Writing Manual forNanomac040912 - nanomac.uq.edu.au Manual forNanomac040912.pdfNanomac Writing Manual, compiled by P. Baumgartl 3 1. Introduction – making your science visible “Science

Nanomac Writing Manual basic tips on structure, style, and grammar

Last updated September 2012

Nanomac Writing Manual, compiled by P. Baumgartl 2

1. Introduction – making your science visible ........................... 3 2. The five components of writing .............................................. 3

2.1 Content – knowledge of subject matter and transfer of that knowledge ......................... 3

2.2 Structure - organisation of the whole piece of writing, of each section and of each

paragraph with clear beginnings, middle sections and endings. ........................................... 3

2.3 Style – Pattern of sentences and use of words (refer to editing checklists to help with

improved style –section 4.) ................................................................................................... 4

2.4 Format – Specialised physical arrangement and appearance ........................................ 4

2.5 Mechanics – Use of language according to established rules of grammar ..................... 4

2.5.2 Tenses ..................................................................................................................... 6

2.5.3 Punctuation .............................................................................................................. 7

3. Editing ....................................................................................... 9 5. Some useful tables ................................................................. 12

6.1 Clichés, buzzwords, vogue words ................................................................................. 12

6.2 Confusing words ........................................................................................................... 13

6.3 Action verbs to strengthen your writing (always aim for more verbs and less nouns) .. 14

6.4 Some wordy phrases easily replaced ........................................................................... 14

7.0 Fact Sheets ........................................................................... 15 Fact sheet 1 – that or which ................................................................................................ 15

Fact sheet 2 – the ............................................................................................................... 15

Fact sheet 3 – a or an ......................................................................................................... 15

Fact sheet 4 – quantifiers .................................................................................................... 15

Fact sheet 5 – conjunctions ............................................................................................................ 15


1. Introduction – making your science visible

“Science exists because scientists are writers and speakers…There are no boundaries, no walls between the doing of science and the communication of it; communicating is [part of] the doing of science…Publications and public speaking are how scientific work gains a presence, a shared reality in the world.”

So begins the leading book on science writing, The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science by Scott Montgomery. Writing often does not come easy to scientists, but until it is written down, it remains practically invisible to the world. Writing is a mechanical process with rules and steps to follow. This small guide outlines some of those rules and steps to assist in making your science visible. This guide will be first and foremost of use to those for whom English is not a native language and I apologise to everyone if parts of this guide seem over-simplistic. But some of the notes on style and structure may be of use to all scientists. As science is a form of argument, even perfect grammar can be lost in a poor structure.

2. The five components of writing Most writing, and all technical and science writing, includes the five components: content, structure style, format, and mechanics. These five components are detailed below, with tips and tables to help improve your writing. Use the checklist to ensure that your writing has succeeded in presenting an argument clearly and logically. This checklist focuses on the mechanics of writing in English and editing your work.

2.1 Content – knowledge of subject matter and transfer of that knowledge 1. Is information or a message being transferred to a reader? 2. What is the message? 3. Are specific details provided to explain or prove generalisations? 4. Have the best materials (results) been selected to explain the message? 5. Are the ideas fully explained? 6. Are unnecessary materials included?

2.2 Structure - organisation of the whole piece of writing, of each section and of each paragraph with clear beginnings, middle sections and endings. 1. Can a definite structure be seen? 2. Is that structure logical? 3. Is another structure better for the material? 4. Does the introduction introduce all parts of your writing? 5. Do the middle sections fulfil the promises of the introduction? 6. Is there logical coherence between the parts? 7. Does the conclusion summarise the parts?


2.3 Style – Pattern of sentences and use of words (refer to editing checklists to help with improved style –section 4.) A good and appropriate style results from adhering to the rules. Use the tips and tables in the mechanics and editing section to create a good style.

1. Is the writing clear? (parallel structure, correct punctuation, correct word choice) 2. Is the writing concise? (no redundancy, unnecessary repetition) 3. Is the writing strong? (more verbs than nouns, active, not passive voice) 4. Are the style of sentences and use of words appropriate? 5. Is the language appropriate for the intended audience? (is there too much jargon, too

informal or colloquial?)

