Pilot Study on Implementation of Moringa Seed-Based Household Water Sanitation System

Aman Agrawala Stephanie Cai

Kevin Choi Eric Hui

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................ 1

RESEARCH PLAN ................................................................................................................................................... 3 I. PROJECT/DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 3 II. CHALLENGE DEFINITION..................................................................................................................... 4 III. RELATIONSHIP OF THE CHALLENGE TO SUSTAINABILITY ................................................... 5

People .................................................................................................................................................... 5 Prosperity ............................................................................................................................................. 6 Planet ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

IV. RESULTS, EVALUATION, DEMONSTRATION ................................................................................ 6 V. PROJECT SCHEDULE AND MILESTONES ........................................................................................ 7

Overall Project Schedule Visualization ..................................................................................... 7 Phase I: Research and Development .......................................................................................... 8 Phase II: Design Implementation ................................................................................................ 9 Phase III: Follow-Up ...................................................................................................................... 10

VI. PROPOSED BUDGET ............................................................................................................................ 10

ABOUT THE TEAM ............................................................................................................................................. 12

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................ 13

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ABSTRACT

RFA: 10th Annual P3 Awards: A National Student Design Competition for Sustainability Focusing on People, Prosperity and the Planet

Funding Opportunity Number: EPA-G2013-P3-Q4 Water Title: Pilot Study on Moringa Seed-Based Household Water Sanitation System Principal Investigator: Shannon Ciston Student Team: Choi, K. (team leader); Agrawala, A.; Cai, S.; Hui, E. (all undergraduates) Institution: University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA Student Represented Departments and Institutions: Department of Chemical and

Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley Project Period and Location: August 15, 2013 August 14, 2014 near Varanasi, India Proposed EPA Project Cost: $6075 - $12900 Total Project Amount: $6075 - $12900, from EPA grant

Objective: Many people in developing countries lack a cheap, sustainable way of obtaining safe drinking water. In India, less than 10% of all water is filtered before consumption. Most of the water is contaminated from fecal pollution. The primary goal for this project is to carry out a pilot study in a rural village near Varanasi, India, which tracks the successful introduction of an innovative water filtration system. The new method uses seeds from the locally abundant Moringa plant as water purifiers. Previous research shows these seeds are capable of eliminating up to 99.99% of bacteria from turbid water. During our pilot study, we hope to go door-to-door in order to educate local villagers about our filter and its role in water sanitation. If our filtration system is successfully integrated into many households, we also aim to partner with a non-government organization to increase the distribution of our Moringa seed-based filter. Description: We propose a pilot study on the implementation of a household water sanitation system using the locally grown Moringa plant. Many people already crush Moringa seeds to extract oil. We propose that the normally discarded seed remnants now be used as water purifiers.

Our pilot study will take place in a small village near Varanasi, India over a course of one year, and we will monitor the use of the new filtration system and the rate of water-borne diseases. If successful, the introduction of our new filtration system could improve the health and quality of life of the villagers and possibly affect the peoples access to sanitary water on a larger scale as well. The promotion of Moringa tree growth also has a positive benefit on the peoples prosperity: the rich, nutritious Moringa oil that is harvested can be sold for profit, fed to people and livestock, or processed into other goods. Many villagers already crush Moringa seeds to extract this valuable oil. We also anticipate our filtration system to have a positive environmental effect by purifying river water and restoring polluted marine ecosystems.

This project will be completed by a team of undergraduate Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering students at University of California, Berkeley. The team will research the most economic and environmental way of producing the Moringa seed filters before developing

