be increasing in the winter with visitors interestedin activities such as dog sledding and northern lightsviewing.

• The vast majority of wilderness-based trips are paddling orboating adventures followed by hiking. Hunting and fishingmake up a much smaller percentage of these trips but accountfor higher percentage share of expenditures. Sixty percent ofwilderness-based trips are commercially guided.

Why is it happening?• The events of September 11, 2001 and the uncertainty in the

Middle East have been detrimental to overseas travel toCanada, including the Yukon. However, vehicle traffic andthe number of U.S. visitors increased since September 11throughout Canada, including the Yukon. Overall Yukontourism was up in 2002 but some areas, such as tour bustravel was down.

30

A strongcomponent ofYukon'stourism tradecontinues to beconcentratedalong majortransportationroutes butopportunitiesfor growthtarget thewildernessadventureand learningnichemarkets.


• The ecotourism market ranging from roadaccessible wildlife viewing to extreme wilder-ness adventure travel is a growing globalmarket. Educational and cultural tourismprograms and authentic destinations are also inhigh demand. The Yukon has many naturalattributes that fit this type of tourism.

• Efforts are being made by governmentand tourism partners to keep visitors herefor a longer time, grow year-rounddestination markets and target a broaderrange of niche markets.

Why is it significant?• Non-resident tourism contributed $164

million to Yukon's economy in 2000.

• Yukon tourism strategies, developed withindustry partners target high yield, asopposed to high volume markets, whichallows for a manageable increase intourism numbers.

• Yukon's natural attractions, includinguninterrupted roadside views are thereason visitors come to the Yukon.

• As tourism markets change, differentenvironmental impacts will have to beanticipated and managed. The managementof environmental impacts from independentwilderness travellers requires a differentset of tools than the impact managementof highway corridor travellers.

What is being done about it?• The Yukon Wilderness Tourism Licensing

Act, which came into force in 1998,requires operators to adhere to principlesof no trace camping and provide wildernesstrip reports. A code of ethics was developedby and for wilderness tourism operators.

• A Yukon wilderness tourism capacitystudy will be completed in the fall of 2003to better understand, anticipate and respondto industry and environmental needs asYukon tourism markets grow and change.

• Efforts to map visitor use, especially forkey Yukon waterways, are also underway.Along with these efforts, Yukon's Departmentof Tourism and Culture is working withthe industry to identify appropriate landbases for commercial operations.

• Along with these efforts, Yukon depart-ments of Energy, Mines and Resources(Lands) and Tourism and Culture willbegin work with industry on a Commer-cial Wilderness Outfitters Policy. Thisprocess will include consultation with

First Nations and interested Yukon people.

• Infrastructure needs for new wilderness viewing sitesare being examined, in response to increasing demandfor accessible sites by Yukon people and visitors.Environment and Heritage Branch coordinate onvarious interpretive projects to ensure information isconsistent, accurate and reflects reccomendations inHighway interpretive strategies.

• Yukon's Department of Tourism and Culture re-cently released the Tourism Yukon Product Develop-ment Strategy for 2003-2005, which provides a roadmap for matching tourism products with keytourism marketing strategies.

4.8 LAND USE - OIL & GAS

What is happening?• Under Yukon's Oil and Gas Act (YOGA) there is a

rigorous five step process that must be completedbefore oil and gas rights can be issued. It includespreliminary multidisciplinary assessments todetermine the significant conservation interests andgovernment-to-government consultation with FirstNations. This process takes about one year to complete.

• Between 1999 and 2001, the Government of Yukonissued three oil and gas disposition permits for explora-tion in Eagle Plains and one permit for the Peel Plateau,for a total work commitment of $24.5 million.

• Under YOGA, the Government of Yukon receivesroyalties from the production of oil and gas. Thereare two producing gas wells at the Kotaneelee gas plantin southeast Yukon. As shown in Figure 4.8.1, oil andgas royalties tripled between 1999 and 2000 but havenot exceeded one percent of Yukon's Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) since YOGA was enacted in 1998.

• All oil and gas activity-exploration, well drilling,production and export-needs to be licensed underYOGA. Since 1998, 18 Geoscience Exploration Licenceshave been issued for exploration programs such asseismic surveys and geological mapping programs.

31

Figure 4.8.1

Yukon tourismstrategies,

developed withindustry

partners targethigh yield asopposed to

high volumemarkets.

The top visitoractivities

includenatural

attractions,shopping,

history, androadside

wildlifeviewing.

Oil and gasroyalties tripledbetween 1999and 2000 but

have not yetexceeded one

percent ofYukon's Gross

DomesticProduct (GDP).


• Prior to 1998, when oil and gas wasunder federal authority, 71 wells weredrilled between the 1950s and the 1980s.No new oil and gas wells have beendrilled under Yukon authority.

• The dispositions or licences shown inTable 4.8.1 were issued by the federalgovernment and are grandfathered underYOGA.

• From December 1998 to November2002, 73.2 billion cubic feet of gas hasbeen produced and exported fromKotaneelee. To allow this, four ExportLicences have been issued.

• The potential of Yukon's oil and gasreserves are characterized, first, throughresource assessments carried out by theNational Energy Board (http://www.neb.gc.ca/) and the GeologicalSurvey of Canada (http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/gsc/) in cooperationwith the Government of Yukon. Initialassessments of Yukon's eight sedimentarybasins were completed by 2001. Assess-ments have been updated for four of thebasins since 2002.

• Based on the updated assessments, theYukon's gas reserves are estimated to bemore than 20 trillion cubic feet, morethan doubling the previous assessment-based estimates. Oil reserves are esti-mated at over 900 million barrels.

Why is it happening?• Since the Government of Yukon took over

ownership and began management of theresource by enacting YOGA in 1998, oiland gas development has become a muchhigher economic development priorityfor the territory.

• However, Yukon's oil and gas basinsremain relatively unexplored. Global oiland gas demand and the future possibleconstruction of a major gas pipelinethrough the Yukon or the MackenzieValley will affect the development ofYukon's own oil and gas resource base anddistribution network. In addition, thecompletion of outstanding land claims, thepromotion of the resource potential, therecently completed resource assessmentsand ongoing industry exploration workwill all influence the timing and extent

of the development of Yukon's oil and gas resources.

• There can be significant environmental risks associ-ated with oil and gas development, particularly to dowith impacts on wildlife habitat, waterways, perma-frost and traditional activities. The Yukon's oil andgas regime has been developed with a goal to mini-mize these risks including requiring industry to:apply for a licence and complete an environmentalassessment of all oil and gas activity; provide afinancial deposit for abandonment and reclamationwork and; negotiate a Benefits Agreement for train-ing, employment and business opportunities. Inaddition, step one of the disposition process requiresthe government to complete consultation withYukon people and those First Nations who havetraditional territories in the areas underconsideration.

Why is it significant?• The economic benefits of oil and gas development

could be significant to the territory. Benefits includeincreased royalties, direct and indirect employmentand spin-off businesses. The industry estimates thereare 2.5 indirect jobs for every direct job in theindustry.

• In provinces such as Alberta and Saskatchewan,companies have access to a larger province-wide landbase to apply to do oil and gas work. Yukon's seismicline density is a fraction of Alberta's.

• Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and smallportable drills have helped to reduce the environmentalfootprint of oil and gas exploration practices. In addition,directional drilling allows multiple wells to be drilledfrom one location.

• Oil and gas production contributes to greenhouse gasemissions but in the Yukon emissions for the oil and gassector are limited to the Kotaneelee facility; productioncontributes fewer emissions than consumer use of oil andgas for transportation, heating and electricity. (see also 2.1Drivers of Climate Change).

What is being done about it?• The Yukon Oil and Gas Act (http://

www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Oil_and_Gas/Legislation/act.htm) was passed by the Yukon Legislative Assem-bly and received royal assent in November of 1998. Itis unique because it provides for a common regimewith First Nations, who have settled land claims.

• Establishment of a Yukon oil and gas regime is a com-plex process that includes the development ofpolicies, regulations, programs and processes underYOGA to effectively manage resource dispositions,licensing, exploration, facilities, production, pipelines,environmental risks and royalty collection. Develop-ment and implementation of the regime is on-going.

The Yukon's oiland gasregime hasbeendevelopedwith a goal tominimizeenvironmentalrisks.

Yukon's gasreserves areestimated tobe more than20 trillioncubic feet.

32


5.1 SALMON

What is happening?• Chinook, chum and coho salmon are found

in the Yukon River drainage. The distributionof chinook salmon is the most extensive, asshown in Figure 5.1.1.

• Chinook, sockeye and coho salmon, alongwith several sub-populations are found in theCanadian portion of the Alsek River drainage.

• Sub-populations may adapt to local habitatand are usually partially isolated and geneti-cally different from other populations. Theyinclude: the chinook salmon stock originatingfrom the Klukshu River; "early run" sockeyesalmon arriving at the mouth of the KlukshuRiver before August 15; and "late run" sockeyearriving after August 15.

• Although escapement returns (the number ofsalmon returning to their spawning grounds)in many of the salmon runs were up in 2001and 2002, some of the lowest returns for all ofthe runs have been recorded since 1998, asshown in Figures 5.1.2 to 5.1.4.

• Table 5.1.1 provides a summary of the state ofsalmon stocks in the Yukon and Alsek riverdrainages. Overall, Yukon's salmon escape-ment returns are declining, except for somespecies in the Alsek River basin.

Overall,Yukon'ssalmon

escapementreturns are

declining,except for

some speciesin the AlsekRiver basin.

• Data collected since 1999 indicate that Yukonchinook salmon are frequently heavilyinfected by a fungal parasite calledIchthyophonus. Infection appears to increase asfish progress on their upstream migration.

Why is it happening?• There is considerable variation in salmon

production between years due to changes inthe year class strength (the number of spawn-ing fish by age class) and environmentalconditions.

• Chum salmon tend to return from the oceanto spawn every four years. Chinook salmon'sspawning cycle is more variable. There isoften a cycle of high/low escapement returns,reflecting the year class strength numbers,within these time cycles.

33

Chapter 5 FFFFFish and Wish and Wish and Wish and Wish and Wildlifeildlifeildlifeildlifeildlife


• Escapement returns may be affected by a range offactors including: fishing pressure by humans;predation from freshwater, marine and terrestrialwildlife; water levels and temperature; sediment loadfluctuations; and diseases.

• Long term climatic events like the Pacific DecadalOscillation (PDO) and short term warming eventslike El Niño and cooling events like La Niña influ-ence oceanographic conditions and salmon produc-tion along the North American coast.

• Fisheries biologists speculate that ocean conditions(poor marine survival) may have caused the recentdecline in salmon numbers.

• Changes in climate conditions are being observed inthe Bering Sea-the rearing area of Yukon Riversalmon-but it is unclear at this point whether this isthe result of a longer term decadal regime shift or ashort term climatic event.

An expandedstudy of themanagementandconservationimplications ofIchthyophonusis underway.

The YukonRiver SalmonTreaty wassigned onDecember 4,2002 tocooperativelyrebuild andconserveCanadian-origin salmonstocks.

• Ichthyophonus could result from stressrelated to unfavourable environmentalfactors such as increased water tempera-ture (see also 2.3 Impacts of ClimateChange)

Why is it significant?• Yukon and Alsek river salmon are impor-

tant to aboriginal, commercial, sport anddomestic fisheries in the Yukon Territory.