2.4 Format – Specialised physical arrangement and appearance

1. What format is used? 2. Is the format appropriate for the material? 3. Is that format the correct format for a report, article, proposal, or a thesis? 4. Are the graphic aids effectively prepared and placed? 5. Are the headings used and spaced correctly? 6. Is the material referenced correctly? 7. Is the bibliography or list of referees set up correctly? 8. How can the general appearance be improved?

2.5 Mechanics – Use of language according to established rules of grammar

1. Is the grammar of all sentences correct? 2. Are the sentence structured correctly? 3. Are the words spelled correctly? 4. Are punctuation marks used correctly?


2.5.1 Grammar - Sentences Problem Example Improvement Fused or run-on sentence When 2 complete sentences run on with no separating punctuation

He has his final results the thesis can be completed.

He has his final results. The thesis can be completed (or with semi colon).

The comma splice - a comma is used to join together two separate sentences.

The equipment is broken, my experiment will be delayed.

The equipment is broken. My experiment will be delayed.

The sentence fragment - a non-sentence. • Some fragments are

incomplete because they lack either a subject or a verb, or both.

• When using "ing" words, you must have a helping verb and a subject. An "ing" word is not a definite verb; therefore, it will not function by itself to form a complete sentence.

• Subordinators are words that cause one part of a sentence to be dependent on another part (e.g., if) of the sentence. They can be a cause of sentence fragments if subordinate clause is missing

Missed the bus. (no subject) The frustrated student. (no verb) A cure for the disease being researched. Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester. If the criteria are not met.

She missed the bus. The student was frustrated A cure for the disease was being researched. Some of the students were working (or worked) in the Professors lab last semester. If the criteria are not met, the FDA will not approve the medicine.

Lack of parallel structure If you want to express a series of ideas that are similar in importance, you have to make sure that the grammatical forms you use are consistent (parallel). This applies to the word, phrase and clause level.

He enjoys both reading and to write.

He enjoys both reading and writing.

Passive verbs In a passive voice, there is always an actor (some body else doing the work) and not the subject itself, often recognisable by ‘by’.

Our data were analysed using (or by) sigma plot. Her thesis had been read by all her supervisors.

We used sigma plot to analyse our data. All her supervisors read her thesis.

Heavy nouns (nominalisations) - often words ending in -ion -ing Nominalisations are nouns derived from verbs or adjectives - this often leads to a passive construction because you are using the noun to describe an action.

He gave an indication that my thesis was good

He indicted that my thesis was good.


The expletive construction (it is, there is)

There will be a number of procedures adopted to improve lab organisation. There is a need for more communication among researchers

We will adopt a number of procedures to improve lab organisation We need more communication among researchers.

2.5.2 Grammar - Tenses Tense Definition Example Present Expressed action that is

happening now, or happens regularly

We record results daily. The sun rises every morning.

Future Expresses action that will take place in the future

We will record our results tomorrow.

Past Action completed at a particular time in the past

We recorded our results last week.

Present perfect Action began in the past, but is continuing (or competed) in the present

We have been recording results for weeks.

Past perfect The past perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

We had recorded results all of last year.

Future perfect The future perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future.

We will have completed our recording by the end of the month.


2.5.3 Grammar - Punctuation Punctuation mark

Function Example of correct use

apostrophe ‘

• An apostrophe in contractions indicates the omission of one or more letters. Formal writing avoids contractions, and most technical/science writing is considered formal.

• An apostrophe followed by an ‘s’ indicates possession.

In science writing always use ‘that is’ (not that’s), ‘cannot’ (not can’t), ‘is not’ (not isn’t)

John’s bike, Harry’s equipment, Lucy’s bag

bulleted Lists

There is no real consensus about punctuation with a list. Whatever you do it needs to be consistent. Open punctuation (i.e. no punctuation) often looks neater.

• the candidate has sufficient experience in use and application of the equipment

• the PI is has over 20 years experience in the field and will provide research leadership

capitalisation Capitalise proper nouns, titles, places, languages, religions, organisations and archaeological and cultural periods.

Do not capitalise common nouns, e.g., laboratory, universities, tests, equipment, etc.

John Smith, Director of Planning, Sunshine Coast, Italian, Christianity, Society of Engineers, Neolithic, Renaissance.

We ran three tests: Test 1, Test 2 and Test 3.

colon

:

A colon is used after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series and often after the salutation of a business letter.

comma

,

• A comma is used to separate parts of a series -- words, phrases or clauses.