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working prototypes for the pilot study. The physical implementation phase will involve travel to India and personally visiting each family in the village to educate them about the operation of our filters. Data will be collected every six months for one and a half years to monitor the frequency of filter use and rate of water-born diseases relative to a nearby control village. Expected Results: If our pilot study is successful, we expect our Moringa seed water filter to significantly increase the villages access to healthy drinking water. We aim to reduce the number of water-related illnesses to decrease by 80% over the course of the year. We also hope to see at least 80% of the distributed filters still in use by the end of the year. We do not anticipate any negative effects on the economy or agriculture because of the harvesting of the Moringa seeds, as they are a common crop that requires minimal maintenance and has various economic and nutritious benefits, as discussed previously. This experiment is estimated to impact around 1,000 people. If successful, future projects could impact even larger amounts of the Indian population. Contribution to Pollution Prevention or Control: Currently, fecal pollutants are one of the leading reasons for the lack of sanitary drinking water in India. Indias most heavily populated river, the Ganges, is both a common source for water and one of the most polluted rivers in the world. The region near Varanasi, a major Indian city, is contaminated with fecal bacteria levels 100 times greater than the safe limit set by the World Health Organization. This clean water scarcity arises primarily from the lack of a sustainable, government-regulated water supply and sanitation system. Although there are various state government programs in place, most lack the financial means to be very effective. Other municipal and privatized attempts at constructing water utilities still do not successfully address the problem of water distribution to poor, rural areas. We hope that by introducing a water filtration system that is based on the native Moringa plant, we will be able to alleviate the problems of drinking water pollution and distribution and reduce the spread of water-borne pathogens. Supplemental Keywords: Household-level water sanitation, water pollution

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RESEARCH PLAN

I. PROJECT/DESIGN

People in developing countries such as India, Mongolia, and Sudan often lack access to clean drinking water. In India, this issue is caused primarily by two factors: widespread fecal pollution and lack of financial resources to fund government-regulated water supply systems. For our research project, we will implement a pilot study in a small village near Varanasi, India. Varanasi is a major city located along the Ganges River, one of the most polluted rivers in the world. Despite high bacteria levels, the Ganges is still commonly used for bathing, laundry, washing, and drinking. 1 Varanasi is particularly dependent on the Ganges for its water supply and is one of the most densely populated basins, making the water sanitation issue even more pressing in local areas. 2, 3 Our project aims to provide local residents with a cheap, easily-accessible water purification method that uses seeds of locally grown Moringa oleifera (Moringa) plants to increase drinking water availability.

We propose a cheap and effective water filtration design using crushed Moringa seeds. Preliminary studies on the efficacy of Moringa seeds at reducing water-borne pathogen levels indicate that turbidity and pathogen concentrations were reduced by 99.99% within two hours of treatment. Moringa seeds are particularly effective at removing fecal bacteria, which is especially important to our pilot study because the leading cause of water-borne diseases in India is fecal pollution. 3, 4, 5

Another advantage of using Moringa seeds is their accessibility. Moringa trees are fast-growing, drought-resistant, and native to northwestern India. 6 The seeds are also soft and can be crushed with minimal effort. Many Indian villagers already gather and crush Moringa seeds to harvest the oil. Our proposed filtration system utilizes the normally discarded seed remnants and is therefore convenient and low-cost. Moringa seeds are ideal for household water filtration systems, rather than large-scale processes, making them an optimal chose for our project. 7

Our actual filter design (see Fig. 1, below) consists of a 10 L plastic container and a drainage tap fitted with an 8 mm mesh screen. The mesh size was chosen to be small enough to prevent the crushed Moringa seed sediment from flowing out of the tap when purified water is collected. Our proposed system is simple and easy to use. First, the container is be filled with dirty water. Then 5-10 g of crushed Moringa seeds are added. The mixture is stirred for 2-3 minutes and allowed to settle for 2-3 hours. The purified water is then collected from the tap and the sediment discarded as waste. It is important to collect the purified water within 3 hours because studies show that waiting longer than 4 hours can result in a secondary bacterial increase due to regrowth in the supernatant water. 4

We chose to base our design around a 10 L tank based on several factors. Because Moringa seed filtration requires a multi-hour settling period, it is not effective when adapted to small, portable containers like water bottles. Consequently, we looked towards larger tank sizes, but, at the same time, batches that are too large would be too bulky to be convenient. Instead we decided on an intermediate tank volume of 10 L. Given that the average adult should drink about 2.5 L of water daily and that the

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average family in India has around four people, each batch should be sufficient for one days worth of clean drinking water. To achieve larger volumes of water, we propose that the filter be used multiple times a day or that families use several filters in parallel. However, if demands are high, it is possible to investigate the construction of larger batch systems.