• Salmon are also an important part of theecosystem, providing a key food source forbears, eagles and other predators as wellas bringing nutrients from the marine tofreshwater and terrestrial environments.

• Recent concerns over escapement num-bers have resulted in closures and/orrestrictions to aboriginal, commercial,sport and domestic fisheries within theYukon River drainage.

• If escapement returns remain low for aconsecutive number of years, then stockscan become depressed and take a longtime to recover.

• Yukon chinook salmon may be the firstwild population of pacific salmon docu-mented to have Ichthyophonus. Theparasite causes a change in the flesh,which renders some fish unmarketable. Itmay also result in pre-spawning mortality.

What is being done about it?• Two Canada-United States treaties are in

place to rebuild and conserve salmonstocks and provide benefits to fisheries inboth countries. Spawning escapementgoals and total allowable catches are co-operatively established under thesetreaties. The Pacific Salmon Treaty signedin 1985 and amended on June 30, 1999

Community View• Most of the people asked in Teslin, Mayo and

Whitehorse/Laberge have found a decrease inthe abundance of salmon.

• One person in Faro/Ross River reported adecrease in king salmon in the Ross and PellyRivers, noting the salmon are smaller than before.

• An increase in chum and chinook (also calledking) in the Dawson area of the Yukon River wasreported by one respondent.

• In Old Crow, one person said there was adecrease in chum, chinook and coho in thePorcupine River.

• Changes in the fish habitat occurring due toerosion was also reported.

• One person in Carmacks reported the number ofchinook has decreased.

• Only a few people found a fungus in theirsalmon. Overall, no community agreed, on thewhole, that there was any fungus seen at all. Oneperson in Dawson saw an increase in cysts/worms in salmon and one person found morefungus in king and chum bellies caught down river.

• In Carmacks, one person found deformed salmon.

34


5.2 FRESHWATER FISH

What is happening?• In the Yukon, there are commercial,

domestic and First Nation subsistencefood fisheries along with sport or recre-ational angling. Sport fishing accounts forthe vast majority of the freshwater fishharvested.

• As shown in Figure 5.2.1, the totalnumber of licences sold increasedmarginally during the 1990s and declinedmodestly in the early part of this decade.There is a fairly even split between non-resident and resident anglers.

• Data for Figure 5.2.2 was collected during the 2000Yukon Sport Fishing Survey. Of the total fish caught,19 percent were kept and the rest were released.Yukon resident anglers accounted for 44 percent ofthe total fish caught and kept 67 percent of the totalharvested. Non-resident, non-Canadian anglerscaught 42 percent of the total but kept only 21percent. Non-resident Canadians kept only 13percent of the total. Arctic grayling and lake troutwere the most widely caught species. Arctic graylingaccounts for the highest number of fish kept.

• The stocking of pothole lakes (lakes with no inlet oroutlet) was initiated in the early 1940s during the

building of the Alaska Highway. Today the goal of thestocking program is to reduce pressure on native fishstocks, especially lake trout. As shown in Figure 5.2.3stocking efforts have varied over the last decade. In1996, a large number of local hatchery-raisedchinook salmon were added to the stocking program.

Why is it happening?• The slight decrease in sport fishing licence sales

during this decade reflects an overall Canada-widedownward trend in recreational fishing. In theYukon the biggest decrease is the number of activeYukon resident anglers.

• Sport fishing licence sales are also dependent onweather conditions and the state of the tourism industry.

• According to the five-year recreational fishing survey, lastcompleted in 2000, anglers are catching less andkeeping less fish than in previous years. Anglers are usinglive release techniques more now than five years ago.

includes the Alsek River drainage. TheYukon River Salmon Treaty, signed onDecember 4, 2002 as an annex to thePacific Salmon Treaty focuses on theupper Yukon River system and PorcupineRiver system.

• The Yukon River Salmon Restoration andEnhancement Fund was established tofund programs and projects targetingCanadian-origin salmon stocks in theYukon River drainage. The United Statescontributes US $1.2 million annually tothe fund.

• Under the Northern Boundary andTransboundary River Restoration andEnhancement Fund, interest from the US$75 million principal, provided by theUnited States, will be used for salmonmanagement and habitat research.

• Meeting spawning escapement goals iscritical to ensuring effective Fisheriesmanagement. Monitoring tools includeaerial surveys, fish weir counts, and markand recapture techniques.

• An expanded study of the managementand conservation implications ofIchthyophonus is underway.

35

Sport fishingaccounts for

the vastmajority of thefreshwater fish

harvested.

Of the total fishcaught in the

Yukon in2000, 19

percent werekept and the

rest werereleased.

The slightdecrease insport fishing

licence salesduring this

decadereflects an

overallCanada-wide

downwardtrend in

recreationalfishing.


Anglers areusing livereleasetechniquesmore nowthan five yearsago.

Why is it significant?• The number of licensed anglers in the Yukon has

been slightly declining this decade but numbers arerelatively stable in comparison with some Canadianprovinces, where interest in fishing has declineddramatically.

• The number of fish caught and the number of fishharvested has declined over the years, in part, becausemore anglers are practising live release techniques.Studies show that survival rates for released fish can bevery high. Live-release is most valuable when it is used asa tool for selecting only the best fish for eating. Themortality rate of released fish is greatly decreasedthrough careful handling, the use of single barblesshooks, the use of artificial lures instead of bait, andcutting lines from deep-hooked fish. Fisheries managersbelieve that live release is an effective management tool.

What is being done about it?• Baseline information has been established on fish

stocks in approximately 70 lakes in the Yukon.

36

• Re-sampling of targeted lakes using smallmesh gillnet surveys is carried out toestablish trends in fish abundance and todetermine changes in species diversity inorder to better manage the resource.

• The Yukon Territorial Fishing Regula-tions, under the federal Fisheries Act areapplied to anglers and the food fisheries.Regulations used to manage fisheriesinclude size and hook restrictions, catchlimits, commercial fishery quotas andequipment restrictions as well as closuresof specific areas.

5.3 WILDLIFEPOPULATIONS & HARVEST

5.3.1 BirdsWhat is happening?

Waterfowl• The Yukon is the summer breeding home

for more than 30 species of waterfowl.Dabbling ducks include AmericanWigeon, Mallard and Green-winged Teal.Diving ducks include Bufflehead, Ring-neck Duck, and Lesser and Greater scaup.

• Based on the limited surveys completedthere are no significant trends in theYukon's waterfowl numbers. Surveynumbers vary annually and determina-tion of trends and changes in trendsrequire long-term data.

• On the Old Crow Flats, Northern Pintailnumbers have remained fairly constant,Northern Shoveler numbers have beenslowly increasing and Scoter numbershave been variable. Ring-necked Duckswere first observed in the Old Crow Flatsarea in the 1980s and their numbers arelow and variable. 1

• Between 2001 and 2002, the number ofdiving and dabbling ducks decreased by21 and 22 percent, respectively in OldCrow Flats. In southern Yukon, thenumber of diving and dabbling ducksdecreased by 17 and 21 percent, respec-tively.2

• Pairs of dabblers and divers are at 57 and40 percent of 1991 levels, respectively.Total numbers of dabblers and divers areat 97 and 78 percent of 1991 levels. 2

Community View:• In Carcross and Tagish, most of those asked have

reported catching less lake trout. The majority askedin five other areas report they are catching the sameamount.

• Of those asked in Carmacks, most have reportedmore cysts/worms found in the fish. A majority ofthose asked in six other communities said therehas been no change. One person in Carcrossnoticed an increase in white worms in the guts,others say they have heard there are more but havenot seen them. One person in Beaver Creek foundmore parasites in whitefish and cysts in grayling.Another, in Carmacks, reported finding stomachworms in jackfish.

• No increase in deformities found in fish werereported by a majority of those asked in any com-munity, although one individual in Mayo found morefin damage and predator scars, and anotherperson found swollen livers in ling cod in the PellyCrossing area. Two people in the Lake Labergearea also said they found more deformities in fish.One of them described a change in head size anddeformed gills. Someone in Carcross reported thattagged fish are mushy around the tag area andhave blisters near their tails. One person in Carmacksfound spinal defects in some fish.

• Most of those asked in Mayo and Carcross/Tagishhave found that fish are changing their habits andlocations. In Mayo, both trout and grayling arereported to have changed their locations and trouthave been found at different depths. In Carcross,pike are now found all over the lake, and the timingof the arrival of herring is later than usual. Someonein Beaver Creek said the salmon and grayling havechanged their locations due to silt in the river since1995. A Watson Lake resident reported finding pikemoving into trout habitat, while someone in PellyCrossing said the whitefish have moved from theirtraditional creeks as streams are drying up.


Grouse• In the Yukon, there are 7 species of grouse,

three of which are referred to as ptarmigan.As seen in Figure 5.3.1.1, the annualharvest of each species has been decliningsince 1996, which follows the decline inthe normal 10-year population cycle.

Gyrfalcon• The Gyrfalcon is the largest species of

falcon and breeds in Arctic and sub-Arcticregions, including the Yukon.

• The Gyrfalcon population dynamicsappear normal. As shown in Figure5.3.1.2, the adult population in the BCand Yukon Coast Range Ecosystem isstable, while the "young" population,following normal cycles, has declineddramatically in 2001 and 2002 surveys.

Owls• Yukon's boreal forests are home to several

species of owls including Great Horned,Boreal, Northern Hawk, and Great Gray.The BC-Yukon Nocturnal Owl Survey hasa growing number of recording routes,and found that there was an 83 percentreduction in Great Horned Owl callingsbetween 2000 and 2001, followed by amodest recovery in 2002. Boreal Owlsshowed an 8-fold increase in callingsbetween 2001 and 2002.

Why is it happening?

Waterfowl• The annual roadside waterfowl survey in

southern Yukon has been carried out forjust over a decade. This is not yet a long

enough time period to provide a foundation forpopulation trend data. The US Fish and WildlifeService's annual aerial survey is carried out on oneday every year. As a result, the count may be influ-enced by weather conditions that day or the timingof spring weather. There was an unusually late springin 2000, 2001 and 2002 so duck migrations to theOld Crow Flats area may have been delayed.

• In some years, higher numbers of species such asNorthern Pintail in Old Crow Flats may be associ-ated with drought years in the Prairies, which causedthem to search out new areas for suitable breedinghabitat.

• There is concern that Old Crow Flats is experiencinga drying trend. To date, there is no indication of asignificant impact on waterfowl populations.

Grouse• Grouse (including ptarmigan) populations are cyclical,

linked to the Snowshoe Hare's 10-year populationcycle. Population peaks are expected around 2005.

Based on thelimited surveys

completedthere are no

indications ofsignificant

trends inYukon's

waterfowlnumbers.

In the Yukonthere are 7species of

grouse, threeof which are

referred to asptarmigan.

37

Community View• Of those asked in Carcross/Tagish, Beaver

Creek, Faro/Ross River and Pelly Crossingareas, most people said they had noticed morespecies of birds over-wintering.

• Individuals reported swans and juncos in Tagishand robins in Whitehorse, while another personnoticed the crossbills at lower than usualelevations around Dawson.

