Academic Writing Manual - V1 -JULY 2010

GLOBAL ASSESSMENT CERTIFICATE

ACADEMIC WRITING MANUAL

Date of Issue: June 2010 Version: One ©ACT Education Solutions Ltd. All rights reserved. The material printed herein remains the property of ACT Education Solutions Ltd and cannot be reproduced without prior permission. The authors and publisher have made every attempt to ensure that the information contained in this book is complete, accurate and true at the time of printing. You are invited to provide feedback of any errors, omissions and suggestions for improvement. Every attempt has been made to acknowledge copyright. However, should any infringement have occurred, the publisher invites copyright owners to contact the address below. ACT Education Solutions, Limited Suite 101, Level 12 275 Alfred Street, North Sydney, NSW, 2060 AUSTRALIA

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Table of Contents INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... I About the Academic Writing Manual ............................................................................................................. I Unit Description ............................................................................................................................................ II Icons........... ................................................................................................................................................. III

UNIT 1: ACADEMIC WRITING OVERVIEW................................................................................................ 1 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 1 Part A Informational writing structure ............................................................................................ 2 Part B Narrowing the topic ............................................................................................................ 4 Part C Analysing a topic ................................................................................................................ 7 Part D Drafting a plan .................................................................................................................... 9 Part E Writing introductions.........................................................................................................12 Part F Constructing a thesis statement .......................................................................................13 Part G Composing topic sentences .............................................................................................15 Part H Developing supporting details ..........................................................................................17 Part I Using transitions ...............................................................................................................19 Part J Writing conclusions ..........................................................................................................21

UNIT 2: ACADEMIC ESSAY TYPES........................................................................................................... 23 Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................................23 Part A Cause and effect essays ..................................................................................................25 Part B Compare and contrast essays .........................................................................................30 Part C Process essays ................................................................................................................36 Part D Argumentative/persuasive essays ...................................................................................40 Part E Descriptive essays ...........................................................................................................45 Part F Definition essays ..............................................................................................................50 Part G Problem/solution essays ..................................................................................................54

UNIT 3: ACADEMIC RESEARCH REPORTS OVERVIEW .......................................................................... 59 Learning Outcomes ..........................................................................................................................59 Part A The process of writing a research report ........................................................................60 Part B The IMRAD structure .......................................................................................................63 Part C The purpose of each section ............................................................................................65 Part D How to write an abstract/executive summary ..................................................................67 Part E How to write an introduction .............................................................................................70 Part F How to write methods.......................................................................................................72 Part G How to write results/findings ............................................................................................74 Part H How to write discussions ..................................................................................................76 Part I How to write conclusions and recommendations .............................................................78 Part J Criteria for assessment ....................................................................................................79

UNIT 4: BUSINESS RESEARCH REPORTS................................................................................................. 81 Part A The purpose and content of each section ........................................................................81 Part B An example Business research report ............................................................................83

UNIT 5: SCIENCE RESEARCH REPORTS .................................................................................................. 87 Part A The purpose and content of each section ........................................................................87 Part B An example Science research report ...............................................................................89

UNIT 6: SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH REPORTS .................................................................................... 93 Part A The purpose and content of each section ........................................................................93 Part B An example Social Science research report ....................................................................95

APPENDIX A: FORMAT FOR GAC ACADEMIC ESSAYS AND REPORTS ................................................. 99

APPENDIX B: RECORDING RESEARCH INFORMATION ......................................................................... 103

APPENDIX C: GAC WRITING ASSESSMENTS RELATED TO THE ACADEMIC WRITING MANUAL ........... 105 REFERENCE LIST …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..107

Academic Writing Manual Introduction

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Page I June 2010 Version 1

Introduction

About the Academic Writing Manual

Welcome to the Academic Writing Manual. During your GAC course and in tertiary study, you will be expected submit many writing assignments. They will mainly take the form of essays and research reports.

This writing manual proposes a systematic approach to academic writing. It is designed to be a useful guide to refer to during your studies. This manual contains six units which cover how to collect, organise and evaluate information for specific writing purposes and write a range of texts.

Please note: depending on where you carry out your studies, terminology may differ slightly. Wherever possible, alternative expressions have been provided for the key concepts.

Introduction Academic Writing Manual

Page II ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Version 1 June 2010

Unit Description

The units included in this course are:

Unit Unit Title Description

1 Academic Writing Overview

• Informational writing structure • Narrowing a topic • Analysing a topic • Drafting a plan • Writing introductions • Constructing a thesis statement • Composing topic sentences • Developing supporting details • Using transitions • Writing conclusions

2 Academic essays

• Types of academic essays • Cause and effect essays • Compare and contrast essays • Process essays • Argumentative/persuasive essays • Descriptive essays • Definition essays • Problem/Solution essays

3 Academic Research Reports

• The process of writing a research report • The IMRAD structure • The purpose of each section • How to write an abstract/executive summary • How to write an introduction • How to write methods • How to write results/findings • How to write discussions • How to write conclusions and recommendations • Criteria for assessment

4 Business Research Reports

• The purpose and content of each section • An example business research report

5 Science Research Reports

• The purpose and content of each section • An example science research report

6 Social Science Research Reports

• The purpose and content of each section • An example social science research report

Academic Writing Manual Introduction

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Page III June 2010 Version 1

Icons The following icons will be used as a visual aid throughout the Manual:

Icon Meaning

Learning Outcomes

Information

Task

Hints and Cautions

Review

Independent Study

Language Focus

Written Assessment/ Assignment

Presentation

Assessment Event

Academic Writing Manual Unit 1: Academic Writing Overview

©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Page 1 June 2010 Version 1

Unit 1: Academic Writing Overview

Part A Informational writing structure

Part B Narrowing the topic

Part C Analysing a topic

Part D Drafting a plan

Part E Writing introductions

Part F Constructing a thesis statement

Part G Composing topic sentences

Part H Developing supporting details

Part I Using transitions

Part J Writing conclusions

Learning Outcomes

Unit 1 gives you an overall, ‘big picture’ view of informational writing. By the end of this unit you should be able to: • explain the general structure of informational writing • describe how to narrow a topic • develop a writing plan • write an introduction, including a thesis statement • compose topic sentences • develop supporting details • use transitions • write a conclusion

Overview In your studies, you will be required to write informational texts. Accordingly, this

manual will focus on developing your informational writing skills. The purpose of academic writing is generally to give information, and is called informational (or expository) writing. Academic writing is serious and aimed at a critical and expert audience. It follows a particular style and language. Informational writing is organised into three distinct sections, as illustrated overleaf:

Unit 1: Academic Writing Overview Academic Writing Manual

Page 2 ©ACT Education Solutions, Limited Version 1 June 2010

Figure 1.1 Informational writing sections

In Unit 1, we will look at what is included in each section, and how to write it.

Part A Informational writing structure

Informational writing focuses on one topic. Informational paragraphs and informational essays have a similar structure.

A paragraph is a group of sentences about one main idea which is outlined in the topic sentence. An essay is a group of paragraphs about one main idea. The topic sentence of a paragraph tells the reader what the paragraph will be about, and may give the writer’s opinion about that topic. Likewise, the thesis statement of an essay tells the reader what the essay will be about and also tells the writer’s opinion of that topic. Look at the diagrams overleaf:

Intro

duct

ion - General statements

about the topic- Thesis statement Bo

dy

Paragraphs with:- a topic sentence- supporting details- transitions- closing sentence

Conc

lusio

n - Summary of main ideas- Closing comments



Figure 1.2 Structure of a paragraph

Figure 1.3 Structure of an essay

Concluding sentence

body

main idea

Supporting detail 1

Supporting detail 2

Supporting detail 3

Introductory topic sentence

conclusion

transitions

Conclusion Summary of main ideas. Final comments.

supporting body paragraphs

Topic sentence 1 + Supporting details

Topic sentence 2 + Supporting details

Topic sentence 3 + Supporting details conclusion

transitions

General statements about the topic + thesis statement

Introductory paragraph



Part B Narrowing the topic

Unless you have been given a specific assignment to answer, you will have to decide on your own research topic. First you must decide what general topic you wish to write about, and then narrow it to a specific topic. Narrowing the topic can be done by: 1. Funnel narrowing

Write the general topic at the top of a funnel and then generate ideas to narrow it down to a specific topic.

2. Brainstorming, or creating a mind map

Write all the ideas you have about a topic randomly on a piece of paper.

When you have finished, go back and select and organise the material you wish to use.

One general topic can be developed in different ways.

Funnel Narrowing

1. Funnel narrowing

Before getting too far into your research, ensure that your topic is not too broad or general.

Use the funnel method to narrow the idea to a more manageable proposition:

• First, choose a preliminary subject area

• Then, reduce it down to a specific time period, person involved, reason, place etc. It helps to ask yourself : Who? What? Why? How? Which? When?

• From there, limit further to a particular area. See examples of funnel narrowing overleaf.



Figure 1.4 Example 1: Funnel narrowing: Broad to specific development General topic: Bedouins (Nomadic people)

Figure 1.5 Example 2: Funnel narrowing: One topic, two ways of development General topic: The Environment

pollution

water pollution air pollution

causes of water pollution causes of air pollution

water pollution problems in your country individuals organisations

case study of one water pollution issue in your country air pollution reduction initiatives

effects on humans and animals assessment of a local initiative to reduce air pollution

Bedouins in Arabian desert regions

Bedouins in Arabian desert regions: Saudi Arabia

Bedouins in Saudi Arabia: lifestyle

Bedouin culture

.. how been affected by the modern world

Bedouins

The Environment

Bedouin homes



Brainstorming/ Mind maps

2. Brainstorming/mind maps

Another way to limit the topic is to use brainstorming/mind maps. This is when you write your main topic or assignment question in the center of a piece of paper. Once you have decided on your major topic, ask yourself: Who? What? Why? How? Which? When? These questions will help you to generate many ideas and questions about the topic. Let your mind flow freely and write down the ideas around the main topic. Brainstorming allows you to explore how much you know about a topic and how much you don’t know and wish to find out. When you have done this: • Can you link similar threads of thought together to make a sub theme? • Which ones are you interested in? • Which ones do you wish to explore? Select the themes you are interested in. Write them on another piece of paper. Do you have a new thread? It is now time to start some research and map a workable plan. You may wish to add or delete some more ideas from the original mind map, but you have made a start. Look at the following example of a simple mind map:

Figure 1.6 Entrepreneurs mind map

Entrepreneurs

country case study

education for?

women?

financemen?

resources?

organisational structure?

countriesdeveloping countries:

Africa/ Asia?

how does poverty affect?

industries?

defintion of

rural/urban

what makes an

entrepreneur? ethical issues?

Themes in which you are interested



The next chart illustrates how the main ideas about entrepreneurs were taken from the mind map in Figure 1.6 and grouped into sub themes.