One apparatus will be delivered for free to each family in the village (approximately 1000 people) and we will charge a small but reasonable fee on the order of a few cents to a dollar for each additional apparatus. We will teach them how to crush the seeds properly to ensure effective particle size and how to operate the apparatus. Over a span of one year, we will visit the village two times for six-week spans to replace any filters if necessary and to collect data. This data will focus primarily on

how many villagers continue to use our purification technique and on how the rate of water-borne diseases compares to a nearby control village.

II. CHALLENGE DEFINITION

The first challenge in our project is to engineer an economical and environmentally friendly water filtration system. In India, only 10% of all dirty water is treated before consumption. 9 Many people rely on the countrys polluted rivers for drinking, bathing, and cooking. Current methods of water distribution include water ATMs and tankers. Water ATMs are ATM-style kiosks that dispense several liters of clean water. Tankers are people who travel around the country, dispensing water for free. Neither method is very effective. Tankers are intermittent, unpredictable, unreliable, and generally only visit urban silums. Water ATMs can be installed in rural villages, but have a high installation cost of 500 USD. They also charge several cents per liter, which can be expensive for poorer families in the long run. 10 A water filter utilizing the cheap and abundant Moringa seed will ideally be a new and convenient way for families to filter their own drinking water from easily accessible dirty river water.

Figure 1. Apparatus design including a 10 L batch container, the tap, and a zoomed in, cross-sectional view of the 8 mm mesh tap filter. Turbid water and 5 g of Moringa seed coagulants will be added into the batch container, shaken for 2-3 minutes, settled for 2-3 hours, and then collected via tap. The filter will prevent the collection of dirty seeds.

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Our biggest challenge is convincing the villagers that our water filtration method is safe and effective, and ensuring that they follow our directions properly. Literature shows that door-to-door methods are most effective at getting people to pay attention. 11 This is why we propose that we fly out to the village directly and interact with the villagers personally. We anticipate that there will be challenges due to our linguistic and cultural differences that may make it difficult for us to persuade the villagers that our system is sound. However, a good translator and proper demonstration of our methods should assuage these concerns.

Other problems can arise regarding the availability of Moringa seeds. Although they are very common, sturdy, and can tolerate poor conditions, environmental factors out of our control, such as floods or mass droughts, can negatively impact cultivation. Furthermore, if this method proves successful and becomes widely used, the Moringa trees may be over-cultivated. At this point in our research, it is reasonable to assume that the recycled Moringa seeds from the oil harvest are enough to sustain an entire village. Approximately 625 kg of Moringa seeds are harvested to produce 250 L of oil per hectacre every 7 weeks. 11 According to this data, assuming that a family of 4 uses 5 g of seeds per batch and that the village of 1000 people is evenly divided into 250 families, each family can filter 10 batches a day, giving them access to up to 100 L of clean water a day from one hectacres worth of recycled seeds. If our project does expand beyond a single village, further research must be conducted to adjust filter distribution and ensure the sustainability of our project.

III. RELATIONSHIP OF THE CHALLENGE TO SUSTAINABILITY People

The adaptation of Moringa seeds for water purification will have an extremely large impact on rural people. In many countries, these communities have poor access to clean drinking water and instead relyon dirty water from local lakes and rivers. The introduction of our Moringa seed water purification system will substantially decrease the levels of pollution, dirt, and bacteria in this dirty water and increase rural villagers accessibility to safe drinking water.

The Moringa seeds are also highly effective; on average, a single Moringa tree can produce between 15,000 and 25,000 seeds annually. 13 Each seed can purify 1 L of turbid water. 13 Considering that an adult human should drink about 691 liters a year, one Moringa tree is capable of sustaining 20-35 people. This filtration technique therefore requires minimal additional work from the villagers while helping reduce the spread of water-borne diseases.

Moringa seeds are also multi-purposeful: they not only act as water coagulants, but can help combat malnutrition as well. These seeds contain significant quantities of calcium, iron, phosphorous, and vitamins A, B, and C. 13 People can crush the seeds to produce nutritious cooking oil while utilizing the leftover scraps as a water purifier. The extracted oil has multiple uses including animal fodder, soap production, and lamp oil. 13 Furthermore, the Moringa seed process will push people to use stagnant water, removing potential nesting grounds for mosquitoes and lowering malaria cases in these areas.