• Red-winged Blackbirds and Morning Doveswere reported seen by one person in Faro.

• At Beaver Creek, one person saw Golden Eaglesin winter and another saw Pine Grosbeaks.

• Someone in Burwash/Destruction Bay area hasseen Mallards during the winter and possiblycormorants, as well.

• American Robins were seen in Teslin in December2002 and in Faro, one person said robins are eitherarriving very early or spending the winter there.

• One person reports seeing geese at LakeLaberge after Christmas, 2002.

• Five communities reported no change in thenumber of bird species over-wintering.

• The majority of people asked in five communi-ties (Mayo, Carcross/Tagish, Beaver Creek, OldCrow and Pelly Crossing) reported migrant birdsstaying around later in the fall. Some people saidthe birds are taking a longer time to arrive in springand to leave in fall.

• One person in Carcross said there are fewernumbers and species of birds at his feeder inspring, and that the elders are saying there aresome little birds not coming back anymore.

• One respondent in Dawson is seeing fewercranes each year.

• In Haines Junction, Mountain Bluebirds aredecreasing in number, according to one report.

• Most of those asked in nine communitiesreported finding the same number of dead birdsas usual. No communities reported an increase.


Gyrfalcons• Throughout much of the Gyrfalcon's range the

ptarmigan-especially the Willow Ptarmigan-is theirmain prey. During low ptarmigan years Gyrfalconsdo not breed or may abandon nests. This behaviouris revealed in the 2001 and 2002 numbers of youngin Figure 5.3.1.2

Owls• Great Horned Owls feed primarily on Snowshoe

Hares and, therefore follow the 10-year hare popula-tion cycle. The hare population in southern Yukoncrashed in 2000. Boreal Owls feed primarily onvoles, both of which have 4-year population cycles.The vole population dramatically increased in 2002,according to live-trapping data in the Kluane regionand anecdotal evidence. In low years, owls may notbreed or call, which affect survey counts.

Why is it significant?

Waterfowl• The Old Crow Flats are the breeding and moulting

grounds for a large number of waterfowl. It is animportant wetland both locally and internationally.

• The annual roadside waterfowl breeding surveyresults, combined with similar surveys throughoutNorth America contribute to better assessment ofcontinental population trends of waterfowl.

Grouse• Only the Willow Ptarmigan is actually monitored.

Tracking the grouse harvest provides a tool formonitoring all of the grouse populations. Under-standing the grouse population cycles is critical forunderstanding the population cycles of their prey.

Gyrfalcons• Gyrfalcons are a good indicator species for tundra

habitat because they feed primarily on the WillowPtarmigan.

• Long-term monitoring of Gyrfalcon in NorthAmerica has been limited. The work in the Yukonand other territories has been most notable.

• Because most Gyrfalcons live in areas remote frompesticide use and feed on non-migratory prey, theyare generally less susceptible to contamination than,for example, the Tundra Peregrine Falcon, which islisted as a species at risk. It is migratory and is morelikely to feed on contaminated prey. (see also 5.4Species at Risk)

Owls• Great Horned and Boreal owls, because their num-

bers reflect prey abundance, are good indicators ofhabitat quality. The BC-Yukon Nocturnal Owl Surveyprogram, if adopted throughout North America,could provide insight into continental owl popula-tion trends, while others are part of governmentmonitoring programs.

What is being done about it?• Annual bird surveys, targeted studies and

bird banding initiatives are carried outannually or from time-to-time in order tounderstand population dynamics, birdbehaviour and confirm species ranges inthe Yukon.

• A number of important surveys arecarried out by volunteers while others arepart of government or Yukon Collegemonitoring programs. Yukon volunteersin the annual North American BreedingBird Survey count the number and typesof birds they see and hear along a pre-determined route, during the same timeperiod every year. This provides importantinformation about long-term trends insongbirds. The Christmas Bird Count iscarried out in various communities byvolunteers throughout the Yukon.

• The Canadian Wildlife Service maintainsa database of bird sightings in the Yukonusing data collected since 1860.

Waterfowl• Since 1955, the US Fish and Wildlife

Service has been conducting an annualaerial survey of 11 major waterfowl breedingareas in Alaska and Old Crow Flats.

• Since 1991, the Cooperative RoadsideWaterfowl Breeding Population Surveyshave been carried out at roadside wet-lands throughout southern Yukon. Thesurveys are conducted over a five-weekperiod by staff at the Canadian WildlifeService, Yukon Department of Environ-ment and Yukon College.

Grouse• Grouse and ptarmigan kills are reported

in annual questionnaires by hunters, forthe Government of Yukon's Departmentof Environment. Only the Willow Ptarmi-gan is monitored in the field through theBiodiversity Assessment and MonitoringProject based at Yukon College.

Gyrfalcons• Annual spring Gyrfalcon population

assessments are carried out through theYukon Raptor Population MonitoringProject based at Yukon College.

Owls• Bird Studies Canada initiated the BC-

Yukon Nocturnal Owl Survey in 2000 tomonitor long-term trends in owl popula-tions. The survey is carried out by volun-teers.

A number ofimportant birdsurveys arecarried out byvolunteerswhile othersare part ofgovernmentmonitoringprograms

Great HornedOwls feedprimarily onSnowshoeHares and,thereforefollow the10-year Harepopulationcycle.

38

During lowptarmiganyearsGyrfalconsdo not breedor mayabandonnests.


5.3.2 FurbearersWhat is happening?• The Yukon is home to 14 furbearing mammals that

are harvested for their fur.

• Overall the furbearer populations are stable asshown in Table 5.3.2.1

• The annual fur harvest has decreased dramaticallybetween the 1997/98 and 2001/02 harvests as shownin Table 5.3.2.2.

• Figure 5.3.2.1 shows the population cycles of snow-shoe hares and lynx. The lynx data is based on Yukon-wide harvest statistics. The hare data is based on directmonitoring of the spring hare density in the Kluaneregion.

Why is it happening?• Trapping is still an active area of the economy.

Over 400 Yukon people hold trapping li-cences. There are 340 registered trappingconcessions, seven small group concessionsheld by families or for elders, and eight largegroup concessions held by collectives fromFirst Nation communities.

• Good species management is advocated bythe Government of Yukon and the Yukon TrappersAssociation and practised by most trappers, as itis in their best interest for long termsustainability of the resource.

• Fur harvest, which is market driven andinfluenced by other economic factors, re-mains low; a trend that started in the 1990s.

• Over the past twenty-five years Yukon's furharvest has fluctuated in value between$200,000 and $1.7 million annually, with aneconomic spin-off multiplier of 2 to 3.

• Snowshoe hares follow 8 to 11-year popula-tion cycles. Lynx, a major furbearer followthis cycle because hares constitute their mainfood source.

Why is it significant?• The economic, social and cultural value of

trapping is significant. It is a winter revenuesource in smaller communities when unem-ployment is traditionally high. Approximately50 percent of trappers are First Nations, allow-ing them an economic means to maintain theirstrong connection to the land.

• Trappers help to provide knowledge that leadsto better understanding of the furbearingspecies and their habitat, which leads to bettermanagement.

• The economic spin-offs of the trappingeconomy are most noticeably felt in the ruralcommunities where many of the trappersreside and purchase the bulk of their supplies.

• Hare cycles affect other species, both preda-tors-coyotes and Great Horned Owls-and prey.

What is being done about it?• The Trapping Regulations, under Yukon's

Wildlife Act were amended in 2001/02 tocomply with the Agreement on InternationalHumane Trapping Standards (AIHTS), andincluded restrictions on leg-hold trap use. Thecompliance with the AIHTS ensures that tradewith the European market is maintained.

• Trap exchanges have assisted trappers byfacilitating the change of technology to testedand certified traps such as quick-kill and paddedtraps, which meet AIHTS.

39

Overall furbearer

populationsare stable.

The annual furharvest hasdecreased

dramaticallybetween the

1997/98 and2001/02harvests.

The economic,social and

cultural valueof trapping is

significant.It is a winter

revenuesource in

smallercommunities

whenunemploymentis traditionally

high.


• Furbearer populations are estimated basedon annual monitoring of the harvest, andthrough trapper questionnaires, which areobtained on a trapping concession basis.

• In 2000, all individuals, under the age of 65years, were required to graduate fromtrapper training in order to be eligible toacquire a trapping licence. As of 2002,graduation from trapper training is re-quired for all individuals acquiring orrenewing a trapping concession.

5.3.3 CaribouWhat is happening?• The estimated woodland caribou popula-

tion in the Yukon is between 31,000 and36,000, distributed among 22 herds.

• There are an estimated 196,000barrenground caribou distributed amongthree herds. Over 60 percent of the totalpopulation belong to the Porcupine caribouherd.

• The caribou ranges are distributed through-out the Yukon as shown in Figure 5.3.3.1. Thestatus of the herd populations vary and aresummarized in Table 5.3.3.1. Three woodlandcaribou herds are declining, 14 herds are stable orincreasing and the status of 5 herds is unknown oruncertain. Two barrenground caribou herds aredeclining and one is increasing.

• The Porcupine herd population reached a peak in1989 and declined between 1994 and 1998 at arate of four percent per year. The rate of declinehas slowed between 1998 and 2001.

• The near-extirpation of the Fortymile herd popula-tion is revealed in Figure 5.3.3.2. In October 2002, forthe first time in 50 years, the herd migrated across the

Yukon River and crossed the Top of the World Highway,following a historical migration route.

• The declining population of the Chisana herd isshown in Figure 5.3.3.3. The Chisana herd has been

40

included as Specially Protected Wildlifeunder the Yukon Wildlife Act.

• As shown in Figure 5.3.3.4, the annuallicensed, non-First Nation caribou harvestremains between 400 and 700.

• In April 2002, COSEWIC (Committee onthe Status of Endangered Wildlife inCanada) designated all woodland caribou


Caribou meatprovides an

important foodsource to

Yukon people.

The return ofthe Fortymile

herd fromnear-

extirpationproves the

effectivenessof

managementefforts.

Yukon hasunique

opportunitiesfor wildlife

viewing andcaribou is one

of the mostsought after

species.

in Yukon and Northern BC as a Species ofSpecial Concern. (See also 5.4 Species at Risk)

Why is it happening?• Woodland caribou are managed on a herd

basis. Predators and hunting keep cariboudensities below their habitat carryingcapacity. Based on management experi-ence and case history analysis the AnnualAllowable Harvest for a relatively stable,naturally regulated population is esti-mated at 2 to 3 percent of adults.

• The declining Chisana herd population isthe result of poor calf recruitment andadult survival as a result of a high rate ofpredation.

• The cause of the Fortymile herd decline isa combination of natural decline, over-harvest and habitat disintegration as a resultof highway construction in the 1960s,followed by high predation rates bywolves. By the 1960s the herd's numbersand range were greatly diminished andthey no longer migrated into the Yukon.

• Biologists believe that the recent declin-ing trend of the Porcupine herd is relatedto weather conditions such as high snowaccumulations and shorter summers thatare causing an increase in adult mortality.The birth rate is comparable to other herdsand harvest levels have remained at anacceptable level.

Why is it significant?• Conserving and protecting key caribou

habitat (e.g. rutting areas, migration

corridors, and winter range) is crucial to herd healthand abundance.