Figure 1.7 Entrepreneurs sub themes

Part C Analysing a topic

If you are given a specific topic to write about, a crucial stage is analysing the assignment topic. If you do not address all requirements in the assignment, you will lose marks. Topics may be broken down into 3 parts:

1. Defining/content words Defining words are the key words or concepts which must be explained, for example gender inequality, globalisation, or gene mutation.

2. Controlling/limiting words

Controlling/limiting words show on which aspect of the topic to focus. They may also indicate what you should NOT address, for example, characteristics of, differences, or only...

3. Instructional/process words

Instructional words are important. They indicate the method for researching the topic or issue, for example analyse, discuss, compare, contrast etc. Instructional words will determine how the writing assignment will be organised.

definition of

what is an entrepreneur?

industries?

resources

countries

developing countries

Africa/Asia

Africa: Tanzania

women

rural/urban?

how does poverty affect?

examples of projects?

financing of projects



Figure 1.8 Analysis of an example topic to show the 3 parts

Explain the differences between managers and leaders. Use theories and examples to support your ideas.

the between using

In order to effectively analyse an assignment topic, make sure you are very familiar with the definitions of a range of instructional/process words. A list of the most commonly used words is provided below.

Figure 1.9 List of 18 instructional/process words and their

meaning

Two empty rows have been provided in case you wish to insert additional instructional/process words.

Instructional Word Meaning

1. analyse Break the topic/issue down into parts. Examine each part in detail.

2. argue Give reasons for or against a position. Support your reasoning with evidence

3. compare Look for similarities.

4. contrast Look for differences.

5. criticise Give your judgement about a theory or opinion and support this with evidence.

6. define Give precise meanings about the topic. Show that the different meanings implied in the definition are necessary

7. describe Give a detailed description of the characteristics of the topic. Emphasise the most important points.

8. differentiate Show the difference between two or more things.

9. discuss Present and examine a point of view on a topic. The opinion should be supported by evidence.

10. evaluate Judge the worth of something. Consider both its strengths and weaknesses. Support your opinion by evidence

11. explain Interpret an issue. Elaborate on the ‘why’ and ‘how’.

12. examine Present an in-depth analysis. Investigate the implications.

13. illustrate Clarify a topic by using concrete examples, graphs, or figures.

14. interpret Bring out the meaning of topic/findings. Support your judgement with evidence.

15. justify Defend a position on a topic. Support the position with evidence.

16. relate Show how things are connected to each other.

17. summarise Give the main points of a topic/issue. NO details or quotations.

18. trace Describe the development or history of a topic/issue, usually in chronological order.

19.

20.

instructional/ process word

controlling/ limiting word

defining/ content word

controlling/ limiting words

Explain differences managers and leaders theories and examples



Part D Drafting a plan

Plan/ Outline/ Outline Summary

Developing a plan (also called an outline/outline summary) is an essential step and must not be missed. Once you have a clear plan of how you will organise your main ideas, it becomes easier to concentrate on developing the supporting details.

The planning of informational writing is divided into three parts:

• Part 1: general brainstorm for main ideas of paragraphs • Part 2: selecting and grouping the main ideas about which to write • Part 3: list supporting details for each main idea

Refer back to the structure of a paragraph/essay on page 2 of this manual. Your plan should mirror this structure.

Study the process followed on the topic of ‘staying safe on a hike’.

Figure 1.10 Part 1: General brainstorming: Staying safe on a hike

Staying safe on a hike

case study: Irish hiker in

the Blue Mountains gps/

compass/ cell phone

plan ahead

stay on the path!

let someone know where you're going

organisation is keytake extra

food and clothing

dangers presented by

nature

hiking locations

defintion of hiking

human impact on

naturewhat do famous

environmen-talists say?



Figure 1.11 Part 2: Select and group the main ideas

Figure 1.12 Part 3: List supporting details for each selected main idea


case study: Irish hiker in the Blue Mountains

gps/ compass/

cell phone plan ahead

stay on the path!

let someone know where you're goingorganisation

is keytake extra food and clothing

dangers presented by nature

hiking locations

defintion of hiking

human impact on

nature

what do famous environmen-talists say?

stay on the path

you may get lost

could be unknown dangers

further interference with

nature

let someone know where you're going

if you don't return - search party

can give valuable advice

plan ahead

won't forget anything important


Themes in which you are interested



An informal outline with numbers and letters is one way of planning. Look at the following example: • The numbers stand for main ideas • The upper case letters stand for supporting details or examples • The lower case letters stand for sub-supporting details

Figure 1.13 Example informal outline

Topic = 1.______________________________________

A. ___________________________________ a.________________________________ b.________________________________ c.________________________________

B.___________________________________ a.________________________________ b.________________________________

C.___________________________________ a.________________________________ b.________________________________

2.______________________________________

A.___________________________________ a.________________________________

B.___________________________________ a.________________________________ b.________________________________

3.____________________________________

A. ________________________________ a.________________________________ b.________________________________ c.________________________________

Conclusion =

Topic = There are a few simple rules to follow in order to stay safe on a hike Thesis statement = These rules will help you to avoid putting your life – and the life of others – at risk. 1. Never leave the path

A. You may get lost a. expert fact b. example c. expert opinion: quotation

B. There may be dangers of which you’re unaware a. example b. expert fact

C. You unnecessarily interfere with nature a. explanation b. evidence

2. Always inform someone when and where you are going A. If you don’t return on time, a search party

will know where to look a. expert opinion

B. They may provide valuable advice a. example b. effective comparison

3. Always plan ahead A. You will remember to bring all the

essential items a. exact information b. example c. expert opinion

Conclusion = Respecting these easy-to-follow rules will ensure you have a safe and enjoyable hike.

concluding paragraph

supporting body paragraphs

introductory paragraph



Part E Writing introductions

The introduction is the first part of an essay or assignment. It should clarify your viewpoint and outline how the essay will be structured. The introduction:

• provides a general statement about the topic • gives the background information needed to understand the essay • includes a thesis statement

Strong introductions attract attention and motivate the reader to keep on reading. Impact-making strategies include:

• using an attention grabber: a true, surprising fact, figure or statistic that gets your reader’s attention. Teenagers make up 2% of drivers, but account for 10% of car accidents

• citing an interesting quotation

As Catherine Rossi states: “Crash rates are much higher when teenagers travel together. In 2004, a little more than half of all crash deaths involving 16-year-old drivers occurred when they had teen passengers in the vehicle.”

• asking a question regarding the topic Why should driving licenses for teenagers be reconsidered?

• identifying a problem

Everyone knows that teenagers are more susceptible to car accidents than other drivers.

• sharing a common misconception

Postponing the legal driving age does not decrease accidents among teenage drivers.

• using an anecdote: a relevant personal experience

As a teenager, I can remember feeling immortal and totally disregarding danger.

http://www.quotesdaddy.com/quote/156214/catherine-rossi/crash-rates-are-much-higher-when-teenagers-travel�






Part F Constructing a thesis statement

Thesis Statement

After researching the essay topic and analysing the information, you should have decided on what area you will focus. The next step is to convert that position into an effective thesis statement (or thesis), which will guide and shape the rest of the essay.

The purpose of the thesis statement is to tell the reader the key idea that your essay supports. The thesis statement is often the last section of the introductory paragraph, and is the most important part of the essay.

The thesis statement:

• is the strongest, clearest sentence in the essay • usually appears near the end of the introduction • is the idea that will be explained in the rest of the essay • will NOT be a question because a question does not express attitude or opinion • is a complex sentence

A strong thesis statement has 3 main parts. They are the:

• limited subject • precise opinion • projected plan

Example thesis statement:

Women entrepreneurs in developing countries face unique challenges when starting up their businesses. They have to deal with issues based on their gender, their lack of financing, and their limited education. However, the challenges the women entrepreneurs face in Tanzania are greater than those of women in other parts of Africa, for four main reasons.

limited subject

precise opinion

projected plan

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/thesis.htm#1�

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/thesis.htm#2�



Although..Actually

You may find it helpful to use an ‘although . . . actually’ sentence to ensure you address all three main parts of a thesis statement.

Example ‘although...actually’ thesis statement:

Although Captain Chesley Sullenberger is sometimes called “Super Sully”, actually his safe landing of a passenger jet in the Hudson River in 2009 had little to do with superhuman powers. His successful emergency landing was due to broad experience, talent as a pilot, and raw courage.

1. Limited subject

Tell the reader the exact focus/content of the essay.

Captain Sullenberger’s (“Super Sully) safe landing of a passenger jet in the Hudson River in 2009...

2. Precise opinion

Share your answer to a question about the subject. This helps the reader understand the purpose of the essay. Your opinion should be thought provoking (not obvious) and able to be defended logically.

...actually had little to do with superhuman powers...

3. Projected plan

Present the main ideas that will be addressed in the essay. This clarifies for the reader what the details are supporting.

...(his successful emergency landing) was due to extensive experience, talent as a pilot, and raw courage.

When writing for academic purposes, it is possible to get too ‘close’ to the text. You read it and reread the text so often that you are no longer able to pick up inconsistencies or inaccuracies. Checklists like the one overleaf have been provided throughout the manual to help you make sure that you have included the key items.

Another useful strategy is to have a peer (a friend/classmate) read your work to confirm that your essay addresses the items on the list. A fresh eye may pick up what you no longer see.



Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure you have covered the essential items. Figure 1.14 Thesis statements checklist

Items My review Peer review Thesis statement tells the reader the exact focus of the essay - the limited subject Thesis statement expresses the writer’s opinion about the topic - the precise opinion Thesis statement outlines which ideas will be supported - the projected plan Thesis statement is not a question Thesis statement is a complex sentence

Part G Composing topic sentences

Topic Sentences

Topic sentences tell the reader what will be explained in the paragraph. Example topic sentence: Vegans can be divided into two categories: dietary vegans and ethical vegans. Dietary vegans cut out all animal products from their diets, whereas ethical vegans not only eliminate meat, meat products, dairy and eggs from their diet, but also give up eating other animal products such as honey. They avoid all clothing, household products, cosmetics, medicines and entertainment that have anything to do with animals in any way.

To write strong topic sentences, avoid using there is or there are too often. Other strategies include:

1. To + a verb Sentences that start with the infinitive (To + a verb) are clear and direct. Examples: a. To be successful in college, students must have excellent writing skills. b. To succeed in business, a manager needs to constantly adapt the goals to the

environment. c. To reduce global warming, a concerted effort is necessary.

Topic sentence



2. Number statements Simply use a number word in your sentence. Examples: a. Three issues dominate this year’s G8 meeting. b. Environmental scientists evaluate several factors when conducting human

impact studies. c. Like other low income countries, Zimbabwe is faced with many problems,

including unemployment and violence.