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Prosperity The use of the Moringa plant in our filtration system can also help promote

rural villagers prosperity. Because the trees are native to India, there is no financial cost associated with planting and harvesting large amount of seeds. Furthermore, the entire process is simple and can be done with unsophisticated tools. This eliminates additional costs for machinery and labor and reduces the amount of training people will need in order to operate our filters. Therefore, the theoretical implementation and maintenance cost for rural residents negligible. Furthermore, since these trees are native, there is no wait time associated with growing the Moringa trees.

Additionally, cultivation of the Moringa plant introduces further economic benefits. A tree with a spacing of 3 m could produce about 3000 kg of seeds, which can be exchanged in local markets, fed to livestock, crushed for oil extraction, or pressed into pulp for papermaking. Moringa oil is about 73% weight oleic acid and approaches the high quality of olive oil, which makes it a lucrative product to sell for profit or barter with in local markets. The seed scraps left over after the oil is made can then be crushed and used in the water purifier. This is possible because the macromolecule that purifies the dirty water is a water-soluble protein and will not be pressed out into the oil. Studies have also shown that oil extraction using water does not reduce the effectiveness of Moringa seeds for water treatment. 15

Planet

The use of Moringa seeds as water purifiers also has various environmental benefits. Research has shown that Moringa seeds can remove hazardous chemicals like aluminum sulfate from local water systems and prevent the deaths of both animals and people that ingest the water. This will help sustain current ecosystems and repair damaged ones. Furthermore, because Moringa seeds can tolerate soil alkalinity up to pH 9, they can be planted in environments that have been damaged by basic chemicals. Thus, the Moringa trees can provide food for animals and locals as the environment naturally becomes healthy again.

There is also minimal fear of overplanting Moringa trees in order to meet purification demands. Even with Indias turbid waters, no more than one Moringa seed per liter is required for 99.99% purification. Furthermore, Moringa seeds are also naturally found in rural areas, so they will not have to be artificially introduced. We thus eliminate the risk of outcompeting local plants. 16 Moringa trees also grow year-round, so there will be no seasonal seed shortages. 17 The trees grow rapidly, reaching heights of over five meters and beginning seed production within one year. They are also extremely resilient and can quickly regrow, even if cut down to one meter from the ground. 14

IV. RESULTS, EVALUATION, DEMONSTRATION

From our pilot study, we hope to introduce a sustainable supply of clean water and reduce the number of illnesses caused by poor water sanitation. We aim to provide working filters and any necessary operational training to a local village of roughly 1000

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people. Over the course of the year, we will monitor how many families continue to use our filtration system, even in our absence. We will also track the rate of water-borne diseases in the village, relative to a nearby control village of comparable size. An ideal successful project will show an 80% decrease in the spread of water-borne pathogens and an 80% retention rate of filtration system usage after one year.

If this plan is successful within one village then it can be expanded throughout all villages in India with support from non-government organizations. Possible partnerships could include both local groups and larger, international ones like UNICEF and the World Health Organization. The most immediate societal benefits from this plan include increasing the quality of life for people who live in areas with limited access to clean water. The most important economics benefits include the ability for these people to be able to contribute to a countrys GDP by continuing to produce crops and other goods. Finally, the environmental benefit of this project is that it removes dangerous chemicals from water and helps repair chemically damaged ecosystems.

V. PROJECT SCHEDULE AND MILESTONES

Overall Project Schedule Visualization

Figure 2. Overall timeline showing the duration and timespans of each project phase

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Phase I: Research and Development

ITEM TIME PERIOD (FROM PROJECT

START)

TEAM MEMBERS

DESCRIPTION

Production Cost Study

0 - 3.5 weeks Kevin Aman Eric

From literature, study the local economic and ecological costs of

producing Moringa seeds.

Alternative Benefits Study

0 - 3.5 weeks Kevin Aman Eric

From literature, study the alternative uses of Moringa seed oil, spent seed, and plant material as feed, fertilizer

and food.

Viability Study 0 - 3.5 weeks Whole Team

Justify the economic and ecological costs in light of the direct and indirect

benefits of Moringa cultivation.