• A comma is used to set off conjunctive adverbs like however, therefore, and accordingly.

• A comma separates two or more adjectives, which modify the same noun.

• A comma sets off elements of a sentence (a word, a phrase or a clause) not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

For her experiment she needed chemicals, a stirrer, and glassware.

The red, juicy apple.

The method, not used before by this group, was published in last month’s journal.


Numbers

Standards regarding use of numbers vary greatly; although the following guidelines are common, you should check them against your professional journal and/or the needs of your instructor or supervisor. Use words for numbers one through nine.

Use words for a number which begins a sentence.

Use words and numerals for back-to-back numbers.

The first stage of the Saturn Five has five F1 engines; the Lunar Module has 16 manoeuvring thrusters.

Sixty-six years elapsed between the Wright brothers' first powered flight and the first Moon landing.

Four 5-meter supports.

semi-colon

;

A semi-colon separates two independent clauses. A full stop between clauses implies that the content of each is independent of the content of the other. A semi-colon implies a relation between the content of each clause, and in many cases implies (like a colon) that the second clause clarifies or expands upon the content of the first.

A semi-colon separates phrases in a list when those phrases contain commas.

Francis Bacon died as an indirect result of an experiment in food preservation; he perished from a severe cold caught while filling a chicken carcass with snow.

In the ‘miracle year’ of 1665 Isaac Newton presented the scientific community and the world with three discoveries -- calculus, the basis of most contemporary mathematics; the fundamentals of optics; and laws of universal gravitation and mechanics.


3. Editing Editing is usually conducted using loops. In other words, do not try to edit your document for all mistakes all at once. Read through looking for specific mistakes and repeat for each kind of error. Editing has the objective to check for:

• overall coherence • paragraph structure • that the sentences make sense and read clearly • redundant prose (i.e., cut out the fat (so what! test), i.e., delete any unnecessary

waffle) • correct word choice • active or passive voice • clarity and brevity

a useful editing table with some more common errors – carry this out using editing loops. Editing concept definition Do’s/don’ts Academic terms Jargon specific for your

field Use as necessary, don’t over do it, it does not make you sound clever.

Americanism/UK ization v isation, color v colour, center v centre

Preferably use Australian or British English; if using US English make sure the use is consistent throughout.

Archaism/obsolete The use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current

Avoid archaisms in formal science writing, While not whilst, among not amongst. Others include hereby, hereafter, herein, hereon, therein, thereon, and thereof.

Articles (determinate/indeterminate)

See fact sheet 1 and 2 for details

Buzzword/vogue word A buzzword (also known as a fashion word or vogue word) is an idiom or metaphor commonly used in managerial, technical, administrative, and sometimes political environments. Though apparently ubiquitous in these environments, the words often have unclear meanings.

Avoid over-using buzzwords and clichés. It can look unimaginative, and, if used incorrectly, foolish. See table 6.1 for some common buzzwords used in report writing,

cliché As with buzzword/vogue word

Confusable words See table 6.2 Conjunctions See fact sheet 3 for

details

Diacritical marks Diacritical marks are used in many languages and can appear above or below a letter, or in some other position.

Pay particular attention to get these right in proper nouns (i.e. names of people, places, brands). It is good manners and shows attention to detail. It can appear rude to leave it out, particularly these days when it is so easy to include (MS Word/


insert symbol). Some examples ć, č, đ, š, ü å ç

Expletives 1 Bad language Obviously do not use, ever Expletives 2 It is, there is Avoid where possible, it just

weakens the writing Foreign expression Includes expressions

like in situ, apropos, circa

Avoid if possible, when they need to be included, italicise. The exceptions are e.g. and i.e. - no need to italicise.

Hyperbole Exaggeration, e.g., I told you a million times, best movie ever, best research in the whole world

Obviously to be avoided at all times.

Inclusive language Non-sexist Don’t write he, his, or she, hers when generalising – use third person plural. i.e., they, their

Intensifier Intensifiers are adverbs that enhance adjectives and adverbs. In English, they come before the words they modify. Examples include very, really, absolutely, nicely, quite, fairly

Avoid (especially very), use sparingly and only when necessary. In formal writing it can sound weak or unnecessarily descriptive.