3. Occasion/position statements This is a two-part sentence. The occasion is the first part of the topic sentence and introduces the reason for writing. Start occasion clauses with words like:

After Even though When Although If Where As long as Since Whereas Before Unless Whether Even if Until While

The position is the second clause of the topic sentence and states the argument/content of the paragraph. The two clauses are separated by a comma. Examples: a. Even though the U.N. spends millions of dollars on combating AIDS, the

infection rate is still up. b. If the variables are not consistent, the experiment will be invalid. c. Unless all elements of the marketing mix are considered, the launch could fail.

4. Occasion + a quotation

This is a two-part sentence. Start the sentence with an occasion clause. The quotation is in the second clause of the topic sentence and communicates the argument/content of the paragraph. Examples: a. After managers have had just a little experience, they realise that John D.

Wright’s comment “Business is like riding a bicycle. Either you keep moving or you fall down”, is true.

b. When considering which career to choose, it may be wise to bear in mind Confucius’ advice: "Choose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your life."



c. Although the digital age has brought many benefits, Laurence J. Peter was

right when he said: “Television has changed the American child from an irresistible force to an immovable object.”

A topic sentence is different from a thesis statement.

A topic sentence simply states the subject of a paragraph.

The thesis statement states the subject of an essay and also the writer’s key idea on that subject which the whole essay supports.

Consider the subject of the characteristics of leaders. Below is an example topic sentence for a paragraph, followed by an example thesis statement for an essay.

Vision, integrity, drive and ability to influence others are the four main characteristics of a leader.

This topic sentence indicates that each of the four main characteristics of leaders will be covered within the paragraph.

Although a leader usually possesses four main characteristics, namely vision, honesty, drive and an ability to influence others, actually it is the latter which is the most important.

This thesis statement indicates that the supporting paragraphs will briefly cover the first three characteristics of leaders, and then focus on the ability to influence others, and say why this characteristic is the most important for a leader.

Writing a precise, specific thesis statement is the most important step in successful writing.

Part H Developing supporting details

Supporting Details

The supporting details provide information about and expand upon the topic sentences of each body paragraph. Unless the topic sentence is well supported or explained, the paragraph will be weak.

topic sentence for a paragraph

thesis statement for an essay



Example paragraph with supporting details:

NASA drone embarks on science flights

Although the United States Air Force uses the Global Hawk plane for military surveillance work, NASA recently bought three of these unmanned aircraft to fly non-military, scientific research missions over the Pacific Ocean. These scientific missions are exciting because they will push back the boundaries of current scientific exploration. The Global Hawk drone is a robotic plane that is designed to stay up in the air at very high altitudes for a long period of time. "We knew that this was the plane that would enable us to do things that we could only dream about," says Dr Paul Newman, a project scientist and atmospheric physicist. The Global Hawk can fly at higher than 18.3km, which is approximately twice as high as a commercial aircraft. It can stay in the air for up to 30 hours and can travel up to 20,000km, half the circumference of the Earth. Unlike other aircraft, it allows something to be observed for a very long period of time. The plane will be used to measure and sample greenhouse gases, ozone reducing matter and other air components, and help scientists better understand weather and climate. The plane will allow scientists to “travel” to parts of the world that have previously been out of reach. "Normally, you can't fly from California up to the arctic but with the Global Hawk you can," explains Dr Newman. "It just opened up a whole new world of possibilities.

Now you can fly to hurricanes and you can orbit those hurricanes for tens of hours. Right now we just have planes that can fly there, examine it and come straight back home."

Adapted from: NASA drone embarks on science flights (2010), BBC News [online]. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8620742.stm [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Remembering some ‘E’ words may help you to add specific supporting details which strengthen a paragraph.

Figure 1.15 ‘E’ words for supporting details

‘E’ words for supporting details:

examples explanations elaborated steps/procedures

evidence events exact information (facts)

expert opinions (quotes) effective comparisons/contrasts

explanation

exact information

examples

effective comparison

expert opinion

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8620742.stm�



Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure you have written strong supporting details.

Figure 1.16 Supporting details checklist

Items My review Peer review Supporting details have been carefully chosen to reinforce the thesis Supporting details are all on topic Supporting details include examples Supporting details include expert opinions (quotes) Supporting details include exact information (facts) Supporting details are compelling – they make the reader respect your attitude Supporting details do NOT simply restate the topic sentence/main idea Part I Using transitions

Transitions Transitions help connect sentences and paragraphs. Transitions may be single words or phrases. They help readers understand the logic of your reasoning.

1. Transitions between sentences

These help readers to anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words (although, finally) or short phrases (in contrast, in conclusion).

2. Transitions between paragraphs

These highlight how two paragraphs are connected. A transition between paragraphs can be a word or two (however, for example, similarly), a phrase, (equally important, the reason for) or a whole sentence. Transitions can be at the end of the first paragraph, at the beginning of the second paragraph, or in both places



Example paragraph with transitions:

Volcanic eruptions Watching a volcanic eruption is rather like seeing first-hand the incredible forces that are at work inside our planet. At the center of the Earth there is a metallic core covered by a layer of molten rock called the mantle. The core heats up the mantle, which accordingly rises as it expands, then cools and sinks. As a result of this continuous agitation, the Earth’s surface, or crust, has been split into 20 or so rocky slabs, called plates. Occasionally, like a shaken bottle of carbonated soft drink, hot, liquefied rock called magma squirts out from the crust in the form of lava. Sometimes the eruption is sudden and violent, for instance, at Mount St. Helens in Washington State in 1980. Another example is the eruption of the Philippines’ Mount Pinatubo, in 1991. Although it caused nearly 900 deaths, many more people would have died had it not been for the scientists who predicted the event. On the other hand, some eruptions are relatively slow and quiet. People had plenty of time to get out of the way of Hawaii’s Mauna Loa volcano in 1984 because its lava crept down the slope at about the speed of thick honey. Despite their danger and ability to spit fire and destruction from the belly of the Earth, volcanoes will continue to fascinate humans. Adapted from: Nature’s Fury – Volcanoes, BBC [online]. Available at: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/volcanoes/phenomena.html [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Below is a list of useful transition words and phrases to help you connect your ideas.

Figure 1.17 Example transition words and transition phrases

Role of Transition Examples

To sequence (order) first, second, third, to begin, next, lastly, finally

To make comparisons (show similarities) also, another, a similar, like, compared to, in the same way, likewise, similarly

To contrast (show differences) however, in contrast, unlike, on the contrary, on the other hand, but, yet

To indicate steps in a process first, second, after that, the next step, to begin with, the final step

To explain cause and effect so, therefore, thus, as a result, because of, consequently, the reason for , accordingly

To add support/evidence in addition, additionally, another, furthermore, along with, equally important, moreover

To give examples for instance, for example, namely

To emphasise a point in fact, indeed, above all, surely

To express the other side although, besides, even though, while it may be true that, despite, in spite of, nevertheless

To conclude to sum up, in summary, in sum, to conclude, finally, clearly, in fact, obviously, in conclusion

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/volcanoes/phenomena.html�



Part J Writing conclusions

Conclusions The objective of the conclusion of an essay or paragraph is to restate the main

ideas in different words, to leave the reader with a positive impression and encourage him/her to think further about the topic. Strong conclusions: • follow logically from the body of the essay/paragraph • summarise the essay/paragraph using different words • convince readers that the thesis statement/main idea is valid • do NOT introduce new information • challenge readers to think about the issue • encourage readers to take action

In conclusion, although scientists recently found that there is only a weak link between fruit and vegetable consumption and the prevention of cancer, there are other health benefits to be had. Eating five servings of fruits and vegetables a day protects against heart disease and strokes, builds up the immune system and reduces the effects of ageing. Therefore, the best advice is to continue to eat five portions of fruit and vegetables every day.

Strategies for writing a concluding paragraph/sentence include: • restating the thesis statement/main idea in different words, for example by

using synonyms to replace the key words • restating the thesis statement/main idea using a different sentence structure.

For example, if the topic sentence uses a number statement, conclude with an occasion/position statement

• using concluding transition words such as in conclusion etc. • making thought-provoking comments about the topic • recommending an action plan

What have I learnt in Unit 1?

In Unit 1 you learnt that academic writing is very structured and follows a particular style and language. First you looked at the structure of academic writing. Then the unit focused on the following key aspects of successful academic writing: • Narrowing the topic • Analysing the topic • Writing introductions • Constructing a thesis statement • Composing topic sentences • Developing supporting details • Using transitions • Writing conclusions

call to action

summary of the essay

Academic Writing Manual Unit 2: Academic Essay Types


Unit 2: Academic Essay Types

Part A Cause and effect essays

Part B Compare and contrast essays

Part C Process essays

Part D Argumentative/persuasive essays

Part E Descriptive essays

Part F Definition essays

Part G Problem/solution essays

Learning Outcomes

By the end of Unit 2 you should be able to:

• outline what an academic essay is

• list the different types of academic essays

• be familiar with the format for each type of academic essay

• apply the guidelines for writing the different types of academic essay

Overview An academic/informational/expository essay is a piece of writing that discusses, describes or analyses one topic. There are different ways to develop an academic essay. Different types of organisation include: 1. Cause and Effect

2. Compare and Contrast

3. Process

4. Persuasive/Argumentative

5. Descriptive

6. Definition

7. Problem/Solution

To become familiar with the essay writing process, study the figure overleaf.

Unit 2: Academic Essay Types Academic Writing Manual


Figure 2.1 The essay writing process

Step 1: Think Analyse the topic/problem/question.

Think about the purpose for writing, your objectives, the audience, and the style you will need to use. Brainstorm the topic. Create a mind map to fine-tune what you wish to write about.

Step 2: Gather Collect information from a range of sources. Skim read to find main ideas. Summarise the information – make brief notes. Record bibliographical details. Identify agreements and disagreements in various sources.

Step 3: Synthesise Develop a powerful thesis statement.

Step 4: Organise Brainstorm for the main ideas of paragraphs. Group main ideas and list supporting details. Construct an informal outline/plan. Check that your plan addresses the question. Check that the information supports the thesis statement.

Step 5: Draft Write a first draft. Refine your thesis statement to ensure it addresses what you planned in Step 4. Put your main ideas into sentences and paragraphs.

Step 6: Revise Ask yourself:

• Does the essay clearly address the topic? • Does the introduction include a thesis statement? • Is the language audience-appropriate? • Does the order of ideas support the thesis statement? • Is the style and tone and vocabulary appropriate? • Is it within the word limit? • Ask someone to read it – does it make sense?

After revising, write another draft.

Step 7: Edit Check:

• grammar, spelling, punctuation • referencing conforms to GAC guidelines

Step 8: Publish Compile the reference list. Type the final electronic version.

Researching

Composing

Editing



Part A Cause and effect essays

Cause And Effect

Cause and effect essays explain why or how something happened, and what resulted from the event.

It is important to distinguish between the most important (primary) and less important (secondary) causes and effects.

Figure 2.2 Cause and effect essay - content

Conclusion Restate the thesis statement to bring the reader back to the main point. Close the essay. Summarise the key points of the essay. You may also make a recommendation, or present a universal statement.