• Yukon has unique opportunities for wildlife viewingand caribou is one of the most sought after species.

• Caribou meat provides an important food source toYukon people.

• Without intervention, the Chisana herd could be indanger of extirpation. The return of the Fortymileherd from near-extirpation proves the effectivenessof management efforts including habitat protection,harvest reduction, and re-location of predators. Thecurrent Fortymile herd population may be strongenough to grow to more historically-representativepopulation numbers.

• The Porcupine caribou herd has a large rangeexpanding across northern Yukon, Alaska andNorthwest Territories. People in communitiesthroughout this area rely on this herd for food, andspiritual and cultural well-being.

What is being done about it?• Radio collar studies are conducted to delineate herd

ranges. Population trends are measured by annualsample counts during the fall breeding season whenherds are mixed and their sex and age compositionis evident. Population change is determined bycensus surveys every 4 to 5 years. Habitat assess-ments are carried out to determine range productiv-ity and to identify critical areas.

• The barrenground herds are managed undertransboundary agreements because their rangescross the Yukon-Alaska border.

• As the population of the Fortymile herd continues toincrease, intensive management efforts are beingreplaced with monitoring efforts.

• A pilot captive breeding project for the Chisana herdis expected to begin early in 2003. Twenty pregnantfemales will be captured, placed in a large pen andthen released when the calves reach one month ofage and are less susceptible to predation.

5.3.4 MooseWhat is happening?• The estimated moose population is 65,000 to 70,000,

distributed throughout the Yukon.

• Overall, moose populations are stable or increasing.

Community View:• Most of those asked in Carcross/Tagish, Haines

Junction, Watson Lake and Carmacks reported adecrease in bull moose sighted.

• The majority asked in Teslin, Burwash,Whitehorse/Laberge, Mayo and Faro/Ross Riverreported no change.

41


Withoutintervention,the Chisanaherd could bein danger ofextirpation. Apilot captivebreedingproject theherd isexpected tobegin earlyin 2003.

Overall,moosepopulationsare stable orincreasing.

42

Moose meatprovides asignificantportion ofYukonpeople's foodsupply.

In a few areas as shown in Figures 5.4.3.1 and 5.4.3.2populations are decreasing. Dawson East is an areasouth of Dawson City and the North Canol surveyarea straddles the North Canol Road northeast ofRoss River. (Note: Pre-2000 survey results are not

completely comparable with 2000 results because ofa change in survey techniques).

• Based on moose surveys in 1989 and 2000 mooseappear to be expanding their occupation of theNorth Slope. More moose seem to be over-winteringnorth of the Richardson Mountains.

• Moose is still the most popular big game animal inthe Yukon. As shown in Figure 5.3.4.3, between 600

and 800 moose are harvested annually, not includingthe harvest by First Nations.

Why is it happening?• The areas where moose populations are

declining are generally more easilyaccessible by hunters and/or closer tolarger populated areas.

• In the 1990s, intensive management andarea restrictions were effective in therecovery of area moose populations northof Haines Junction.

• Renewable resource managers estimatethat, Yukon-wide, between 2000 and2,500 moose could be harvested annuallyand still maintain a stable population. It islikely that, even including the FirstNation harvest, the moose harvest is wellwithin this limit.

Why is it significant?• Moose meat provides a significant portion

of Yukon people's food supply. About550,000 pounds of moose meat are locallyharvested every year.

• Moose are widely distributed throughoutthe territory. However, their numberstend to be concentrated in shrub habitatnear creeks and marshes, which make upa small portion of the Yukon. Althoughtheir numbers are healthy, habitatprotection is still critical.

• On the North Slope the overall increasingtrend in moose abundance could belinked to changes in climatic trends suchas temperature and precipitation. Mooseand a number of other mammals arethought to have been much less commonin the Yukon prior to about the turn of thecentury. Their northward expansion couldbe linked to climate change trends.

• Moose are a good indicator species forhabitat change and contaminants in theenvironment.

What is being done about it?• Systematic moose surveys have been

carried out since the early 1980s.

• The Government of Yukon’s Departmentof Environment carries out targetedresearch such as studying the seasonalmovements of moose north of Faro. Thiswork is being done to help addressconcerns about local harvest rates. It isnot known whether moose from sur-rounding regions move into this areaduring the rut or stay year-round.

• Hunter education is now mandatory forfirst-time hunters.


5.3.5 Grizzly BearsWhat is happening?• About 30 percent of Canada's grizzly bears

live in the Yukon. The Yukon grizzly bearpopulation is estimated to be between6000 and 7000.

• The grizzly bear is considered a species ofspecial concern by the Committee on theStatus of Endangered Wildlife in Canada(COSEWIC). (See also 5.4 Species at Risk.)

• Grizzly bear habitat has not historicallybeen monitored but due to a decrease inhuman population since 1997, habitatpressures are unlikely in the short-term.

• As shown in Figure 5.3.5.1, a significantpercentage-between 15 and 19 percent-ofthe total annual grizzly mortality, is controlkills. The total annual grizzly bear harvestdoes not include First Nation or Inuvialuitharvest. "Other" deaths such as roadstrikes of grizzlies remain at 2 or 3 per year.

Why is it happening?• The species of special concern status was

given to grizzly bears because of thesignificant decline in the species nationalrange as well as their sensitivity to humanactivities and their low reproductive rate.

• Control kills are usually carried out if abear is deemed "human-habituated." Thisis often the result of a bear becomingconditioned to humans and possiblydependent on them for food.

• Better landfill controls, particularly electric fencing,have been implemented at most Yukon landfills.This has helped to reduce control kills of garbage-dependent bears. The reason for the sustained number ofcontrol kills is not well understood by wildlife biologistsat this time, but likely due to a range of factors.

Why is it significant?• Grizzly bears, because they are sensitive to distur-

bance and range over large tracts of land, are a goodindicator of habitat health.

• Because grizzly bears have become extinct in ap-proximately half of the historical ranges in NorthAmerica, management of the Yukon's grizzly bearpopulation is of national and international significance.

• Globally, grizzly bear habitat has been reduced byapproximately 50 percent.

What is being done about it?• A number of community landfills are now fenced

and better garbage control is applied in wildernesscamps.

• Grizzly bear habitat is being protected through theestablishment of protected areas such as theNi'iinlii'njik (Fishing Branch) Park.

• The Yukon Department of Environment is educatingpeople who use the outdoors, about approaches tominimize grizzly-human interaction.

• Kluane National Park Reserve is monitoring grizzlybear movement and reproduction. Special grizzlybear management zones have been set up within thepark and warnings are provided or trails are closedwhen grizzly bear-human interaction is too high a risk.

• The Department of Environment, Government ofYukon monitors resident and non-resident grizzlybear harvest, Yukon-wide.

5.3.6 Thinhorn SheepWhat is happening?• The estimated thinhorn sheep population is 22,000

with densities ranging from less than 2 sheep/100km2 to more than 30 sheep/100 km2.

• Of the population, about 19,000 are white DallSheep found throughout most of the Yukon and3,000 are dark Stone or Fannin Sheep found mostlyin south-central Yukon.

About 30percent of the

Canada'sgrizzly bears

live in theYukon.

Grizzly bears,because they

are sensitive todisturbance

and range overlarge tracts of

land, are agood indicator

of habitathealth.Community View

• Most people asked in Mayo, BeaverCreek and Pelly Crossing reportedthat bears have been coming out ofhibernation earlier in the spring.

• One person in Whitehorse reportsseeing a bear still out on Remem-brance Day.

43

Globally, grizzlybear habitat

has beenreduced by

approximately50 percent.


• As shown in Figure 5.3.6.1, an average of 263 sheepare harvested each year by licensed hunters. Acyclical-high and low-harvest pattern seems to beevident in the data.

• Sheep are believed to be at, or near, historicalpopulation levels and have re-colonized some rangeswhere they had previously disappeared (probablydue to over-hunting). The population is consideredstable, with short term fluctuations.

• Figure 5.3.6.2 shows the variation in the number oflambs per 100 nursery sheep, which includes ewes,yearlings, and some 2-year-old rams. In general 25lambs per 100 nursery sheep represents a stablepopulation. Biologists have determined that thevariation may reflect weather patterns and environmentalconditions. Annual growth of Dall Sheep horns alsoseem to correlate with weather patterns.

Why is it happening?• The sheep harvest follows the natural trends in

population. The cyclical period in Figure 5.3.6.1appears similar to that in 5.3.6.2.

• Weather patterns may influence sheep population. Thereis growing evidence that population trends occurroughly in 10-year cycles and may be related to Pacificclimate cycles known as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation(PDO). The PDO may influence primary productivity-the number of lamb births, growth and survival rates.

• Winter weather, in particular snow conditions,affects birth rates. Weather conditions duringlambing in May impact lamb survival.

Why is it significant?• Thinhorn sheep have only 1 lamb per year and

reproductive success varies widely from year to year.Observed rates range from 1.5 to 67 lambs per 100nursery sheep during June and July surveys.

• Thinhorn sheep have very specific requirements forkey and limited habitat types. They need: wind-blown, grassy slopes as winter range; steep, secureareas where ewes can safely bear their lambs; steeprugged cliffs where they can escape from predators;and access to mineral licks.

• Population numbers are estimated withbest available numbers from aerialsurveys, and analysis of the number oflambs per 100 nursery sheep.

What is being done about it?• Population and classification surveys are

carried out on an irregular basis andattempts are being made to more formallyincorporate ground observations made byinterested hunters and residents.

• The sheep harvest is closely monitored.

5.3.7 Wildlife ValuesWhat is happening?• Yukon people and non-residents value

Yukon wildlife and wilderness for avariety of reasons including wildlifeviewing, wilderness hiking, hunting,trapping and wilderness education. (Seealso 4.7 Tourism)

• Figure 5.3.7.1 shows that the participantrate in the Wildlife Viewing Program hasdecreased slightly since its start in 1998.Twenty-five to 30 programs are offeredannually by different organizations.

• The number of visits to the DempsterInterpretive Centre, at Tombstone Park,has increased by a factor of 5 since 1986.The number of visits to Swan HavenInterpretive Centre increased rapidly inits first three years and then levelled off.Since 2000, the number of visitors hasincreased steadily.

• Thirty-nine percent of Yukon visitors and 28percent of Yukon people participate in wildlifeviewing activities while 11 percent of Yukonpeople participate in hunting activities.

• The number of resident hunting licences soldhas been steadily decreasing since 1982.However, Figure 5.3.7.2 also shows that non-resident hunting licences has been increasing.

• There is a general downward trend of huntinglicence sales throughout North America andthe average age of hunters is increasing.

Winterweather, inparticularsnowconditions,affects thebirth rate.Weatherduring lambingin May affectslamb survival.

There isgrowingevidence thatsheeppopulationtrends occurroughly in10-year cyclesand may berelated toPacific climatecycles knownas the PacificDecadalOscillation.

44


Why is it happening?• The Government of Yukon's Wildlife

Viewing Program was initiated in re-sponse to a growing demand for wildlifeviewing information and activities fromtourists and Yukon residents.

• The decrease in hunting activity mayreflect the worldwide trend of an in-creased interest in wild places and non-consumptive wilderness activities.

• In addition, greater barriers to newhunters such as firearm regulations andincreased urbanization may be contribut-ing to the trend. The trend seems to applyto First Nation people as well.