Irony/sarcasm Irony is saying (or writing) one thing, while meaning the opposite. E.g. the first experiment was a total failure, which was just great.

Never use in business/science writing

Jargon Vocabulary specific to your field.

Do use jargon when writing for a specific audience, do not use jargon for a general audience.

Malapropism A malapropism is the incorrect use of a word by substituting a similar-sounding word with different meaning, usually with comic effect.

Often happens, unintentionally (which can be embarrassing). See confusing words Table 6.2

Nominalisations The process of nominalisation turns verbs (actions or events) into nouns (things, concepts or people).

Nominalisations are frequently used and accepted in academic writing, although avoid when you can. Writing is always clearest when there are more verbs than nouns. See table 6.3 for a list of good, strong verbs useful in scientific writing.

Quantifiers See fact sheet 4 Redundancy Redundancy refers to

the use of language that can be eliminated without incurring a loss of meaning. Redundancy in writing usually comes from

Avoid phrases such as ‘completely finished’: If you have incompletely finished something, you haven't finished it at all; advanced planning, advanced is redundant here as planning always implies that it is in advance.


these sources: 1) Wordy phrases 2) Employing obvious qualifiers when a meaning is implicit in the word it is modifying 3) Using two or more synonyms together

Note – some redundant expressions are acceptable and often useful in oral presentations. E.g., thoughts and ideas, above and beyond.

Singular/plural Verb subject agreement Single verb with singular noun, plural verb with plural noun.

Tense See table 2.5.2 Beware not to jump around in ‘time’, As a general rule, one tense per paragraph. Method past, results past, discussion can vary. When quoting a concept or law, sue present, when stating your conclusions, use present.

That/which See fact sheet 5 Thesaurus syndrome Using a different word to

describe the same object throughout a text

Do not do this. Choose a name and be consistent. It is otherwise confusing to the reader. E.g. to agitate, to stir – pick one and stick with it.

Tone Tone is the impression you create on your reader. You need to always consider the reader when trying to find the suitable tone. For example, not to be too arrogant, too pushy or too confidant, too self-depreciating, etc.

Examples of bad tone – I trust you will do me the courtesy of an interview. (too arrogant) Improved- I look forward to an interview at time of your convenience. After seeing my qualifications, I hope you find it worthwhile to make an appointment with me. (too self-depreciating) Improved - I hope you regard my qualifications as being relevant for the job.

Translated word Use online translators with caution as they don't take context into consideration.

Make absolutely sure the word has been translated correctly. Never rely on google translate to translate whole sections of text.

Verbosity Using wordy phrases where a simple word would suffice. See table

See table 6.4 for some examples.

Weasel words 'The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns, as it were, instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish squirting out ink. ' Some words to avoid: Actually, apparently, arguably, basically, certainly, clearly, definitely, duly, eminently, entirely,

Try to avoid as much as possible, they don’t say anything and simply weaken your writing.


essentially, extremely, frankly, fully, highly, in essence, in fact, naturally, obviously, possibly, quite, rather, really, seriously, simply, to be honest, totally, ultimately, veritably, virtually, wholly, with all due respect.

4. Some useful tables

4.1 Clichés, buzzwords, vogue words What Wikipedia says about buzzwords hits the mark: A buzzword (also fashion word) is a term of art, salesmanship, politics, or technical jargon that is used in the media and wider society outside of its originally narrow technical context, often in an inaccurate manner, or for purposes other than the conveying of information.

Buzzwords differ from jargon in that jargon is esoteric but precisely defined terminology used for ease of communication between specialists in a given field, whereas a buzzword (which often develops from the appropriation of technical jargon) is often used in a more general way, inaccurately or inappropriately. A person who chooses to use buzzwords may have one or more of the following objectives:

1. Intentional vagueness. In management or politics, opaque words of unclear meaning may be used: their positive connotations prevents questioning of intent.

2. A desire to impress a judge, an examiner, an audience, or a readership, or to win an argument, through name-dropping of esoteric and poorly understood terms in an attempt to inflate trivial ideas to something of importance.

Examples of some common clichés are given in the table below. This link provides a good overview of buzzwords: rule of thumb: in your science writing, don’t borrow buzzwords from other disciplines.