Introduction Make general statements about the situation or problem. NO specifics. After the general statements, write a sentence or two to link the situation or problem with the causes or effects. Formulate a thesis statement for the situation or problem. It must be clear whether the focus of the essay is on the causes or the effects.

Body Write a topic sentence which connects the thesis with the first paragraph. The topic sentence should clearly state whether the focus is cause or effect. Next, support the topic sentence with specific evidence. Make sure the evidence is appropriately introduced, explained, and if necessary, cited. Provide specific explanations, examples or expert opinions in a logical order until the point is clearly made. Finally, write a sentence summarising the paragraph, or a transition to the next paragraph. Repeat the same process for additional body paragraphs. Make sure that each paragraph reinforces the thesis. Use transitions to unify the paragraphs.



The cause and effect essay may be structured as:

• Multiple causes, one effect

• One cause, multiple effects

In your writing, it is possible to focus on either the causes, OR the effects.

Cause Focus 1. Introduction which includes a thesis

statement and clarifies that the essay has a cause focus, i.e. there are multiple causes leading to one effect

2. Cause 1 • Supporting details

3. Cause 2

• Supporting details

4. Cause 3 • Supporting details

5. Conclusion

Effect Focus 1. Introduction which includes a thesis

statement and clarifies that the essay has an effect focus, i.e. there is one cause leading to multiple effects

2. Effect 1 • Supporting details

3. Effect 2

• Supporting details

4. Effect 3 • Supporting details

5. Conclusion

Effect

Cause 1

Cause 2

Cause 3

Cause

Effect 1

Effect 2

Effect 3



Example cause and effect signal words

because

consequently

if....then

when

thus

therefore

due to

while

Example cause and effect paragraphs Example 1: Paragraph showing cause focus

Another cause of anorexia is media pressure. For example, when young women look at models in fashion magazines and Hollywood celebrities, they notice that most of the women tend to be very thin. Consequently, the perception is formed that in order to be beautiful, you have to be very thin. So some young women starve themselves in order to achieve that look. Thus, the media indirectly promote anorexia.

Example 2: Paragraph showing effect focus

If anorexia continues unchecked, the health problems get worse. Over time, anorexia causes hair loss, infertility, stunted growth, osteoporosis, heart problems, kidney failure, and eventually even death. Other effects of anorexia include tooth decay and gum damage from malnutrition and vomiting, and damage to the oesophagus and larynx from acid reflux. Anorexia can also lead to depression, severe mood swings, and thoughts of suicide.

The health consequences of anorexia can be devastating.

Adapted from: Anorexia Nervosa: understanding the signs, symptoms, causes, and treatment, Helpguide [online]. Available at: http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm [Accessed 15 June 2010]

topic sentence

topic sentence

concluding sentence

supporting details

supporting details

concluding sentence

http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm�



Figure 2.3 Example cause and effect organiser

Summarise the effects: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure you have covered the essential items.

Figure 2.4 Cause and effect essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction clearly states the cause and effect relationship to be discussed Introduction contains a strong thesis Introduction clarifies whether the focus is on the causes, or the effects Body of the essay clearly and logically supports the thesis statement with relevant facts and details

A distinction is made between the primary and secondary causes or effects Information in each paragraph is well organised Appropriate cause and effect signal words are used Transition words link the body paragraphs Conclusion clearly restates the thesis statement Conclusion summarises the essay and may make a recommendation or present a universal statement

Explain the causes:

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Below is a sample cause and effect essay which has an effect focus.

Cause and effect essay – sample

The health risks of smoking cigarettes

Certain health problems are linked to our modern lifestyle. For example, more and more people now have desk jobs, and do very little physical activity. This lack of exercise may lead to illnesses such as obesity. It may be difficult to control work situations but there is one cause of health problems which is within an individual’s control: cigarette smoking. Smokers face two major health risks: cardiovascular disease and lung damage. Failure to quit smoking exposes people to a high risk of developing these health problems.

Cardiovascular (heart) disease is the main cause of death due to smoking. Scientists have found that smoking accelerates the hardening and narrowing of the arteries and blood vessels. Blood clots are thus more likely to form. Depending on which blood vessels are affected, there are several types of cardiovascular disease. A heart attack happens when a blood clot forms in the arteries supplying the heart. Around 30% of heart attacks are due to smoking. If the vessels to the brain become blocked, the result could be collapse, stroke and paralysis. Smokers make up 9 out of 10 bypass patients. Smoking clearly prematurely triggers heart disease.

The gradual damage done to the lungs is another effect of smoking. Inhaled smoke brings tar and smoke particles to the lungs, where they accumulate. These impurities cause cancer. In fact, ninety-nine percent of lung cancers are because of smoking. If smoke is inhaled, then the elasticity of the lungs is reduced, limiting their ability to pass on oxygen to the blood. Emphysema – a chronic lung disease causing breathlessness – may result from long term exposure to tobacco smoke.

Although heart and lung disease are the two most serious health risks linked to smoking, they are not the only ones. Research overwhelmingly confirms that otherwise healthy behaviour means nothing if one continues to smoke. But quitting smoking is a very difficult task. There is no single method guaranteeing that smokers will kick the habit. The trick is not to give up until one has found a method that works – a long and healthy life depends on it.

Lung damage is permanent, but giving up smoking reduces the rate of decline in lung capacity.

introduction with thesis statement

effect focus body paragraphs

conclusion with universal statement



Part B Compare and contrast essays

Compare And Contrast

Compare/contrast essays discuss the similarities (comparison) and differences (contrast) between two or more items (people, places, events, ideas etc.). You may be asked to compare AND contrast, or to do just one or the other. Figure 2.5 Compare and contrast essay - content

Body Write a topic sentence which connects the thesis statement with the first paragraph. The topic sentence should clearly state whether the focus is comparison or contrast, or both. Next, support the topic sentence with specific evidence. Make sure the evidence is appropriately introduced, explained, and if necessary, cited. Provide specific explanations, examples or expert opinions in a logical order until the point is clearly made. Finally, reinforce all that has been said in the paragraph with a summary sentence. Repeat the same process for additional body paragraphs, making sure that each paragraph reinforces the thesis. Use transitions to unify the paragraphs.

Conclusion Restate the thesis statement to bring the reader back to the main point. Close the essay. Summarising is one method of closure. You may also make a recommendation.

Introduction Make general statements about the items to be compared/ contrasted. NO specifics. After the general statements, write a sentence or two to indicate that the purpose of the writing is to compare/contrast. Formulate a thesis statement. Clarify the organisation of the essay: block or alternating.



Comparison and contrast thinking can be used when deciding which university to attend or which cell phone to buy, for example. There are three ways to organise a compare/contrast essay: • block format • alternating format • all similarities/all differences Look at the following diagrams of these formats in the example of comparing and contrasting two brands of smartphone, the iPhone and the BlackBerry:

Block Format

1. Introduction in which you state that your purpose is to compare and contrast the iPhone and the BlackBerry

2. iPhone a. applications b. user-interface c. power and performance

3. BlackBerry a. applications b. user-interface c. power and performance

4. Conclusion

Alternating Format


2. The first difference is the applications

a. iPhone b. BlackBerry

3. The second difference is the user-interface


4. The third difference is the power and performance


5. Conclusion

All Similarities/All Differences


2. All similarities

3. All differences

4. Conclusion



Example compare/contrast signal words

Example cause and effect paragraphs

Example paragraph 1: using block format

What is the difference between allopathy and homeopathy? Allopathy and homeopathy are quite different approaches to treating bad health. Allopathy is the usual way to treat a sick person. It relieves the symptoms of the illness, without treating the underlying cause. In allopathy, mental and physical health are believed to sometimes coincide. However, they are generally considered separate areas of health and treated by different specialists. Allopathic medicines can have dangerous side effects. In contrast, homeopathy addresses the underlying cause of the illness in order to cure it. Homeopathic treatments do not distinguish between mental and physical health. The whole person is treated. While allopathic treatments may have unwanted consequences, homeopathic medicines have no side effects and are non-toxic.

The choice between these two dissimilar treatments depends on a person’s philosophy regarding health management.

Contrast

- different from - in contrast- although- however

Contrast

- on the other hand- instead of- while- but

Compare - similarly - a similar - another - like - likewise

concluding sentence

topic sentence

supporting details



Example paragraph 2: using alternating format

What characteristics distinguish plants from animals? To determine what sets plants apart from animals, three main features may be contrasted. Firstly, plants have the capacity to produce their own food through photosynthesis - a process where they transform substances in the environment. Animals, on the other hand, get their food either directly by eating plants, or indirectly by eating animals which have eaten plants. Secondly, plants are usually rooted and do not move, while animals are usually mobile. Thirdly, in external appearance plants are usually green, and they continue to grow throughout their lives. In contrast, animals look very different on the outside and they only grow for a limited time.

Although they are both living organisms, plants and animals could not be more different.

Adapted from: Paragraph types: comparison and/or contrast, University of New England [online]. Available at: http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/students/factsheets/paragraph-comp.pdf [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Figure 2.6 Example compare and contrast organiser

Item 1

Features compared/contrasted

Item 2

Differences

• • • •

Differences

Similarities:

concluding sentence

topic sentence

supporting details

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/students/factsheets/paragraph-comp.pdf�




Figure 2.7 Compare and contrast essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction clearly states what the items are and whether they will be compared or contrasted, or both

Introduction has a strong thesis statement Organisation of the essay is consistent throughout Features are discussed in the same order in each paragraph Features are discussed in a logical order Appropriate compare and contrast signal words are used Transition words link the body paragraphs Conclusion clearly restates the thesis Conclusion closes the essay by summarising, making recommendations, or presenting a universal statement



Below is a sample compare and contrast essay using an alternating format.

Compare and contrast essay - sample

Comparing and contrasting an iPhone and a BlackBerry

The smartphone market currently has two stars – the iPhone and the BlackBerry. The iPhone is made by Apple, and the BlackBerry by RIM (Research in Motion). Each of these mobile data phones was bought by over six million people in 2009. Given their equal popularity, choosing which to buy is a difficult decision. Although their applications, user-interfaces, and power and performance are similar, actually they appeal to different types of user.

If one compares the applications of the two handhelds, iPhone trumps BlackBerry. iPhone users are encouraged to develop and market their own applications. This leads to an amazing array of ‘apps’ covering a very wide range of uses. The disadvantage is that the choice of iPhone apps is rather confusing. Unlike iPhone, BlackBerry offers many apps for free. However, the number and quality of apps is poor and lack appropriate technical support, so the phones can crash unexpectedly. BlackBerry trails iPhone in applications.

Most users agree that in terms of user-interface – or ease of use – iPhone once again beats BlackBerry. iPhone has a touch screen which is double the key size of the BlackBerry when the phone turns on its side. When they shake their phone, iPhone users see their playlists shuffle. BlackBerry’s ‘QWERTY’ keyboard is convenient for people who are familiar with the traditional computer keyboard. On the other hand, the keys are very small, and the trackball sticks. The iPhone is a hands-down winner with regard to user-interface.

iPhone and BlackBerry are very similar when considering power and performance.