• Given the small number of hunters in theYukon, statistics can be easily skewed. Forexample, the population drop in Farocould have affected the number oflicences sold.

• The increase in non-resident hunterslikely points to Yukon's good reputationfor hunting and wilderness.

• Tourists make up the majority of visitorsto the Dempster Interpretive Centre.

Their interests include a range of non-consumptiveuses such as wildlife viewing, travel, and generalinformation about Tombstone Park and Yukon'swild areas. Tombstone Park is the first road-acces-sible territorial park to be established.

• Yukon residents make up the majority of visitors toSwan Haven, because of its spring-focus, which islow-tourist season. A high percentage of the attendeesare annual or semi-annual visitors. With currentnumbers the centre's infrastructure is at maximumcapacity so marketing of the site is limited.

Why is it significant?• Worldwide, there is an increasing demand for

protection of wild spaces as well as a demand foraccess to view wildlife in their natural habitat. Thischange in the interests of wilderness users willimpact traditional strategies for wildlife and wilder-ness management.

• Hunting and consumption of wild meat remains astrong part of Yukon culture, particularly FirstNations culture.

What is being done about it?• The Government of Yukon has produced a number

of wilderness viewing products including informa-tion about methods of minimizing impacts onwildlife and their habitat. The Yukon's WildlifeViewing Guide Along Major Highways and Explorethe Wild, a monthly calendar of events for specialprograms about wildlife and natural history areparticularly popular.

• Management of Yukon's big game harvest is on-going. (see also 5.3.3 to 5.3.6.)

5.4 SPECIES AT RISKWhat is happening?• Many of the earth's wild species are at risk, including

some that live in the Yukon.

• In October 1996, federal, provincial and territorialWildlife Ministers agreed-in-principle to the Na-tional Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk(NAPSR) and committed to a national approach toprotect these species. The accord outlines commit-

The number ofresidenthunting

licences soldhas been

steadilydecreasing and

non-residenthunting

licencesincreasing

since 1982.

The number ofvisits to

DempsterInterpretiveCentre has

increased by afactor of 5

since 1986.

Thirty-ninepercent of

Yukon visitorsand 28

percent ofYukon peopleparticipate in

wildlife viewingactivities.

Community View• The majority of people asked in eight

areas noted unusual sightings ofwildlife near their communities, such ascougar near Carcross, lynx and wolvesnear Tagish and cougar, bears, sheepand deer near Mayo.

• Cougar, mule deer and unusualcaribou movements near BurwashLanding and Destruction Bay, wolf,deer and cougar near Pelly Crossing,bear, white-tail deer and coyotes nearWhitehorse/Laberge, bear, moose,lynx and coyotes near Lake Laberge,and caribou near Beaver Creek werereported.

• Coyotes, foxes and lynx, as well asPorcupine caribou coming furthersouth than usual near Dawson, blackbears near Watson Lake, deer nearFaro, fox, coyotes and wolves nearCarmacks, and wolves near Teslinwere seen by various individuals.

45


ments to designate species, protect their habitats anddevelop recovery plans. Yukon species at risk areidentified and managed through various mecha-nisms, four of which are outlined below:

1. The Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) is a nationalcommittee that evaluates the status of Canada'swildlife species and identifies those most at riskunder seven categories. In the Yukon, 13 speciesat risk are identified under three categories ofrisk as shown in Table 5.4.1.

2. The Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species (CITES) governs the cross-border movement of animal parts from speciesof international concern. The Wild Animal andPlant Protection and Regulation of Interna-tional and Interprovincial Trade Act(WAPPRIITA) is the legislative vehicle by whichCanada meets its obligations under CITES. Ingeneral, each province and territory is respon-sible for the sustainable management of theirwild species and their products. (http://www.cites.ec.gc.ca/eng/sct4/index_e.cfm)

3. As a requirement under the NAPSR, Yukoncompleted its first wildlife status report in 2000.This report provided some Yukon-generatedbaseline information for future years. A statusreport will now be completed every five years.As shown in Table 5.4.2, 142 of the 384 species

examined were designated to be at risk, possiblyat risk or requiring special management.

4. Yukon's Wildlife Act lists the following eightspecies as "specially protected": elk, muskox,mule deer, cougar, Gyrfalcon, Peregrine Falcon,Trumpeter Swan and the Chisana caribou herd.

• In the mid-1970s, the Peregrine Falcon was locallyextinct in most of North America. Through a captivebreeding program, the falcons were re-introduced totheir former range in the Yukon. In 1999, the PeregrineFalcon was downlisted by COSEWIC from endangered

In the Yukon,13 species atrisk areidentifiedunder threecategories ofrisk, byCOSEWIC.

The federalgovernmentassented toCanada'sSpecies atRisk Act(SARA) onDecember 12,2002.

The pairnumbers aswell as pairswith young ofthe twoPeregrineFalconsubspeciesthat summerin the Yukonare increasing.

46

to threatened. The Anatum subspeciessummers in the continental interior andremains on the threatened list. The Tundrasubspecies summers north of the treelineand has been downlisted to specialconcern.

• As shown in Figures 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 bothsubspecies of the Peregrine Falcon pairnumbers as well as pairs with young areincreasing in the Yukon.

• Two continental populations of Trum-peter Swans breed in the Yukon. Based ona 2000 survey, the Rocky Mountainpopulation has continued to show anincrease. The Yukon portion of the PacificCoast population showed a slight decreasefrom 1995 numbers, but this is probably aresult of bad weather during the 2000

survey. Most likely, this popula-tion is also increasing. Noobvious change in migrationcounts have been recorded since1995.

Why is it happening?• Different mechanisms for theprotection of species of risk are

needed at the territorial, national and globallevels to be effective. For example, speciesnumbers may be locally healthy but nation-ally or globally at risk.

• The decline in Peregrine Falcons has beenlinked to the use of the pesticide, DDT,which has been banned from use inCanada and the United States. A nationalrecovery plan has aided the re-establish-ment of Peregrine Falcon populations.


• Trumpeter Swans were over-hunted forfood and plumage in the early 1900s. Theyhave been making a slow recovery over thelast 100 years and expanding their breedingrange in the north. Both populations(Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain) innorthwestern Canada and Alaska arepresently increasing at a healthy rate.

Why is it significant?• The Tundra Peregrine Falcon is recover-

ing from a period in 1982-87 when nobreeding birds were found in the area. Inthe 1970s, Peregrine Falcons were judgedto be in danger of extinction.

• Trumpeter Swans were de-listed from the"at risk" list in 1996.

What is being done about it?• As a commitment under the National Accord for the

Protection of Species at Risk, the federal government,passed Canada's Species at Risk Act (SARA) on December12, 2002. The Act will likely be proclaimed and comeinto effect by June 2003.

• A population survey of the Tundra Peregrine Falconwas completed in 2000.

• Currently, Trumpeter Swans are surveyed continent-wide (including their known range in the Yukon)every five years. In addition, each year swans arecounted daily at Swan Haven Interpretive Centre onMarsh Lake, during spring migration in April andearly May. Satellite telemetry is currently being usedto track the migration and wintering patterns ofYukon Trumpeter Swans.


6.1 WETLANDS

WHAT IS HAPPENING?• Wetlands include bogs, fens, swamps, marshes and

shallow open water areas.

• Because the Yukon is a mountainous region, wetlandscover only three percent of the land base, a muchsmaller portion of the land base than in many jurisdic-tions in Canada.

• As shown in Figure 6.1.1, the most extensivewetlands occur north of the Arctic Circle in low-lying permafrost terrain but wetlands also existthroughout the Yukon associated with rivers, lakesand on upland plateaus.

• Fifty-four wetlands have been identified as signifi-cant, based mainly on their value as migratory birdhabitats for moulting, breeding or migratory "rest-stops". Eleven of these wetlands have been added tothe list since 1999. Some of these areas providehabitat for species that are rare or of restricteddistribution in the Yukon.

• Wetland inventory is ongoing, both as part of broadecoregion inventories, as well as specific wetlandinventories.

• Since 1999, the Ducks Unlimited Boreal ForestInitiative has surveyed wetlands in the southernlakes region for waterfowl and undertaken wetlandsmapping on the Peel Plateau in Northeast Yukon.

• Between 1973 and 1999, there has been a decline inabout 6.8 percent of water surface area in Old CrowFlats, a large system of lakes and wetlands in theNorth Yukon.

• (Note: it is difficult to compare the Figure 6.1.1 mapto the 1999 SOE map due to some changes ingrouping of wetland areas.)

Why is it happening?• In many parts of Canada, there has been a substan-

tial loss of wetlands as a result of drainage for urbanexpansion, agriculture and flooding by hydroelectricdevelopment. Comparatively, there have been fewernegative impacts on Yukon's wetlands.

• Focused inventory work is being carried out becausewetlands are highly valuable and productive butrelatively scarce habitats.

• Wetlands are subject to natural fluctuations in waterlevels responding to seasonal changes in precipita-tion and temperature. There is a summer warmingtrend in the Old Crow Flats area, which may beincreasing rates of evaporation.

Why is it significant?• Wetlands are storehouses and purifiers of

water, provide flood control, and providecritical habitat (shelter, food and water)for song birds, waterfowl, raptors, moose,small mammals and other species. Wetlandsmay contain large quantities of peat.

• Old Crow Flats provides habitat forperegrine falcons, songbirds, aquatic andterrestrial mammals, and breeding andmoulting grounds for a variety of waterfowlspecies. A changing climate could havenegative impacts on this wildlife and habitats.(see also 2.3 Impacts of Climate Change).

What is being done about it?• Wetland inventory work is being carried

out by the Yukon Wetlands TechnicalCommittee, Nature Serve Yukon andDucks Unlimited.

• Strategies to conserve Yukon's wetlandsare being spearheaded by Ducks Unlimited.

6.2 FORESTS(See also 4.5 Land Use-Forestry)

WHAT IS HAPPENING?• Yukon's forest ecology reflects three key

environmental conditions: cool soiltemperatures; low annual precipitation;and a short growing season.

• All of Yukon's forests are considered borealbut vary regionally reflecting differences inclimate, geology, landform and vegetation.

• Natural disturbance agents such aswildfire, insects and diseases, blow-downand flooding play a critical role in forestecosystem dynamics.

• The amount of natural fire activity withinan area or ecosystem is generally afunction of the amount of forest cover,lightning activity and climate.

• As a fire management tool, the territory isdivided into two zones: the fire actionzone for areas that need to be protected;and the fire observation zone for areas oflesser value. Fires starting in action zonesare fought aggressively. In observationzones, fires are only fought if they pose athreat to public safety or infrastructure.The fire action zone area has increased duringthis SOE reporting period (1999-2002).

Focusedinventory workis beingcarried outbecausewetlands arehighly valuableandproductivebut relativelyscarcehabitats.

48

Because theYukon is amountainousregion,wetlands coveronly 3 percentof the landbase, a muchsmaller portionof the landbase thanmany parts ofCanada.

Chapter 6 EcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystems


In many partsof Canada,

there has beena substantial

loss of wet-lands as a

result ofdrainage for

urbanexpansion,agriculture

and flooding by

hydroelectricdeveloment.

Comparatively,there havebeen fewer

negativeimpacts on

Yukon'swetlands.