Ample opportunity Inevitable delay Back to the drawing board Irresistible demands Ballpark figure Jobs for the boys Bite the bullet Level playing field Bitter truth Meaningful dialogue Bottom line Number crunching Circumstances beyond my control Ongoing dialogue Conservative estimate Permanent fixture Engage in activities Raising the ante Eye-opener Spin-off Face facts The too-hard basket Game plan Thrust of the report Give the green light to To have an edge Grave responsibility Tolerable proportions Head hunting Up-market High profile Viable alternative Hot issue Worst-case scenario


4.2 Confusing words Affect Verb: to influence or to change

Effect Verb: to cause or bring about Noun: result

All ready These two words mean everything is ready

Already Adverb: e.g., so early? Here already?

Amount of Describes mass items, e.g. the amount of information is overwhelming.

Number of Discrete items which can be counted, e.g. the number of people…

Compare To make a comparison or show a resemblance

Contrast Emphasises difference

Complement Something that completes or accompanies

Compliment An expression of praise e.g. Let me compliment you on your exceptional thesis.

Continual Recurs at intervals e.g., The continual use of the machines will wear them out

Continuous Uninterrupted e.g. The noise from the engines was continuous.

Convince To win an agreement

Persuade To move an action

Disinterested impartial

Uninterested Not interested

Every one Each one e.g. every one of your arguments need to be justified

Everyone All people of the group e.g. everyone is going to the conference

Imply Is to create an impression or implication e.g., Sue implied that the laboratory’s radon level fell within the safety guidelines, but Tim inferred from other sources that this may not be true.

Infer To extract an implication

In to Combines direction with purpose

Into Direction only

It’s Contraction of ‘it is’ (to be avoided in written English) e.g. it’s time for lunch

Its A possessive pronoun e.g., The furnace is broken, but its warranty is still current.

Precede To go ahead of e.g. In the preceding section

Proceed To move forward e.g., I would like to proceed to the next stage of my project.

Predominant Adjective e.g. what is the predominant characteristic

Predominate Verb Our products predominate

Rebut to rebut an argument is to answer it by providing a counter argument.

Refute To refute an argument is to prove it wrong.

Who’s A contraction of ‘who is’

Whose Possessive pronoun (question) e.g., Whose theory will prevail?


4.3 Action verbs to strengthen your writing (always aim for more verbs and less nouns)

Act Apply Assemble Asses Build Classify Compare Complete Conclude Conduct Create Decide Demonstrate Describe Design Determine Develop Enlarge Evaluate Examine Expand Identify Illustrate Implement Increase Indicate Install Observe Overcome Plan Prepare Produce Provide Purchase Reclaim Reduce Regulate Repair Restore Review Select Suggest Summarise Synthesise Test Train Transport Validate

4.4 Some wordy phrases easily replaced

wordy phrase replacement Adjacent to Next to A number of Some As a means of To As prescribed by Under At the present time Now By means of By, with Close proximity Near Due to the fact that Because For the purpose of For, to Has the capability can In regard to concerning In the course of during In the event that if In view of Since It is essential Must It is requested please Limited number few Provided that is Until such time as until


5.0 Fact Sheets

Fact sheet 1 – that or which

Fact sheet 2 – the

Fact sheet 3 – a or an

Fact sheet 4 – quantifiers

Fact sheet 5 – conjunctions

Sources Many sources were used when compiling this guide, but in particular: Petelin R, Durham M. 1992 The Professional Writing Guide: Writing Well and Knowing Why. Longman Professional Young, P. 2006 Writing and Presenting in English: The Rosetta Stone of Science. Elsevier

‘that’ or ‘which’

Useful Linkshttp://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/grammar

http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/

The choice between ‘that’ or ‘which’ depends upon the type of relative clause involved and is con-nected with the use of commas.

A relative clause is introduced by ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘that’. There are two types: defining or non-defining. Do we know enough about the subject of the sentence or do we need to define it with a few more words?

An example

The experiments that they reported were successful. (Some) The experiments, which they reported, were successful. (All)

Example 1 implies that there are other experiments, unreported and unsuccessful. The words ‘that they reported’ form a defining relative clause. It is needed in order to define this particular group of experi-ments.

Example 2 implies simply that the experiments were successful. The words ‘which they reported’ placed between a pair of commas, form a non-defining relative clause. The experiments were all suc-cessful; the clause ‘which they reported’ is just extra information. It could be excluded and the sentence would still make sense.