Ultimately, iPhone and BlackBerry perform virtually equally well. The iPhone is more user-friendly and offers considerably more applications, but the BlackBerry offers a stronger E-mail and phone performance. So the choice between the two comes down to what the intended usage is.

Both smartphones instantly respond to commands. Both will run on battery alone for about three hours of constant use. Both are extremely durable. BlackBerry, though, was first designed for corporate use, so their devices have more text-message and E-mail capacity than iPhones. BlackBerries are better than iPhones at voice to-text and text-to voice changes. BlackBerry has the better phone features. BlackBerry also enjoys a smoother connection to Microsoft Exchange. So one could argue in favour of BlackBerry for power and performance.

BlackBerry is better suited for work purposes, while iPhone probably best addresses the fun factor. However before deciding, it is worth investigating the new smartphones which have recently been launched.

introduction with thesis statement

alternating format body paragraphs

conclusion with recommendation

iPhone apps

BlackBerry apps

iPhone user-interface

BlackBerry user-interface

Similarities in power/ performance

BlackBerry power / performance



Part C Process essays

Process Essays

Process essays describe how to do something, or how something works by giving a step by step explanation. For example: how does the AIDS virus attack the immune system? How does the digestive process work? How do you cook ratatouille? Process essays may be either informational or directional. Informational process essays explain how something works or happens. The aim is not to provide detailed instructions, but to explain the overall process, usually in the third person and in the passive voice. Directional/how-to process essays explain how to do something. A set of detailed instructions is given, usually in the imperative form, so that the readers will be able to repeat the process themselves. Figure 2.8 Process essays - content

Example process essay transition words

first , second...

begin by

after that

at the same time

later

next

meanwhile/while

thenas soon

as

eventually

when this step is done,

when to finish

finally

lastly

Body In a directional essay, one paragraph should specify the materials that will be needed and quantities. All specified materials must appear in the process and something not listed here cannot appear in the process. Next, explain the steps of the process in paragraph form, in chronological order. Some steps are related enough that they can be combined into one paragraph. Use the passive voice.

Conclusion Explain what the result of the process should be. You may comment on what could be done next.

Introduction Formulate a thesis statement telling the process to be explained.



Example process essay paragraphs

Example 1: Informational process paragraph

There are many stages coffee beans go through after the fermentation process before becoming coffee sold in shops. First of all, the coffee beans are washed. Then the washed coffee is spread out on concrete slabs or drying racks and left out in the sun to dry. After that, the beans are turned over several times a day to ensure that they dry evenly. Depending on the weather conditions, this process takes five or six days. When the coffee has dried to an attractive golden yellow colour, it is known as pergamino coffee and is ready for the last stage. To finish, the pergamino is stored in bags.

Finally, the work of the cultivators ends: they sell their coffee to a distributor or an exporter.

Adapted from: Coffee development: from bean to cup, Holland by Mail [online]. Available at: http://www.hollandbymail.com/coffee/coffee_bean_to_cup.html [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example 2: Directional/how-to process paragraph

If you determine that the person is not breathing and that the victim has no pulse, ring 911 then immediately begin CPR. Begin by kneeling next to the victim's chest. Place the heel of your hand in the center of the victim's chest. Next, place your other hand directly on top and interlace your fingers. After that, straighten your arms and lock your elbows. Your shoulders should be directly over your hands. Press down by 4-5 cm., and then release the pressure, keeping your hands in place. Repeat the compressions 30 times, maintaining a smooth, steady rhythm, then give 2 rescue breaths. When you give breaths, be sure to firstly open the victim's airway. Tilt the head and lift the chin. Secondly, take a deep breath and seal your lips around the victim’s mouth. Blow into the mouth until the chest rises. Lastly, remove your mouth and allow the chest to fall. Repeat the breath once more before returning to the compressions.

When the victim begins breathing or help arrives, you may halt CPR.

Adapted from: Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), St. John’s Ambulances [online]. Available at: http://www.sja.org.uk/sja/first-aid-advice/life-saving-procedures/cpr-for-adults.aspx [Accessed 15 June 2010]

topic sentence

topic sentence

concluding sentence

concluding sentence

supporting details

supporting details

http://www.hollandbymail.com/coffee/coffee_bean_to_cup.html�

http://www.sja.org.uk/sja/first-aid-advice/life-saving-procedures/cpr-for-adults.aspx�



Figure 2.9 Example process essay organiser

Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure you have covered the essential items. Figure 2.10 Process essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction clearly states which process will be described One paragraph specifies materials and quantities All materials are mentioned in the process, and no new materials are introduced All the steps in the process are included Steps follow in chronological order There may be tips on what NOT to do Appropriate transition words show where one step ends and the next begins Conclusion clearly restates the thesis statement Conclusion closes the essay by summarising, making recommendations, or proposing next steps

The writing style clearly indicates whether it’s a directional or informational process essay

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5



Below is a sample informational process essay.

Informational process essay - sample

How to make paper Man has been making paper for about 4,000 years. Although the process has been refined and efficiency improved, the way in which paper is made nowadays is actually still the same.

Paper making uses wood and consists of six stages (logging, debarking, chipping, pulping, bleaching and paper machining) which will be outlined in this essay.

The raw material for paper is wood, so first of all, the trees are logged (cut down and their branches removed). Secondly, the logs are transported to the mill where the bark is removed. A large, spinning drum is used to debark the trees. As the logs rub against each other, the bark comes off. Thirdly, the logs are cut into small pieces, or chipped by a large rotating knife. After this, a wood ‘pulp’ is made by breaking down the chips. There are two main pulping methods: chemical pulping and mechanical pulping. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. The first, chemical pulping, produces very pure fibres. The chips are cooked with sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide to produce a dark brown pulp. This pulp requires extensive bleaching to make it usable, but high-quality paper is produced. The second, mechanical pulping, forces the debarked logs against a rotating metal disk to produce pulp. The percentage of usable pulp is higher, but the quality of paper is lower. Then, this pulp is purified and cleaned by bleaching. The chemicals, wood resins and lignin (a sort of natural glue in the wood) are removed. The fibres are cleaned many times to make them ready to be made into paper. The last stage, the paper machining stage, involves several sections. It starts with stock preparation. During stock preparation, wood fibre is mixed with water and minerals. When the water drains, the fibres stick together and a web of paper is formed. Next is the press section. Here the web of paper is squeezed between rollers to remove more water. In the third section, the dryer section, dryers remove even more water from the paper. To strengthen it, a light coating of starch and minerals is applied to the paper. After the coating is put on, the paper is dried again, and finally wound into a giant roll. The paper making steps explained above are the same ones that have been used for thousands of years. Thanks to technological innovations, the production techniques have been made more efficient and cost effective. Nevertheless, wood is still the basic ingredient of paper making. Luckily it a renewable source of fibres, however perhaps a more environmentally-friendly ingredient should be investigated. Adapted from: How is Paper made from Trees? essortment [online]. Available at: http://beta.essortment.com/20118-paper-made-trees.html [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Introduction with thesis statement

Body

Conclusion

http://beta.essortment.com/20118-paper-made-trees.html�



Part D Argumentative/persuasive essays

Argumentative/ Persuasive Essay

Argumentative/persuasive essays use logic and evidence to try to persuade the reader to agree with the writer’s point of view.

As with the previous essay types, persuasive writing must include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. How material is arranged within these three sections depends mainly on the audience. Acknowledging opposing views and explaining why yours is better will strengthen the argument.

Figure 2.11 Argumentative/persuasive essays - content

In argumentative/persuasive writing, there are three key elements which should be addressed: a. The purpose of the essay is the main reason for writing. It is determined

mainly by who you're writing to – the intended audience.

b. The audience is the people you are hoping to influence. Knowing the audience is more crucial in argumentative writing than any other essay. It is important to tailor the argument, and language and tone, to the needs of the audience.

c. The support is details that reinforce the arguments in the essay. Ample, objective support is the key to success in persuasive writing. Factual reasons tend to be more persuasive than opinions or anecdotal evidence.

Body Organise your reasons, either most important to least important, or least to most important. Each paragraph should explain a different reason using a topic sentence. Support the reasons with examples, evidence, and exciting facts. Make sure you use different types of supporting details (remember the ‘E’ words). Elaborate on the facts by expressing reactions or interpreting them. State the opposing view and demonstrate it is not correct. Use smooth transitions between paragraphs.

Conclusion Restate your opinion. Summarise. Explain why it is important that the reader agrees. Comment on the possible consequences if your opinion

Introduction Get the reader’s attention by using a ‘hook’. Provide background information to the issue and define key terms. Write a thesis statement in which you state the issue and your opinion about this issue.



Refutation/Counter Arguments

Every argumentative essay must include refutation or counter arguments.. The counter-arguments are the opposing arguments – that is, those arguing against what you are writing. You must consider and present the opposing view to show you know it exists, and then refute/discredit it by saying why it is inaccurate.

There are three ways to refute a counter-argument:

i. Acknowledge the argument, but prove that it is not strong enough. For example:

Some people agree with disagree with a total ban on teenagers using cell phones while driving, saying that it violates freedom of choice. However, statistics show that 60% of teenagers - the most dangerous drivers - have texted while driving, compared to only 14% of people over 30.

ii. Completely disagree. For example:

Even if the specific business sector has traditionally been considered the domain of one gender, such as hairdressing, there is no way to justify the existence of gender discrimination in the work force.

iii. Assert that the argument is irrelevant to the topic. For example:

It is irrelevant to claim that due to the development of mobile electronic media one does not need to know how to read and write.

There are several ways to organise an argumentative/persuasive essay:

Format 1 1 Introduction 2 PRO (for/in favour of) idea 1 3 PRO (for/in favour of) idea 2 etc. 4 CON/s and refutation/s 5 Conclusion

Format 3 1 Introduction 2 CON/s (against/negative) and refutation/s 3 PRO (for/in favour of) idea 1 4 PRO (for/in favour of) idea 2 etc. 5 Conclusion

Format 2 1 Introduction 2 CON (against/negative) idea 1 and refutation 3 CON (against/negative) idea 2 and refutation 4 CON (against/negative) idea 3 and refutation 5 Conclusion



Example persuasive essay signal words

Example argumentative/persuasive paragraph

Capital punishment is wrong

The first and strongest argument against capital punishment is that it is immoral. The Universal Declaration on Human rights states that “everyone has the right to life”. No matter how we choose to define capital punishment, if it is not moral for citizens to kill an unarmed person, then neither is it moral for the state to do so. After all, the state represents the collective rights of all. It may true that the crime committed was barbaric, that the criminal is guilty beyond reasonable doubt, and that the felon shows no sign of remorse. Nevertheless, this does not make the government killing of an individual right.