Figure 6.1.1 Map of Important Wetlands in the Yukon

49


Figure 6.2.1 shows Yukon's forest firestatistics for the past 55 years. The num-ber of natural and human-caused fires,and hectares burned per year, has beenincreasing since the 1950s but to an evengreater degree in the 1990s. The numberof lightning-caused fires has been increas-ing faster than human-caused fires. Thearea burned has been increasing at aslower rate than the number of fires.

• The forests affected by the spruce barkbeetle in southwest Yukon increased from22,600 hectares in 2001 to 69,415 hect-ares in 2002. The rate of infestationincreased by more than 300 percent andthe cumulative area of infestation nowexceeds 250,000 hectares. (see also 2.3Impacts of Climate Change)

• A significant increase in spruce budwormactivity was detected in the La Biche andWatson Lake areas of southeast Yukon.

• Trace levels of spruce budworm activity were detectedfor the first time over a wide area: the Alsek andKaskawulsh river valleys to Congdon Creek in 2002.

• There are eight tree species in Yukon's boreal forest.The Sub-alpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) was elected asYukon's official tree in 2001, by public vote. The Sub-alpine Fir grows 6 to 20 metres tall and is found inthe Yukon regions south of the Dawson area (64degrees north latitude) and east of Haines Junction(138 degrees longitude). It generally grows at higherelevations.

Why is it happening?• Overall, Yukon communities have been experienc-

ing a trend of warmer winters and summers overmost of the past century. An exception is WatsonLake, which has experienced no significant changein winter and summer temperatures. Changes inprecipitation trends are more variable. In general,summer precipitation shows a moderate to pro-nounced increase in most communities. Winterprecipitation varies between a pronounced increaseto a pronounced decrease among communities.Watson Lake winter precipitation shows a pro-nounced decrease. Changing climatic conditionscould be creating an environment for increased firestarts in some Yukon regions. (See also 2.2 PrimaryIndicators of Climate Change)

• Methods for collecting fire statistics may also havechanged over the years, which could distort longterm trends.

• The Fire Action Zone has enlarged because ofchanging human values. Previously, it containedtownsites, and areas with private and public infra-structure but it has expanded to include areas withhigh timber harvesting values, cultural heritage andimportant ungulate populations, for example.Because there are more fire action zones and in-creased effort is going into fighting fires, the areaburned may not be increasing at the same rate as thenumber of fires.

• Insects may be expanding their range to the north, inpart, as a result of warming conditions and lower

The rate ofspruce beetleinfestationincreased bymore than 300percent insouthwestYukon from2001 to 2002.

Insects maybe expandingtheir range tothe north as aresult ofwarmingconditions anddrier condi-tions.

50

The number ofnatural andhuman-causedfires andhectaresburned peryear has beenincreasingsince the1950s.

Community View• Most of those asked reported that

standing spruce with red needleshave increased in number in fivecommunities (Carcross/Tagish,Whitehorse/Laberge, Burwash/Destruction Bay, Carmacks andWatson Lake).

• In Whitehorse/Laberge, Carcross/Tagish, Pelly Crossing, Old Crow,Watson Lake and Dawson, mostpeople reported an increase in soilerosion at shorelines.

• Leaves came out early in four areas,according to most of those inter-viewed in Pelly Crossing, Carmacks,Burwash/Destruction Bay andCarcross/Tagish. The majority ofthose interviewed in Mayo reportedlate leaf out while most of thoseasked in Teslin and Watson Lakesaid there has been no change(1995-2000).


than average levels of winter precipitation in someareas. The infested areas are generally older forestsand in zones that experienced recent droughtconditions. Older trees are more prone to disease orinsect infestation and drought further diminishes atree's resistance.

• The Sub-alpine Fir is a popular Christmas andlandscaping tree because of its shape and fragrance.Tea made from the needles is a traditional FirstNation's cold remedy rich in Vitamin C. Sap drawnfrom bark blisters has been used by First Nationpeople as a traditional medicine for lung ailments.

Why is it significant?• The significant increase in spruce bark beetle activity

follows a recent drought period in the area that hasappeared to have subsided. The effects of insectpopulations that build up during a drought often takeyears to be noticed. Therefore, it is not known at thispoint whether insect activity will subside over thenext few years or whether the duration and intensityof insect and disease activity may continue toincrease beyond historic levels, as a result of longerterm climate conditions. The infestation could affectthe short-term ecosystem resilience of some Yukonforests.

• Wildfire intensity and activity may alsocontinue to increase. This increase couldaffect changes in the forest ecology andcould result in increased fire manage-ment costs.

What is being done about it?• A number of projects such as the Cana-

dian Forest Service's Forest HealthAssessment project are being carried outto better understand the impact on forestecology as a result of the recent sprucebark beetle infestations.

• Community fire protection has becomean important issue, resulting in the well-used Fire Smart Program. The Fire SmartProgram also provides jobs incommunities.

• As part of the Devolution Transfer Agree-ment, forest and forest fire managementwill be transferred to the Government ofYukon from the federal government onApril 1, 2003.


GlossaryGlossaryGlossaryGlossaryGlossary

Agroclimate ClassificationCompilation of the average and extreme weather of anarea as it affects agricultural cropping in that area.Agroclimatic classification is based on limitations ofan area's available heat and/or moisture.

Ambient Air PollutionThe degradation of the quality of non-conditionedoutside air resulting from unwanted chemicals or othermaterials occurring in the air.

Annual Allowable HarvestThe allowable harvest established annually by wildlifemanagers based on management experience, casehistory analysis and relevant guidelines and criteria.

Calf RecruitmentThe number of calves per 100 cows measured in thefall.

Canada-Wide StandardsNational scientific standards that include the estab-lishment of acceptable levels in ambient air for PM2.5and O3.

Carbon Dioxide EquivalentA metric measure used to compare the emissionsfrom various greenhouse gases based upon theirglobal warming potential (GWP). The carbon dioxideequivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tonsof the gas by the associated GWP. For example, theGWP for methane is 24.5.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)An air pollutant that is a colorless, odourless, poison-ous gas produced by incomplete combustion; particu-larly, incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels such asgasoline, oil and wood.

Carbon TetrachlorideA compound consisting of one carbon atom and fourchlorine atoms. Carbon tetrachloride was widely usedas a raw material in many industrial uses, includingthe production of CFCs, and as a solvent.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)A compound consisting of chlorine, fluorine, andcarbon. CFCs are very stable in the troposphere. Theyare broken down by strong ultraviolet light in thestratosphere and release chlorine atoms that depletethe ozone layer. CFCs are commonly used as refriger-ants, solvents, and foam blowing agents.

CITES(Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora) An internationalagreement between governments. Its aim is to ensurethat international trade in specimens of wild animalsand plants does not threaten their survival.

ColiformA group of bacteria that, if present in water, show thatother pathogens may exist. Coliform bacteria areindicator organisms and may not be harmfulthemselves.

Contaminated Site"A site at which substances occur at concentrations:above background levels and pose, or are likely topose, an immediate or long-term hazard to humanhealth and the environment; or exceed levels specified

in policies and regulations;" (INAC ContaminatedSites Management Policy) or "an area of land inwhich the soil, including any groundwater lyingbeneath it , or the water including the sediment andbed below it, contains a contaminant which is anamount, concentration or level in excess of thatprescribed by regulation or allowed under a permit."(Section 111, Yukon Environment Act)

COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada)A committee of experts that assesses and designateswhich wild species are in some danger of disappear-ing from Canada.

CryptosporidiumCryptosporidium enteritis is an infection of the smallintestine characterized by diarrhea, which is causedby the parasite cryptosporidium.

Data DeficientA species for which there is insufficient scientificinformation to support status designation. (COSEWICDesignation)

Design FloodThe hypothetical flood used in the sizing of dams andother structures to prevent failure by overtopping,especially for the spillway and outlet works.

Ecosystem Resilience (Forest)A measure of a forest's ability to recover from majordisturbance such as fire or insect infestations, a keyelement of forest health.

El NiñoSpanish for the "Christ Child". Fishermen in Peru andEcuador used to use this term to refer to the normalwarming of coastal waters around Christmas. It hascome to be used as a term for abnormal warmingevents which occur, on an average of two or threetimes a decade and typically last for a few seasons.

EndangeredA species facing imminent extirpation or extinction.(COSEWIC Designation)

Escapement (Spawning)The number of salmon returning to their spawninggrounds.

ExtinctA species that no longer exists. (COSEWIC Designa-tion)

ExtirpatedA species that no longer exists in the wild in Canada,but occurring elsewhere. (COSEWIC Designation)

ExtirpationThe extinction of a species or other group of organ-isms in a particular local area.

Frost-Free PeriodThe number of days between the average last date of0° C in the spring and the average first date of 0° C inthe fall. For the purposes of agroclimatic calculationthe growing season is considered finished at the firstkilling frost (-2.5°C) after July 15.

Fuel WoodAny personal or commercial wood, usually cut as asource of "fuel" for space heating, and removed fromthe forest in lengths less than 2.5 metres.


GiardiasisA disease that results from an infection by theprotozoan parasite Giardia lamblia, caused bydrinking water that is not properly treated. Thedisorder is more prevalent in children than in adultsand is characterized by abdominal discomfort,nausea, and alternating constipation and diarrhea.

Greenhouse EffectThe effect produced as greenhouse gases allowincoming solar radiation to pass through the Earth'satmosphere, but prevent most of the outgoing infra-red radiation from the surface and lower atmospherefrom escaping into outer space. This process occursnaturally and has kept the Earth's temperature warmerthan it would otherwise be. Current life on Earth couldnot be sustained without the natural greenhouseeffect.

Ground Level Ozone (O3)A molecule that consists of three oxygen atomsbonded together. Ozone that is present in the earth'stroposphere is mostly a result of human-causedpollution.

Growing Degree DayA form of degree day used as a guide to determinethe most appropriate time to plant and harvest crops:A day on which the mean daily temperature is onedegree above the base temperature-minimum re-quired for growth of a particular crop. For agroclimaticcalculations growing degree days base temperatureis 5 °C (40°F).

Habitat/Species Management AreaICUN Protected Area Category IV. A protected areamanaged mainly for conservation through manage-ment intervention.

HalonA compound consisting of bromine, fluorine, andcarbon. Halons are used in fire protection becausethey are: effective fire extinguishing agents; non-corrosive; electrically non-conductive; and leave nosolid or liquid residue.

Hazardous WasteAny waste material that is potentially dangerous,including but not limited to material that is explosive,radioactive, ignitable, corrosive, toxic, or reactive.

Hydrochlorofluoro-Carbons (HCFCs)A compound consisting of hydrogen, chlorine, fluo-rine, and carbon. The HCFCs are one class ofchemicals being used to replace the CFCs. Theycontain chlorine and thus deplete stratosphericozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs. Theyare used in refrigerants, solvents and both rigid andflexible foams.

Hydrologic ZoneA geographical area representing all of a surfacedrainage basin.

53

IchthyophonusA fungal parasite present in a number of fishspecies.