Other tips for that but not which After quantifiers like everything, something, all and after… we normally use that rather than which: Everything that is in this room once belonged to Elton John. The thing that amazes me is how wide his interests were. All that will be left after the auction are a few candlestick holders.

Writing Manual ARC Centre of Excellence for Functional Nanomaterials

definite article the



The is a definite article, which means that it is used to indicate something specific, or definite. It refers to a noun that is either understood (by the reader or listener) or has been previously referred to by the writer or speaker.

Here is another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group.

• For example, I just saw the most popular movie of the year. There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. Other examples The car over there is fast. The teacher is very good, isn’t he?

• The first time you speak of something use a or an, the next time you repeat that object use the. I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms. I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good.

• Do not use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes, and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as ‘The United States’, or in front of republic, federation etc. E.g., The Czech Republic. He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier. They live in northern British Columbia.

• Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas. Australia borders on the Pacific Ocean

• Do not use an article when you are speaking about things in general. I like Russian tea. She likes reading books.

• Do not use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport. He has breakfast at home. I go to university. He comes to work by taxi.

• The can also be used for things which are always true or singularly occurring. The moon, the sun, the sky

At a glance


indefinite articleA or an



A or an are indefinite articles, which means they are used to indicate something non-specific or not definite. It refers to a general noun that has not yet been defined (by the reader or listener) or has not been previ-ously referred to by the writer or speaker.

There are two indefinite articles in English: a and an.

• A is used before a consonant sound and an is used before a vowel sound. The sound is more important than the spelling; we say ‘an umbrella’ but ‘a union’ because the sounds of the first letter are different.

• More examples of sounds e.g. an apple, an hour, an honourable man, an upwards movement, a unique object

• The same applies for initials and acronyms a UQ Handbook an AIBN student

• They are used before a singular noun that has a plural form. e.g. an apple but the apples an instrument, the instruments but the information (information does not have a plural form, therefore can never say an information the luggage (never a luggage but a piece of luggage)


quantifiers

At a glanceQuantifier Singular Nouns Plural

NounsUncountable nouns

all rarely Yes Yesany X Yes Yesboth X Yes Xeach Yes X Xenough rarely Yes Yesevery Yes X X

few/a few/fewer X Yes Xlittle/a little/less X X Yesmany X Yes Xmore X Yes Yessome X Yes Yesa lot of X Yes Yes

examples

Quantifier Singular Nouns Plural Nouns

Uncountable nouns

all X participants luggageany X problems adviceboth X experiments Xeach equation X Xenough X chairs gasevery Yes X Xfew/a few/fewer X days Xlittle/a little/less X X Yesmany X people Xmore X computers electricity/equip-

ment

some X problems moneya lot of X papers (as

in publica-tions)

information, paper (as writing paper)



The quantifier you choose

will obviously depend on the

meaning you wish to convey,

but as importantly on the kind

of noun.

In terms of quantity there are

three types of nouns:

singular, plural and

uncountable.

Normally two quantifiers

cannot be used together

before the same noun.

However, the quantifiers

all and both are found

immediately before ‘the’ or a

possessive pronoun: all my

relatives, both the ministers.

You will also see the following

combinations of quantifiers:

a little less noise

a few more questions

every few minutes

To work out if a noun in

uncountable, simply try to

count it. If it is not possible

(e.g. carbon), then it is

uncountable.


conjunctionsThere are three main types of conjunctions -

1. coordinating

2. correlative

3. subordinating

1. Coordinating conjunctionsIf using a coordinating conjunction to join two sentences, remember to use a comma before the conjunc-tion.

the ‘fanboys’ mnemonicF A N B O Y Sfor and nor but or yet so

2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements. the correlative conjunctions are

both...and not only...but also

either...or neither...nor whether...or

3. Subordinating conjunctionstime cause-effect opposition conditionafter because although ifbefore since though unlesswhen now that even though only ifwhile as whereas whether or notsince in order that while even ifuntil so in case (that)




Documents

Writing Manual forNanomac040912 - nanomac.uq.edu.au Manual forNanomac040912.pdfNanomac Writing Manual, compiled by P. Baumgartl 3 1. Introduction – making your science visible “Science