• Some/Many people are of the opinion that

• It is a common belief that

• There is no doubt that

• A commonly held point of view is that

• People maintain that

Introductory Phrases

• similarly• also• in addition• equally• moreover • furthermore• likewise

Supporting Opinions

• even though• although• on the other hand

• nevertheless• yet• but• I doubt

Countering Arguments • For the

reasons above• As you can see• Unquestionably• In short• Obviously

Concluding Phrases

topic sentence

concluding sentence

supporting details



Figure 2.12 Example argumentative essay organiser


Figure 2.13 Argumentative/persuasive essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction has an inviting hook

Introduction has a thesis statement which states the issue and the writer’s opinion Arguments are logically organised Arguments relate to the thesis statement Arguments are supported with sufficient, credible evidence Counter-arguments are identified and convincingly refuted Appropriate signal words are used Attitudes and values of the audience are considered Conclusion restates the thesis statement Conclusion summarises the main points Conclusion has a strong closing statement

Counter-arguments and refutations

List some opposing views and refute them.

Facts and examplesWhat are some facts

and examples to support your reasons

and validate your argument?

Main reasonsState two main

reasons that would convince someone that

your thesis is valid.

Thesis statement or opinion

What thesis or point are you trying to

argue?



Below is a sample argumentative/persuasive essay.

Argumentative/persuasive essay - sample

Is the ability to read and write more important nowadays than in the past?

Today, new technology is woven into almost every aspect of our lives. So the question of whether the ability to read and write is more important today than in the past, is one well worth considering. There are two schools of thought: some think reading and writing ability is more important today than in the past, while others minimise its importance in modern life. Although ‘low tech’, the ability to read and write is actually more important than ever based on the following reasons.

Literacy allows people to educate themselves. Literacy is included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the right to a basic education. In addition, the UNESCO ‘Literacy as Freedom’ campaign set a goal is to achieve a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015. The reason for this emphasis on literacy is that the ability to read and write allows people to educate themselves. This in turn allows them to escape from poverty and pursue other human rights.

People without the ability to read and write will struggle to earn a living, since most jobs require some degree of reading and writing skills. In America, 43% of people with the lowest literacy rate live in poverty. Workers with poor literacy are held back by the fact that their boss has to personally tell them how to do things. Moreover, they are unable to take notes for themselves, let alone read the instructions left by their boss.. Because of illiteracy, their earning potential and employment prospects are limited to repetitive, low-paying jobs.

Being unable to read and write forces individuals to be reliant on others in all aspects of their lives. Even though the digital world is all around us, the written word still exists in most walks of life. So illiterate people must depend on others to tell them what is written wherever they go for example, they are unable to read medical prescriptions, and neither can they verify a contract. This leaves them prone to exploitation by unethical people. Obviously, the inability to read and write keeps people dependent on others.

Some will say that with the development of mobile phones and other mobile electronic information devices, one can simply receive and transmit information in an audio-visual manner.

In short, literacy is the path to freedom and independence. Freedom to pursue education and other human rights, freedom to broaden professional horizons, and independence in completing daily activities.

To some extent this is true, but illiterate people tend to be poor people. They cannot afford to purchase these expensive devices, or even pay the running costs. In addition, there is still the question of verifying that what is said is what is actually written - into a contract, for example. So yes, electronic media provide illiterate people with a possible alternate method of communication,, but is this alternative really open to them?

Audio-visual technology has opened new frontiers, yet these new frontiers complement, and do not replace, the need to read and write. Illiterate people risk being condemned to a cycle of frustration and poverty.


Conclusion

Body

Refutation

Counter-Argument



Part E Descriptive essays

Descriptive Essays

There are three kinds of descriptive essays: technical/scientific, narrative and emotional. Figures 2.15, 2.16 and 2.17 on pages 47 and 48 show how to organise these.

Figure 2.14 Descriptive essay - content

Technical/Scientific

• Are factual• Emphasise accuracy• Are direct and to the point• Example: description of a graph, description of a habitat

Narrative

• Retell events (real or imaginary)

• Emphasise visualising the event

• Use descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs)

• Evoke a reaction from the reader

• Example: describing a n environmental disaster

Emotional

• Describe a person, scene, reaction.

• Describe an idea or experience

• Example: Reflective Learning Journal

Body Use spatial order to describe what a person, place or object looks like, i.e. describe it either from: • left to right or right to left • top to bottom or bottom to top Use order of importance. Usually it starts with the weakest feature and progresses to the strongest feature. Include details to ensure your readers gain a vivid impression in line with how you want them to feel.

Conclusion Restate your thesis statement using different words.

Introduction Introduce the topic to be described and the aspects/qualities on which your descriptions will focus. Compose a thesis statement in which you say how you want the reader to feel after reading the essay.



Example technical/scientific descriptive paragraph

Polinices duplicatus

The shell’s scientific name is Polinices duplicatus. It once provided a home and a source of protection for a snail probably living in the shallow waters of Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. It belongs to the mollusk class gastropoda. The shell is a univalve, which means that the shell consists of a single valve, or piece. It is 3.5 cm long and 4 cm wide, and weighs 22 grams. The shell is round and multi-coloured. It has shades of brown, very light purple, orange and tan. Its texture is very smooth. This shell is right-handed, which means that it coils to the right. It has a hollow interior and the bottom of the shell is white with one round brown spot.

Adapted from: Education on the Halfshell, Cassie Zanca [online]. Available at:

Polinices duplicatus is an engineering accomplishment.

http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/halfshell/pdf/dicot3all.pdf [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example narrative descriptive paragraph

JCO Tokai nuclear power plant environmental disaster

An unfortunate chain of events led to the JCO Tokai nuclear power plant accident- the first of its kind in Japan. On 30 September 1999, three workers at the nuclear power plant were preparing a small batch of highly enriched uranium for a reactor. Their experience was with much lower-enriched uranium, and they did not understand the potential dangers. At around 10:35, when there were about 40 litres of highly enriched uranium in the tank, a critical mass was reached. Once it began, the nuclear fission reaction continued on its own, and gave off intense radiation. Alarms went off as fission products were released inside the building. It took about 20 hours before officials were finally able to stop the deadly chain reaction. The 3 employees initially involved in the incident all died from radiation poisoning within 3 days. Altogether, 27 workers were exposed to some level of radioactivity.

Adapted from: Tokaimura Criticality Accident (2007), World Nuclear Association [online]. Available at:

This accident forever changed the way of operating a nuclear power plant in Japan.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf37.html [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example emotional descriptive paragraph

Reflection on the group role play

Working in a group is not the easiest of tasks. My group was ‘stranded on the moon’ and had to negotiate which items to choose in order to survive. Paul and Rose took on the role of leaders, which was fine with me, because I am more of a follower. I felt the tension in my group. It was almost physical. We all had our own opinions and disagreed most of the time, which was very frustrating. I was afraid that we would not ‘make if off the moon alive’. Because of the time limit, I felt panicky and under pressure. I get very stressed in crisis situations, and struggle to think clearly. In the end, we were able to reach a consensus about which items to choose, but by then I didn’t really care what we chose, as long as we stopped arguing. This group task left me feeling that it’s more comfortable working alone without having to take the opinions of others into account. However, I also realise that to work successfully in a modern workplace, it is essential to have the skills to negotiate and argue and to reach an agreement.

http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/halfshell/pdf/dicot3all.pdf�

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf37.html�



Figure 2.15 Example technical/scientific descriptive essay organiser

Figure 2.16 Example narrative descriptive essay organiser

1. Introduction

Address the question using words from the prompt.

2. First event • details

3. Second event • details

4. Third event • details

5. Conclusion



Figure 2.17 Example emotion or feeling descriptive essay organiser


Figure 2.18 Descriptive essay checklist

Items My review

Peer review

Introduction introduces the main topic to be described

Introduction identifies the aspects/qualities on which you want to focus

Introduction has a thesis statement saying how you want the reader to feel after reading the essay

Each paragraph focuses on one aspect/quality of your description

Descriptions of aspects/qualities are logically organised

Descriptions of aspects/qualities include details that create a vivid impression in line with how you want the readers to feel

Conclusion restates the thesis statement using different words

Conclusion has a strong closing statement

Feeling __________ because:

Person:

Feeling ____________ because:

Feeling ___________ because:

Feeling __________ because:



Below is a sample scientific descriptive essay.

Scientific descriptive essay - sample

The humpback whale

One of the most spectacular members of the whale family is the humpback.

By describing this warm-blooded sea mammal, this essay will illustrate why this enormous creature, with its long flippers, round head, solid, strong body and distinctive colouring, inspires awe among many people.

If one thing is immediately impressive, it the humpback’s size.

The humpback is the fifth largest among whale species, and is a striking and powerful sight with its flippers sometimes growing to as much as a third of its entire body length. Adult humpbacks reach 15 metres in length, with a weight of around 4.5 tonnes. Calves are born around 4 metres long and weigh up to 1 tonne.

Its diet is specific and voluminous.

The humpback feeds on krill (sea animals, similar to prawns) and other crustaceans of a similar size. The whale takes these in through its giant mouth where huge ‘plates’ filter the mouthful, making sure it doesn’t take in anything which is too big or too small. In this way, the humpback gets through as much as 1 tonne of food a day.

The humpback’s eating habits are also astonishing: it only eats for half of each year.

The feeding grounds are located in the waters around Antarctica. During the summer eating season time, the whale stores fat for the energy it will need during the winter, non-feeding part of the year. After breeding in warmer waters further north during the winter, the humpbacks return south with their young to begin feeding again.

Humpback whales are known for their magical songs, which travel for great distances through the world's oceans.

These sequences of moans, howls, cries, and other noises are quite complex and often continue for hours on end. Scientists are studying these sounds to decipher their meaning. It is most likely that humpbacks sing to communicate with others and to attract potential mates.

To sum up, humpback whales amaze with their size, interest with their unique eating habits and charm with their songs. Luckily for us, their magnificence has protected them: since 1966 it has been illegal to hunt these incredible creatures.


Body

Conclusion

impressive size

voluminous diet

astonishing eating habits

magical songs



Part F Definition essays

Definition Essays

Definition essays explain what a term means. Some terms - such as gold, dolphin, or sea - have definite, concrete meanings. Other terms such as democracy, bravery, or generosity - are abstract and depend more on a person's point of view.

Definition essays combine the factual meaning with what the term means for the writer. For example, if you are asked to define globalisation, the methods of defining it include:

• its origins and causes: where the term came from • its function: what something does or how it works, what its used for • its structure: how it is organised or put together • its essential characteristics and distinguishing features • classification: which classes the terms belongs to • analysis: how it compares/contrasts with other similar terms • providing examples: which illustrations clarify the term • negation: telling what the term does NOT mean • quotations by experts

Figure 2.19 Definition essay - content

Body Explain the definition in the introduction by providing supporting details. Offer a fresh perspective in each paragraph: use different methods to develop the definition. Give clear examples/evidence/ anecdotes to support the proposed definition.