International Panel On Climate Change (IPCC)The IPCC was established jointly by the UnitedNations Environment Programme and the WorldMeteorological Organization in 1988. The purposeof the IPCC is to assess information in the scien-tific and technical literature related to all significantcomponents of the issue of climate change. TheIPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expertscientist as authors and thousands as expertreviewers. Leading experts on climate change andenvironmental, social, and economic sciencesfrom some 60 nations have helped the IPCC toprepare periodic assessments of the scientificunderpinnings for understanding global climatechange and its consequences.

International World Conservation Union (IUCN)An international organization established toencourage societies throughout the world toconserve the integrity and diversity of nature, inpart, through the creation of protected areas. It hasdeveloped standardized categories to enableprotected area accounting around the globe.

LeachateLiquids that have percolated through a soil andthat carry substances in solution or suspension.

Managed Resource Protected AreaICUN Protected Area Category VI. A protectedarea managed mainly for the sustainable use ofnatural ecosystems.

Methyl BromideMethyl bromide was used as a fumigant in pesti-cides.

Methyl ChloroformA compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, andchlorine. Methyl chloroform is used as an indus-trial solvent.

Micrometer (um)A unit of measure (one millionth of a metre).

National Accord for the Protection of Species atRiskAn Agreement among federal, provincial andterritorial governments to work on a commonapproach to protecting species at risk in Canadathat includes complementary legislation andprograms to protect habitat and species. Yukonsigned on in 1998.

National Ambient Air Quality Objectives (NAAQOs)National scientific objectives that set out bench-mark levels of protection for people and the envi-ronment in Canada, including maximum desirableand acceptable levels of CO and NOx. cides.

Methyl ChloroformA compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, andchlorine. Methyl chloroform is used as an indus-trial solvent.


Micrometer (um)A unit of measure (one millionth of a metre).

National Accord for the Protection of Species at RiskAn Agreement among federal, provincial and territorialgovernments to work on a common approach toprotecting species at risk in Canada that includescomplementary legislation and programs to protecthabitat and species. Yukon signed on in 1998.

National Ambient Air Quality Objectives (NAAQOs)National scientific objectives that set out benchmarklevels of protection for people and the environment inCanada, including maximum desirable and acceptablelevels of CO and NOx.

National ParkICUN Protected Area Category II. A protected areamanaged mainly for ecosystem protection andrecreation.

Natural MonumentICUN Protected Area Category III. A protected areamanaged mainly for conservation of specific naturalfeatures.

NDVI: (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index)NDVI measurements may be used as an index of theamount of green plant biomass present at a giventime. NDVI values are determined from weathersatellites that cover the globe on a daily basis.Sensors on board the satellites are related to theamount of vegetation on the ground.

Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)A unit of measure for the turbidity of water; essen-tially, a measure of the cloudiness of water as mea-sured by a nephelometer. Turbidity is based on theamount of light that is reflected off particles in thewater.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)Nitrogen-based compounds released during thecombustion of fossil fuels.

Not At RiskA species that has been evaluated and found to benot at risk. (COSEWIC Designation)

Nursery SheepSheep that includes ewes, yearlings, and the few 2-year-old rams that have not yet joined ram bands.These animals cannot always be reliably distin-guished during aerial surveys and so are groupedtogether.

Ozone DepletionChemical destruction of the stratospheric ozone layerbeyond natural reactions. Stratospheric ozone isconstantly being created and destroyed throughnatural cycles.

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)A weather pattern often described as a long-lived ElNiño-like pattern of Pacific climate variability. Ex-tremes in the PDO pattern are marked by widespreadvariations in Pacific Basin and North American cli-mate. The extreme phases of the PDO have beenclassified as being either warm or cool, as defined byocean temperature anomalies in the northeast andtropical Pacific Ocean.

Particulate Matter (PM)Airborne particulate matter, known as PM, is one ofthe major components of smog. PM include micro-scopic particles in the air. These particles, capable ofbeing inhaled by humans, are divided into two sizeranges PM2.5 and PM<10. A third category is ultrafines,a subgroup of PM2.5, which are particles <0.1ug

Parts Per Million (PPM)This term give scientists a way to describe how muchof a substance is contained in a sample. e.g. parts ofCO per million parts of air.

Photochemical SmogNatural and artificially emitted hydrocarbons in thepresence of oxides of nitrogen undergo photochemicalreactions which produce a cloud of toxic chemicalsincluding ozone and a variety of caustic agents. Thisprocess is powered by sunlight and some of theproducts, such as ozone, reach a peak when thesun's photon flux is most powerful, around midday.

Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)High altitude clouds found in the stratosphere wherethe temperature is less than -85 degrees Celsius.Commonly found over the Arctic and Antarctica, theyhave a role in the creation of the ozone hole overAntarctica.

Protected Area"An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated tothe protection and maintenance of biological diversity,and of natural and associated cultural resources, andmanaged through legal or other effective means."(IUCN definition)

Protected Landscape/SeascapeICUN Protected Area Category V. A protected areamanaged mainly for landscape/seascape protectionand recreation.

Round WoodAny section of the stem or thicker branches of a treethat has been cut but not processed beyond removalof the limbs or bark or, in the case of fuel wood,splitting of the section.

Saw LogThe term saw log was removed from the 2001 TimberRegulations. Prior to 2001 the term saw log referredto any logs to be used for mill products. The ForestManagement Branch no longer uses a "saw log" definition.

Special ConcernA species with characteristics that make it particu-larly sensitive to human activities or natural events.(COSEWIC Designation)

Special Management AreaAn area identified and established within a TraditionalTerritory pursuant to Chapter 10 of First Nation FinalAgreements.

Specially Protected WildlifeA designation of protection of a species, population ortype of wildlife under the Wildlife Act.

Species of Special ConcernCommittee on the Status of Endangered Species inCanada (COSEWIC) designation for a species withcharacteristics that make it particularly sensitive tohuman activities or natural events.


Ecoregions of the Yukon(code numbers are part of a national framework for the classificationof ecoregions)

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Spruce Bark Beetle (Dendroctonus Rufipennis)The spruce bark beetle common to spruce forests inNorth America, is the most destructive pest of matureforest stands in western Canada. Records indicatethat spruce bark beetle infestations have occurred insouthwest Yukon since the 1940's (NAP 1994).Severe outbreaks are usually associated with blowdown, high stumps following logging or poor slashdisposal practices. In the Yukon the spruce barkbeetle usually has a two-year life cycle. In exposedhost material, such as stumps, log decks and standedges, broods may mature in one year depending onthe amount of solar radiation (Humphreys andSafranyik 1993).

Spruce Budworm (Choristoneura Spp.)Native to North America, the spruce budworm isconsidered one of the most destructive pests ofDouglas fir, true firs and spruce forests. Generally, thelarvae, preferring the upper crown, feed on newneedles only partially eating the buds. Infested spruceand fir stands take on a reddish color in the summerdue to the abundance of dead needles. In the fallthese needles carried off by wind or rain and thestands are turn a grayish color. Severe defoliation mayresult in reduced incremental growth, dieback of treetops, and mortality of regeneration and mature trees(Unger 1995).

StratosphereThe region of the atmosphere above the troposphere.The stratosphere extends from about 10km to about50km in altitude. Commercial airlines fly in the lowerstratosphere. The stratosphere gets warmer at higheraltitudes.

Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness AreaICUN Protected Area Category I. A protectedarea managed mainly for science of wildernessprotection.

ThreatenedA species that is likely to become endangeredif limiting factors are not reversed. (COSEWICDesignation).

Total Allowable CatchAmount of catch that may be taken from astock after spawning escapement has beenachieved.

TroposphereThe region of the atmosphere closest to theEarth. The troposphere extends from thesurface up to about 10 km in altitude, althoughthis height varies with latitude.

Type I Contaminated SiteSites include: Western Copper, Dublin Gulch,Mount Skookum, La Forma, Sa Dena Hes, andKudz Ze Kayah.

Type II Contaminated SiteMine sites which could result in unfundedenvironmental liabilities for government. Sitesinclude Faro, United Keno Hill, BYG, MountNansen, Ketza River, Clinton Creek, ViceroyBrewery Creek and Minto.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)Organic compounds that evaporate readily into the air.VOCs include substances such as benzene, toluene,methylene chloride, and methyl chloroform.

Year Class StrengthThe number of spawning fish by age class.


Chapter 1 Air and Atmosphere1.1 Ambient Air QualityGeneral:Environmental Protection and Assessment Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/epa/

index.shtml)National Air Pollution Surveillance Network (NAPS), Environment Canada website (http://www.etcentre.org/home/air_e.html)Energy Solutions Centre (http://www.nrgsc.yk.ca/)Specific:Figure 1.1.1Source: Environmental Protection and Assessment Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

1.2 Stratospheric OzoneGeneral:Department of Environment, Government of YukonEnvironmental Indicators, Environment Canada (http://www.ecoinfo.org/env_ind/region/ozone/ozone_e.cfm)Stratospheric Ozone, Environment Canada (http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone/en/index.cfm)Ozone Depletion and Climate Change: Understanding the Linkages Report, Environment Canada (http://exp-studies.tor.ec.gc.ca/e/ozone/

OzoneDepletionClimateChange.pdf)Northern Climate ExChange (http://yukon.taiga.net/knowledge/resources/bulletins.html)

Chapter 2 Climate Change2.1 Drivers of Climate ChangeGeneral:Canada's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2000, Greenhouse Gas Division, Environment Canada, June 2002 (http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/

1990_00_report/foreword_e.cfm)Energy Policy & Programs, Energy Mines and Resources, Government of YukonNorthern Climate ExChange (http://www.taiga.net/nce/index.html)Energy Solutions Centre (http://www.nrgsc.yk.ca/)Environmental Protection and Assessment Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/epa/

climate.shtml)Yukon Bureau of Statistics, Government of Yukon, 2002. Yukon Energy Facts 2002: Annual Report (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/eco/stats/annual/

energy_02.pdf)Specific:Figures 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3Source: Greenhouse Gas Division, Environment Canada, June 2002. Canada's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2000 (http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/

1990_00_report/foreword_e.cfm)

2.2 Primary Indicators of Climate ChangeGeneral:Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment Canada (http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html)Environment Canada's Environmental Indicators-Climate Change website (http://www.ecoinfo.org/env_ind/region/climate/climate_e.cfm)Northern Climate ExChange (http://www.taiga.net/nce/index.html)Environmental Protection and Assessment Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/epa/

climate.shtml)Specific:Table 2.2.1Source: Data from Environment Canada Weather Records

2.3 Impacts of Climate ChangeGeneral:Water Resources Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonPacific and Yukon Region, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada (http://www.pyr.ec.gc.ca/EN/Wildlife/about/index.shtml)Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources CanadaFish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonHeritage Resources Branch, Department of Tourism and Culture, Government of YukonNorthern Climate ExChange (http://www.taiga.net/nce/index.html)Arctic Borderlands Research Cooperative Indicator-Early Summer Green Vegetation in Caribou Calving Areas (http://www.taiga.net/coop/indics/ndvi.html)Carcross-Tagish First Nation, Champagne & Aishihik First Nations, Kluane First Nation, Kwanlin Dun First Nation, Spring 2002. Ice Patch NewsletterSpecific:Figure 2.3.1Source: Water Resources Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonFigure 2.3.2Source: Pacific and Yukon Region, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada (data from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Biological Resource

Division, U.S.G.S.)