Obtaining Moringa Seeds

By 3.5 weeks Stephanie Obtain at least 100g of fresh seeds by the end of the first 3.5-week period

from Earth Goodness, LTD.*

Obtaining Moringa Plant

Material By 3.5 weeks Stephanie

Obtain samples of Moringa wood and leaves from

Earth Goodness, LTD.*

Borrow/Obtain a IDEXX Quanti-

Tray 2000 Water Tester

By 3.5 weeks Stephanie

If possible, borrow the water tester from the Office of Environmental

Health and Safety from UC Berkeley, or obtain one from IDEXX.

Demonstration of Filtration

3.5 - 8.5 weeks

Kevin Eric

Demonstrate that the seed can indeed purify water adequately by initial

testing on sewage from EBMUD using the IDEXX water tester.

Demonstration of Alternative

Uses

3.5 - 8.5 weeks

Kevin Aman Eric

Demonstrate that the alternative uses of Moringa are practical.

Cultivation of Moringa

3.5 - 8.5 weeks

Stephanie Aman

Practice the cultivation of Moringa as well as demonstrate its viability.

* Earth Goodness, LTD is a supplier of Moringa plant material based in Haifa, Israel. IDEXX is a manufacturer of food, veterinary, and water testing equipment. EBMUD: East Bay Municipal Utility District.

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Filter Implementation

8.5 - 13 weeks

Kevin Eric

Based off earlier research; design, build, and test a working filter.

Filter Milestone By 13 weeks - Have a fully functional filter by this

time.

Filter Production

13 - 15 weeks

Kevin Eric

Build more filters for demonstration purposes.

Obtaining Permissions

8.5 - 15 weeks

Stephanie Kevin

Obtain permission to travel to Varanasi, India, to implement the design from local authorities and

humanitarian groups already in the area. Obtain travel visas.

Phase II: Design Implementation

ITEM TIME PERIOD (FROM PROJECT

START)

TEAM MEMBERS

DESCRIPTION

Travel to Varanasi, India

By 15 weeks Whole Team

Travel to Varanasi, India, and get as much support (Translation,

Transportation, and Information) as possible from the local authorities and

other groups.

Secure Seed Supply

15 - 21 weeks

Whole Team

Secure a stable source of Moringa seeds, either by sourcing or cultivation

of trees.

Provide Instructions

15 - 21 weeks

Whole Team

Provide instructions on how to use, clean, refill, and repair the filters to

people who will be using them.

Promotion 15 - 21 weeks

Whole Team

Promote the usage of the filter.

On-location Study

15 - 21 weeks

Whole Team

Study the economic and ecological effects of the implementation of the

filter and the supply of Moringa seeds.

Return By 21 weeks Whole Team

Return from Varanasi after 6 weeks at location.

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Phase III: Follow-Up

ITEM TIME PERIOD (FROM PROJECT

START)

TEAM MEMBERS

DESCRIPTION

Tracking Progress

21 - 33 weeks

Whole Team

Recuperate, and continue to track and study the economic and ecological

effects of the project in the area while communicating (if possible) to the

locals.

Filter Production

31 - 33 weeks

Kevin Eric

Build more filters for demonstration purposes.

Second Visit to Varanasi

33 - 39 weeks

Whole Team

Return to check up on and further promote the project. This includes

repeating what was done last time but on a slightly larger scale if possible.

Return from Varanasi

39-52 weeks Whole Team

Continue to track and study the ecological effects as well as evaluate

the success of the project.

Project End By 52 weeks Stephanie If successful, turn the project to a

larger organization more able to give the project a larger physical impact.

VI. PROPOSED BUDGET

ITEM COST

Initial Literature Study $0 - $50

(Depending on availability of literature at UC Berkeley)

Moringa Oleifera Seeds and Samples

$500

Study Seed Filtration and Alternative Uses

$0 - $75 (Depending on availability of equipment at UC

Berkeley)

IDEXX Quanti-Tray 2000 Water Tester

$0 - $900 (Depending on availability of equipment at UC

Berkeley)

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Initial Filter Construction $15

More Filter Construction $360

(Depending on finalized filter cost and scale)

Travel Costs to and from Varanasi for the First Trip

$2000 - $4000 (Depending on availability of charity air-fares)

Living Costs in Varanasi for 6 Weeks for the First Trip

$600 - $1500 (Depending on local conditions)