Conclusion Restate the thesis statement. Summarise the key supporting details, connecting them to the thesis statement. Close the essay.

Introduction Explain what the essay is about and provide the background information for the term. The thesis statement is usually towards the end of the introduction and provides a brief definition, together with your interpretation.



Example definition essay signal words These will largely depend which format you choose for your essay, i.e. compare and contrast, cause and effect etc. See previous notes.

Example definition paragraph

Dictators

Dictators are charismatic rulers with absolute power. They control all aspects of government. They can introduce laws at will, without having to consult a legislative body. Even so, dictators must be able to use their personal appeal to persuade people to give up their civil liberties and current way of doing things, and follow the dictator’s ideas. Like so many dictators, Idi Amin was charismatic. He came to power in Uganda after a military coup. Although he is reported to have been responsible for the death of about 300 000 of his own people, his charm kept him popular in his country. It took overseas troops and Ugandan exiles to finally topple him from power.

Often, the charisma of the dictator outweighs the fear he arouses.

Figure 2.20 Example definition essay organiser

Term or concept to be defined:

Dictionary defintion:

Synonyms or antonyms:

Essential characteristics:

Paraphrased defintion:

Examples:

Quotations:

concluding sentence

topic sentence

supporting details



Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure you have covered the essential items. Figure 2.21 Definition essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction provides background information Introduction has a clearly expressed thesis statement which provides a definition together with your interpretation

Introduction identifies the planned format for supporting the thesis statement Definition is developed by at least two methods Supporting details are convincing Supporting details clearly relate to the thesis statement Ideas are organised in a logical manner Appropriate signal words are used Conclusion restates the thesis statement Conclusion summarises the key supporting details Conclusion has a strong closing statement



Below is a sample definition essay. Definition essay - sample

What is Love? “Love doesn’t make the world go round. Love is what makes the ride worthwhile” (Franklin P. Jones, 1887-1929). Although it is hard to disagree with this statement, it does not really define what love is, beyond it being wonderful. To define love, this essay will look at the history of the word, explain what love is not, and examine what it does.

Ultimately, it will be found that love is different things to different people.

From the beginning of time, love has been associated with positive emotions.

The word was used by the Proto-Indo-Europeans approximately five thousand years ago to describe care and desire. In the eighth century, the earliest English writers used it as lufu. It was both a noun describing “deep affection”, and a verb meaning “to be very fond of”. Today the word love covers a variety of different feelings, from common pleasure (“I loved that movie.”), to strong affection between two or more people (“I love my husband and children”). So it is a complex concept, used from the start to describe all kinds of intense, positive feelings.

To consider what love is NOT, is rather revealing

. True love does not keep a score card of wrongdoings, we are told. It is not proud, nor rude. Love is not selfish and never fails. In thinking of our own relationships, it is very obvious how difficult love is to attain. It is hard work, and even when the best efforts are put forth (“I will not finish the chocolates, but leave some for my little sister”), sometimes it is just not enough. Love can fail, leaving the people involved hurt and confused. Looking at what love is NOT brings home how difficult it is to achieve and sustain.

Luckily, even if it sometimes goes wrong, love can give us wings

. It inspires us to be better people than we would otherwise be. For example, love motivates individuals to be patient, even in a negative situation. Think of how hot-tempered reactions to a situation can lead to disasters, like road rage shootings. Patience stops problems in their tracks. Love also makes one kind. Mahatma Gandhi displayed loving kindness to all, promoting his just cause through non-violent means like sit-ins and fasts. Love empowers us.

Finally, love can bring laughter, pleasure, pain, anger, and virtually any type of emotion. From earliest time, it has been associated with strong positive feelings. It is believed to give almost superhuman powers.

In the end, love is what one believes it to be. It is for each individual to discover what love truly means.

Conclusion

Body


history of the word

what it does

what it isn’t



Part G Problem/solution essays

Problem/Solution essays inform readers about problems and propose actions that could be taken to fix these problems. Proposals are documents that suggest solutions to problems and are used across disciplines.

For example, scientists use the scientific method, a systematic form of problem solving; sociologists propose solutions to troubling social problems like poverty, and business people employ problem-solving techniques to resolve industrial disputes. To successfully solve problems, you need to use critical thinking.

Figure 2.22 Problem/solution essay - content

Possible essay formats:

Format 1: Problem/Solutions/Preferred solution 1. Introduction - Problem 2. Solution 1, supporting details, consequences 3. Solution 2, supporting details, consequences 4. Solution 3, supporting details, consequences 5. Preferred solution, explanation, advantages 6. Conclusion

Format 2: Problems/Solutions 1. Introduction 2. Problem 1, solutions, supporting details 3. Problem 2, solutions, supporting details 4. Problem 3, solutions, supporting details 5. Conclusion

Body Provide a description of each possible solution, together with its supporting details and consequences. In the last body paragraph, identify the best solution. Support with an explanation, examples and advantages. Address possible refutations.

Conclusion Restate the problem. Summarise which is the best solution and why. Conclude with a call to action.

Introduction Describe the problem and its significance. Explore the problem, including causes and effects. Formulate a thesis statement which refers to the problem and the preferred solution.



Example problem/solution essay signal words

Example problem/solution paragraph Format: Problem/Solutions/Preferred solution

Health problems associated with shanty towns

There are many health problems associated with shanty towns.

Firstly, because the makeshift sites are illegal the government does not deliver fresh water for home use. As a result, shanty town dwellers often drink and bathe in dirty water. This can lead to diseases such as dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis, as well as skin and eye diseases. There is a lot the government could to solve this dilemma. For example, it could supply clean, piped water to individual houses or, at least, to central points in communities. If providing piped water is an issue, another remedy could be that the authorities truck in clean water daily for people to fill their containers. Alternatively, bottled water could be supplied for drinking. This would at least ensure water was fit for cooking and drinking and reduce infectious diseases. Trucking in clean water is a very quick solution to implement, allowing the issue to be resolved almost overnight more cheaply than installing a piped system. It is also more environmentally friendly than distributing countless plastic bottles. Although providing clean water is expensive and challenging, the difficulty of implementing possible solutions should be weighed against the health and social costs of inaction.

Adapted from: A Problem-Solution essay , Tesol Tasks [online]. Available at: http://www.tesoltasks.com/ProblemSolution.htm [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Words to identify problems

• need• difficulty • problem• dilemma• challenge• issue

Words to suggest solutions

• propose• suggest• solve• resolve• improve• remedy

identification of the problem

proposal of solutions

Problem = dirty water

Solution 1

Solution 2

Preferred Solution

Solution 3

http://www.tesoltasks.com/ProblemSolution.htm�



Figure 2.23 Example problem/solution essay organiser

Below is a checklist which you may find helpful to ensure that you have covered the essential items.

Figure 2.24 Problem/solution essay checklist

Items My review Peer review Introduction provides a clear description of the problem and its significance

Introduction explores the problem, including its causes and effects

Introduction provides a specific thesis statement which refers to the problem and identifies the preferred solution

Body offers relevant solution/s to the problem Solutions in the body are validated by convincing supporting details Solutions in the body are qualified by relevant consequences Arguments are logically organised Arguments support the thesis statement Conclusion restates the problem Conclusion addresses any refutations Conclusion identifies and provides justification for the best solution Conclusion ends with a suggested action

What is the problem?

What are the causes?

What are the effects?

What are some solutions and their consequences?

Which is the best solution and why?



Below is a sample problem/solution essay.

Problem/solution essay - sample

Reducing the number of teenager driving accidents Statistics do not lie: the leading cause of death for teenagers in the United States is car accidents. According to the Road Traffic Authority, teenagers make up only 2% of drivers, yet they actually account for nearly 10% of all accidents. In 2009 alone, almost 9,000 teens died as a result of car crashes (RTA, 2009). In most cases they were distracted by electronic devices, or speeding in order to show off to a friend. As unsafe drivers, teenagers not only endanger themselves, but also their passengers and other drivers and pedestrians. The two solutions that are usually proposed are that the authorities should either raise the legal driving age, or insist that learner drivers take driver education classes.

This essay will show that driver’s licenses with different steps offer a more reasonable and cheaper alternative solution.

Certain people argue that the legal driving age should be raised from 16 to 18, or even 21.

They base this case on statistics that indicate that teens who begin driving at 18 are 30% less likely to be involved in accidents (Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2004). This may be so, but postponing the driving age could result in significant problems for young people. Public transport is generally poor in the U.S., so they would become dependent on their busy parents for getting to school or to work. Raising the driving age is obviously an unrealistic solution.

Other people suggest that driver education classes with authorised driving schools should be mandatory.

They point to figures which prove that above a certain number of hours of driving lessons with accredited schools, the accident rate drops off markedly. However, this solution would unfairly disadvantage young people from underprivileged backgrounds, since they may not be able to afford official driving lessons. Not to mention that it is precisely this group of youngsters that most needs to be mobile in order to work to earn money to help out the family.

One solution addresses the problem of limiting teenagers’ driving privileges, while also ensuring that they gain the experience necessary to become safe drivers: graduated driver’s licenses.

Graduated licenses would delimit three stages on the path to getting a license. For the first six months, a teenager would have a learner’s permit, requiring the presence of a licensed adult in the car. Provided the learner has no accidents and receives no fines for the duration of the learner’s permit, they would be awarded a provisional license. For the next year, the teenager could drive alone during the day, but continue to require an adult presence during night drives, which is when most accidents happen. After driving accident-free for the twelve months in this stage, the young person would obtain an unrestricted licence. States that have already introduced graduated licenses, like California and Florida, have shown a decrease in teen accident rates of between 5 and 15% (Stateline.org, 2009). Also, fewer of the accidents have resulted in deaths, maybe because teens that do break the law and drive unaccompanied drive more carefully because they are afraid of being caught.

Young people may complain that graduated licenses are not fair and that their rights are being taken away. But in the face of undeniably high teenager driver deaths, graduated licensing laws are saving lives. Lawmakers need to assume responsibility and implement graduated licensing laws, even if they are unpopular in the short term.

Teenagers too should lobby for this solution, before other, less practical ones are implemented.

Adapted from: The Case for Graduated Licenses, Charlotte Mattison [online]. Available at:

http://www.charlottemattison.com/problem%20solution/G0W23_ED.PDF [Accessed 15 June 2010]

introduction explores the problem with facts and figures, provides thesis statement

body paragraphs examine and refute possible solutions, recommend preferred solution

conclusion with a suggested action

solution and consequences

solution and consequences

preferred solution and advantages

http://www.charlottemattison.com/problem%20solution/G0W23_ED.PDF�



What have I learnt in Unit 2?