Chapter 3 Water3.1 Drinking Water QualityGeneral:Environmental Health Services, Department of Health and Social Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.hss.gov.yk.ca/prog/eh/index.html)Health Canada (www.hc-sc.gc.ca)Specific:Table 3.1.1Source: Summarized from Infrastructure Status Report-2002, Community Services, Government of Yukon

ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences

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3.2 Water Quality, Quantity and UseGeneral:Water Resources Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/water/index.shtml)Community Development Branch, Community Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/community/general/

communitydevelopment.html)Environmental Health Services, Health and Social Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.hss.gov.yk.ca/prog/eh/index.html)Energy Solutions Centre (http://www.nrgsc.yk.ca/)Specific:Figures 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4Source: Water Resources Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonTable 3.2.1Source: Data summarized from Infrastructure Status Report-2000, Community Services, Government of Yukon

Chapter 4 Land4.1 Protected AreasGeneral:Parks Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/parks/index.shtml)International World Conservation Union (http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wcpa/protectedareas.htm)Land Claims and Implementation Secretariat, Executive Council Office, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/eco/landclaims/index.html)Specific:Figure 4.1.1Source: Parks Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

4.2 Waste: Solid, Special, Recyclables & CompostGeneral:Raven Recycling Society (http://www.ravenrecycling.homestead.com/files/Raven.html)Environmental Protection and Assessment Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/epa/

index.shtml)Community Development Branch, Community Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/community/general/

communitydevelopment.html)Engineering and Environmental Services, City of Whitehorse, YukonSpecific:Table 4.2.1Source: Data summarized from Infrastructure Report 2002, Community Services, Government of Yukon and Raven Recycling Society informationFigure 4.2.1Source: Data from Raven Recycling Society and City of Whitehorse (01/02 Compost: refers to City of Whitehorse collection including 8 months of city-

wide curbside compost collection program)

4.3 Contaminated SitesGeneral:Waste Management Program, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC)Contaminated Sites Regulation Information, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/epa/coninfop.shtml)Northern Contaminated Sites Program, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ps/nap/consit/index_e.html)Specific:1 Definition in INAC Contaminated Sites Management Policy (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ps/nap/consit/manpol_e.html)2 Definition in Section 111,Yukon Environment Act, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/main/

content/envact.pdf)Figure 4.3.1Source: Waste Management Program, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada

4.4 Land Use - MiningGeneral:Mineral Resources Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources, Government of Yukon (http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Mining/default.htm)Yukon Bureau of Statistics, Executive Council Office, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/eco/stats/index.html)Specific:Figure 4.4.1 and Table 4.4.1Source: Mineral Resources, Energy Mines and Resources, Government of Yukon1 Yukon Mineral Property Update, 2002, Mineral Resources Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources, Government of Yukon2 Department of Fisheries and Oceans December 16, 2002 news release (http://www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pages/release/p-releas/2002/nr079_e.htm3 Various Klondike Placer Miners' Association News Releases (http://www.kpma.ca/home.htm)

4.5 Land Use - ForestryGeneral:Forest Management Branch, Energy, Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon (http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Forestry/default.htm)Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources CanadaCorporate Policy & Planning, Energy, Mines & Resources, Government of YukonForest Fire Management Branch, Community Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/community/firemanagement/index.html)Garbutt, Rod, Yukon 2002 Forest Health Report and Yukon 2001 Forest Health Report. Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada.Tough, George. April 2002.Yukon Forestry Issues: A Reality Check and a New Direction, for the Minister of DIAND. (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/

prs/m-a2002/for_e.html)Specific:Figures 4.5.1 and 4.5.2Source: Forest Management Branch, Energy, Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon

4.6 Land Use - AgricultureGeneral:Agriculture Branch, Energy Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon (http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Agriculture/default.htm)Census of Agriculture 2001, Bureau of Statistics, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/eco/stats/census01/agric.pdf)Specific:Figures 4.6.1 and 4.6.2Source: Census of Agriculture 2001, Bureau of Statistics, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/eco/stats/census01/agric.pdf)


4.7 Land Use - TourismGeneral:Department of Tourism and Culture, Government of Yukon (http://www.btc.gov.yk.ca/)Parks and Fish and Wildlife Branches, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/main/index.shtml )Northern Adventures in ESL Program, Yukon College (http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/devstudies/eslnorth.htm)Yukon Visitor Statistics Year-end Report 2002 and 1999 Visitor Exist Survey and Wilderness Adventure Supplement, Tourism Industry Resource

Centre (http://www.tirc.gov.yk.ca/)Department of Tourism and Culture. Tourism Yukon Product Development Strategy 2003-2005.Specific:Figures 4.7.1 to 4.7.3Source: Department of Tourism and Culture, Government of Yukon

4.8 Land Use - Oil & GasGeneral:Oil and Gas Management Branch, Energy Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon (http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Oil_and_Gas/default.htm)National Energy Board (http://www.neb.gc.ca/)Geological Survey of Canada (http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/gsc/)Specific:Figure 4.8.1 and Table 4.8.1Data Source: Oil & Gas Management Branch, Energy Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon

Chapter 5 Fish and Wildlife5.1 SalmonGeneral:Yukon Transboundary Area/Fisheries & Oceans Canada (http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pages/default_e.htm)Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Cooperative-Fishing Branch River Chum Return Indicator (http://www.taiga.net/coop/indics/chum.html)Specific:Table 5.1.1 and Figures 5.1.1 to 5.1.4Source: Yukon Transboundary Area/Fisheries & Oceans Canada

5.2 Freshwater FishGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon - Hunting, Fishing and Trapping website(http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/hunting/index.shtml)Specific:Figures 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3Fisheries Management, Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.3 Wildlife Populations & Harvest5.3.1 BirdsGeneral:Pacific and Yukon Region, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada (http://www.pyr.ec.gc.ca/EN/Wildlife/about/index.shtml)Northern Research Institute, Arts and Science Division, Yukon College (http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/programs/nri/)Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/fishwild/index.shtml)Parks Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/parks/parks.shtml)Specific:Figure 5.3.1.1Source: Information Management & Technology, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (note: 2000 data was not included as different

survey methods were used)Figure 5.3.1.2Source: The Yukon Raptor Population Monitoring Project, Yukon College1 Diving and Dabbling Duck Populations on Old Crow Flats, Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Co-op website (http://www.taiga.net/coop/

indics/ocduck.html) Note: source of data is from US Fish and Wildlife Service aerial waterfowl survey data.2 Hawkings, J., Hughes, N., September 17, 2002, Cooperative Roadside Waterfowl Breeding Population Surveys in the southern Yukon Territory,

2002 Report. Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada.

5.3.2 FurbearersGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/hunting/index.shtml)Specific:Tables 5.3.2.1 and 5.3.2.2Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonFigure 5.3.2.1Lynx Data: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonSnowshoe Hare Data: Kluane Ecological Monitoring Project (KEMP); Kluane Boreal Forest Ecosystem Project (University of British Columbia, University

of Alberta, University of Toronto); Parks Canada, and Environment Yukon.

5.3.3 CaribouGeneralFish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/fishwild/index.shtml)Woodland Caribou Management Decision Guidelines - July 1996. Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.yfwmb.yk.ca/comanagement/

species/caribou/guidelines.html)Porcupine Caribou Herd Size Indicator, Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Co-op (http://www.taiga.net/coop/indics/pchpop.html)Specific:All figures and table:Source: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.3.4 MooseGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/fishwild/index.shtml)Moose Management Guidelines July 1996. Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.yfwmb.yk.ca/comanagement/species/moose/guidelines.html)

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Specific:Figures 5.3.4.1, 5.3.4.2, 5.3.4.3Source: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.3.5 Grizzly BearsGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonGrizzly Species Management Guidelines July 1997. Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.yfwmb.yk.ca/comanagement/species/grizzly/guidelines.html)Specific:Figure 5.3.5.1Source: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.3.6 SheepGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonSheep Management Guidelines - July 1996. Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.yfwmb.yk.ca/comanagement/species/

sheep/guidelines.html)Specific:Table 5.3.6.1 and 5.3.6.2Source: Data from Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.3.7 Wildlife ValuesGeneral:Conservation Branch, Protection & Public Education Branch, Government of YukonFish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonParks Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonIndustry Development & Research Branch, Department of Tourism and Culture, Government of YukonWildlife Viewing Website, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/viewing/index.shtml)Department of Tourism and Culture and the Bureau of Statistics. Yukon Visitor Statistics Year End Report 2002 and Yukon Visitor Exit Surveys.

Tourism Industry Resource Centre, Tourism and Culture, Government of Yukon (http://www.tirc.gov.yk.ca/)Federal Provincial Task Force on the Importance of Nature to Canadians. 2000 Survey on the Importance of Nature to Canadians: A Federal-Provin-

cial-Territorial Initiative. Environment Canada (http://www.ec.gc.ca/nature/highlights/highlite.html)Specific:Figure 5.3.7.1Source: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonFigure 5.3.7.2Source: Information Management & Technology, Department of Environment, Government of YukonFigure 5.3.7.3Source: Protected Areas Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

5.4 Species at RiskGeneral:Policy Branch, Department of Environment, Government of YukonYukon Species at Risk, Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon website (http://

www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/fishwild/specrisk.shtml)Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) website (http://www.cites.org/index.html)Committee on the Status of Endangered Species in Canada (COSEWIC) website (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct6/index_e.cfm)Peregrine Falcons in Northern Yukon Indicator, Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Co-op (http://www.taiga.net/coop/indics/peregrin.html)Hoefs, Manfred (Editor) 2000. Status of Yukon's Wildlife Report. Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon.Hawkings, J.S., Breault, A., Boyd S., Norton M., Beyersbergen, G. and Latour P. 2002.Trumpeter Swan Numbers and Distribution in Western Canada,

1970-2000, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada.Specific:Table 5.4.1Source: Data from Committee on the Status of Endangered Species in Canada (COSEWIC) website (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct6/index_e.cfm)Table 5.4.2Source: Data summarized from Status of Yukon's Wildlife Report 2000.Figures 5.4.1 and 5.4.2Source: Biodiversity Assessment Monitoring Project, Northern Research Institute, Yukon College.

Chapter 6 Ecosystems6.1 Ecosystems: WetlandsGeneral:Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon (http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/hunting/index.shtml)Specific:Figure 6.1.1Source: Fish and Wildlife Branch, Department of Environment, Government of Yukon

6.2 Ecosystems: ForestsGeneral:Forest Management Branch, Energy, Mines & Resources, Government of Yukon (http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Forestry/default.htm)Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources CanadaPolicy & Planning Branch, Energy, Mines & Resources, Government of YukonForest Fire Management Branch, Community Services, Government of Yukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/depts/community/firemanagement/index.html)Garbutt, Rod 2002. Yukon 2002 Forest Health Report. Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada.Northern Affairs Program, Forest Management Section. 1994. Spruce Beetle Infestation.Humphreys, N. and L. Safranyik. 1993. Forest Pest Leaflet: Spruce Beetle. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre.Unger, L.S. 1995. Forest Pest Leaflet: Spruce Budworms. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre.Specific:Figure 6.2.1Source: Forest Fire Management Branch, Community Services, Government of Yukon



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Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 · 2016-05-25 · Yukon State of the Environment Report 2002 Yukon State of the Environment ... Allison, Linaya Workman. Burwash/Destruction