Filter Construction, Travel Costs, and Living Costs for

Second Trip to Varanasi

$2600 - $5500 (Depending on the 3 variables listed above for

construction, travel, and living costs)

TOTAL $6075 - $12900

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ABOUT THE TEAM This project will be executed by four Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering students at University of California Berkeley. Their cumulative experience spans various fields including project and finance management, biomedical research, and environmental projects both in and out of the United States. Aman Agrawala is a third-year Chemical Engineering student with previous experience in finance at Northwestern Mutual. He is also fluent in Hindi, the language spoken by most residents in Varanasi, and will serve as both a financial manager and translator for the project. Stephanie Cai is a third-year Chemical Engineering student concentrating in biotechnology. She has previous experience with biomedical and disease-focused research in the fields of pharmacology and leukemia. Her role in the project will focus primarily on data collection and analysis of water-borne disease rates. Kevin Choi is a third-year Chemical Engineering student who has taken courses on environmental engineering that focused substantially on water filtration systems. He has also completed an internship on air quality control in Mongolia and therefore has experience with environmental projects in developing nations. Eric Hui is a third-year Chemical Engineering student. He has previously worked on water-quality related projects for irrigation and agriculture and will use this past experience to build and test the filtration system during the prototype and production stages.

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REFERENCES 1. Hamner, S.; Tripathi, A.; Mishra, R. K.; Bouskill, N.; Pyle, B. H.; Ford, T. E. The role of water use

patterns and sewage pollution in incidence of water-borne/enteric diseases along the Ganges river in Varanasi, India. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2006, 16 (2), 113-132.

2. Crest, T. 1% Ganga: The Ganga at Varanasi is no more. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-15/india/28297840_1_ganga-river-basin-authority-king-bhagirath-lower-ganga-canal (accessed November 20, 2013).

3. The pollution of the river Ganga. http://www.waterandmegacities.org/the-pollution-of-the-river-ganga/ (accessed November 20, 2013).

4. Madsen, M.; Schlundt, J.; Omer, E. F. Effect of water coagulation by seeds of Moringa oleifera on bacterial concentrations. J Trop Med Hyg. 1987, 90 (3), 101-109.

5. Santo Domingo, J. W.; Edge., a. T. A. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/emerging/identification.pdf (accessed December 2, 2013).

6. 'World's most useful tree' provides low-cost water purification method for developing world. http://www.sciencecodex.com/worlds_most_useful_tree_provides_lowcost_water_purification_method_for_developing_world (accessed November 18, 2013).

7. Seeds of Moringa Tree Used to Purify Water. http://www.filtersfast.com/blog/index.php/tag/moringa-oleifera/ (accessed November 19, 2013).

8. Water: How much should you drink every day? http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 (accessed December 2, 2013).

9. Chauhan, C. Only 10% of Indias dirty water is treated'. http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/only-10-of-india-s-dirty-water-is-treated/article1-1030168.aspx (accessed Nov 18, 2013).

10. Wong, K. A. How cloud technology can bring clean drinking water to India. http://www.greenbiz.com/news/2013/09/03/how-cloud-technology-bringing-clean-drinking-water-india (accessed Nov 18, 2013).

11. Randomized GOTV Field Experiments. http://gotv.research.yale.edu/?q=node/10 (accessed November 20, 2013).

12. Water, Environment and Sanitation. http://thewaterproject.org/water-in-crisis-india.asp (accessed November 18, 2013).

13. Foidl, N.; Makkar, H. P. S.; Becker, K. The potential of Moringa oleifera for agricultural and industrial uses. Morigna Seeds. http://www.moringaseeds.co.za/Planting3.html (accessed November 18, 2013).

14. Moringa Water Treatment. http://miracletrees.org/moringa_water_purification.html (accessed November 19, 2013).

15. How to make Moringa Oil. http://miracletrees.org/Make_oil.html (accessed December 3, 2013).

16. Water clarification using Moringa oleifera seed coagulant. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/technical-briefs/60-water-clarification-using-Moringa-oleifera-seeds.pdf (accessed Novemer 18, 2013).

17. Parota, J. A. Moringa oleifera Lam. Reseda, horseradish tree. Moringaceae. Horseradish tree family, 1993. USDA Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. (accessed November 20, 2013).

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