In unit 2 you learnt that an academic/expository/informational essay is a short piece of writing that discusses, describes or analyses one topic. You looked at the different ways to develop an academic essay. Different types of organisation include: 1. Cause and effect

2. Compare and contrast

3. Process

4. Persuasive/argumentative

5. Descriptive

6. Definition

7. Problem/solution

Academic Writing Manual Unit 3: Academic Research Reports Overview


Unit 3: Academic Research Reports Overview

Part A The process of writing a research report

Part B The IMRAD structure

Part C The purpose of each section

Part D How to write an abstract/executive summary

Part E How to write an introduction

Part F How to write methods

Part G How to write results/findings

Part H How to write discussions

Part I How to write conclusions and recommendations

Part J Criteria for assessment

Learning Outcomes

By the end of Unit 3, you should be able to:

• outline what a research report is

• be familiar with the format for each type of research report

• apply the guidelines for writing the different types of report

Overview A research report is a long type of academic writing in which it is important to use a variety of sources to research and interpret a specific issue or topic. It is important to formulate a clear, concise and logical argument on that topic. A research report does NOT simply reproduce existing facts. Instead, it assesses the ability to interpret a question and critically analyse the information about that topic. In Appendix A, you will find a summary of the GAC formatting requirements for a research report.

A research report = others’ ideas and information + own, original

thinking

Unit 3: Academic Research Reports Overview Academic Writing Manual


Part A The research report writing process

Figure 3.1 The research report writing process

Step 1: Think Analyse the topic/ problem/ question. Think about the purpose for writing, your objectives, the audience, and the style you will need to use. Brainstorm the topic. Create a mind map to fine-tune what you wish to write about.

Step 2: Gather Collect information from a range of sources. Skim read to find main ideas. Summarise the information – make brief notes. Record bibliographical details. Identify agreements and disagreements in various sources.

Step 3: Synthesise Develop a compelling thesis statement.

Step 4: Organise Brainstorm for the main ideas of sections. Group main ideas and list supporting details. Construct an informal outline/plan. Check that your plan addresses the research topic. Structure the information to support the thesis statement. Draw conclusions.

Step 5: Draft Write a first draft.

Step 6: Revise Ask yourself: • Does the content clearly relate to the topic? • Is the abstract an overview of the IMRAD sections? • Does the introduction include an explanation of the topic,

background information, research objectives and a thesis statement/hypothesis?

• Does the results section contain tables/graphs/figures with captions?

• Is each table/graph/figure explained in text form? • Is the discussion connected with the objectives and theory? • Does the discussion assess the effectiveness of the research? • Is the language appropriate to the audience? • Is the organisation appropriate for addressing the thesis

statement?

Re-draft.

Step 7: Edit Check: • Grammar, spelling, punctuation. • Referencing conforms to GAC guidelines.

Step 8: Publish Compile the reference list. Type the final electronic version.

Researching

Composing

Editing



Process Approach

A process approach to writing a research report emphasises generating ideas, organising and presenting them in an acceptable format, and rewriting drafts. Make sure you spend enough time on the first two steps before you begin to compose:

1. Think: clarify the topic/problem/argument posed In most cases in the GAC, a set research topic is provided. The first step is to carefully study the topic to identify the key words and understand the nature of the research needed. Refer back to the list of instructional words and their meanings on page 8 of this manual.

2. Gather: collect information After examining the topic, the next step is to conduct research. Make sure you use a variety of sources. It is important to THINK as you are reading. Appendix B: Recording Research Information will help you to consider the following: • author/date/title/source of the information: is there anything worth noting? • introduction: which are the main points to be discussed? • conclusion: does it address the main points in highlighted in the

introduction? • body: summarise the information: what is it mainly about? paraphrase key concepts what type of evidence is used to support the thesis? is the evidence convincing? Why/why not? does the source leave any questions in your mind?

You may also wish to use primary research. Primary research is often used in social science contexts in which a survey is conducted or people are interviewed.

Primary research Primary research uses first-hand knowledge or evidence about the topic being studied. An example of primary source would be an interview with a witness or a survivor of an event. When conducting primary research, it will be necessary for you to write questions, or even a whole survey. For help constructing effective surveys or questionnaires, you may consult the following Web sites: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/survey/com4a2.cfm [Accessed 15 June 2010]

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/survey/com4a2.cfm�



This site includes tips on: • open-ended versus closed questions • format • wording • content • order of questions

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survey.php [Accessed 15 June 2010]

This site includes types of surveys, how to select the appropriate survey method, constructing the survey and conducting interviews http://www.whatisasurvey.info/ [Accessed 15 June 2010] This one includes how to plan a survey (chapter 2), how to collect Survey data (chapter 3), designing a questionnaire (chapter 6). Secondary research Secondary research uses second-hand accounts about the topic being studied. An example of a secondary source would be a history book.

Make notes about your sources. Ensure they provide a summary of what you have read. Remember to include: • information for the reference list: author/s name, title, page numbers, date

of publication, publication/Web site details • a note of any figures (tables/graphs/illustrations) you may want to include • a note of any quotations you may want to use

In Appendix B, you will find a useful template for helping you to record research information. Completing this template when consulting sources will help you incorporate interesting ideas while elaborating on them in your own words.

Hint: consider using both primary sources and secondary sources

Then move onto the other steps of synthesising, organising, drafting, revising, editing and publishing.

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Part B The IMRAD structure

IMRAD Structure

Research reports generally include: • Cover page • Table of Contents • Abstract • Introduction • Methods • Results/Findings • Discussion • Conclusions and Recommendations • Reference List • Appendices

Please note: the structure of a research report is more flexible than that of

an essay. You will adapt the structure according to the kind of research you conducted. In particular, the contents of the Discussion section will differ depending on whether it is a Business, Science, or Social Science research report. Section names may also vary according to the subject area.

Figure 3.2 Section names across subject areas

Business Report Format

Executive Summary

Introduction

Methods

FindingsDiscussion

(interpretation of findings)

Conclusions and Recommendations

Appendices

Reference List

Science Report Format

Abstract

Introduction

Methods and Materials

ResultsDiscussion

(interpretation of results)


Appendices

Reference List

Social Science Report Format

Abstract/Summary

Introduction

Methods

Results/Findings

Discussion (evaluation of results)


Appendices

Reference List

sometimes called IMRAD



Why use the IMRAD structure for academic report writing? • The IMRAD structure is the main structure used for research reports

across disciplines. • It will help you understand the research report writing process so that

you are not tempted to resort to plagiarism. • An established framework (like IMRAD) provides you with clear

guidelines within which you can practise and develop. • The structure helps you organise your writing logically.

Numbering of sections

Not all sections are numbered. Please see below for GAC numbering conventions. Cover page Table of Contents Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Methods 3. Results/Findings 4. Discussion and 5. Conclusions and Recommendations Reference List Appendices

Word count distribution per section

Please note: The figure below is a guide to word count distribution for research

reports in general. Exact word count distribution will vary depending on the subject area and the purpose of the research project. Also note that the word count distribution does not necessarily reflect the distribution of marks. For example, the abstract may account for up to 20% of the total marks, even though it only represents 10% of the word count.



Figure 3.3 APPROXIMATE word count distribution per section

Part C The purpose of each section

Abstract / Executive Summary

Abstract/executive summary The abstract (or executive summary) is a brief summary of the research. It should be about 10% of the total number of words in length. It is written after the rest of the report has been completed. In the abstract briefly: • state the objectives of the research • state the hypothesis/thesis statement • describe research methodology • report main findings • discuss key conclusions and recommendations

Introduction 1. Introduction

Answers ‘what and why?’ The introduction outlines the topic/problem at hand and is the first section to be numbered. It should be about 20% of the total number of words in length. In order to provide the necessary background information for the reader: • describe the topic and explain why it is important • provide background knowledge and context • state the aims of the research • make a hypothesis/provide a thesis statement



Methods 2. Methods

Answers ‘when, where, how and with what?’ This explains how the research was conducted. It should comprise about 15% of the word count. In the methods section: • describe the process of data collection • list any materials/types of sources • explain how you analysed the data • relate why this methodology is appropriate for the aims of the research

Results/ Findings

3. Results/Findings

Answers ‘what happened and what was found?’ This section details what was found from the research. It makes up about 20% of the word count. In the results/findings section: • report all main results, not only those that confirmed the hypothesis • state only the ‘facts’ here - DO NOT interpret the data • present data in tables/figures with captions • explain in text form the significant part of the results in the tables/figures

Discussion 4. Discussion

Answers ‘what does it mean?’ This section accounts for about 25% of the total number of words. Here you: • interpret the results in light of the thesis statement/hypothesis • highlight any connections between the findings and theory • comment on the importance of the findings • discuss the strengths and limitations of the research

Conclusions and Recommen-dations

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Answers ‘what can be done with the information?’ This section makes up about 10% of the word count. Here you: • draw conclusions: confirm/refute the original thesis statement/ hypothesis • recommend next steps in further research • explain how to apply the findings



Example abstracts/executive summaries

Example 1: Business: BNS – An E-commerce Start Up This paper provides a business plan for a start up in the E-commerce industry in Suriname. This e-business - Business Networking Systems [BNS] - aims to provide an information service for tourists to Suriname, and to allow local businesses to advertise themselves. The objective of the research was to locate and analyse data to make well-informed recommendations in the business plan. It was anticipated that this business would be found to fill a real need in the tourist community. Sources of information included government sponsored consumer surveys, online data and target market questionnaires. Analysis was supported by developing financial statements. The surveys indicated that many Surinamese businesses do not know how to implement E-commerce, but recognised its value as a business-building tool. Tourist interviews confirmed frustration at the inability to find information in a simple and timely manner. The three languages covering 80% of tourists were found to be English, Dutch and French. The research finds the prospects of the future company to be excellent, with a prospective 2000 to 2500 businesses registered in its first year. Recommendations include the availability of information in English, Dutch and French; an attempt to enlist all major and small businesses that have access to a broadband network; and a partnership with a major broadband provider. Limitations of the research include that other than country of origin and primary language spoken, a detailed profile of tourists is unavailable. Adapted from the work of a GAC student

Part D How to write an abstract/executive summary

An abstract/executive summary is a single paragraph. It is usually organised in the same sequence as the rest of the report. The following method may be used to construct an abstract: On a separate piece of paper, write down the main idea of each section. Then try to group the main ideas of section of the paper into a single sentence. Finally, build the sentences up to a unified paragraph.

Abstracts DO include:• the objectives of the research• the hypothesis/thesis statement• the resarch methodology• the main findings• discussion of key conclusions and recommendations• the key terms found in the longer work• clear, concise and powerful language

Abstracts DO NOT include:• information not found in the longer work• definitions of terms used• any sort of table/figure/graph

objective

thesis statement

key findings

key conclusions & recommendations

methods

limitations



Example 2: Science: The Genetics of Bone Strength in Mice

The problem of treating medical conditions that are associated with bone strength are increasing as the world population ages. The purpose of this study was to identify whether there is a relationship between the physical and genetic characteristics of bones in mice. The physical characteristics studied were size, density, and the force required to break the bone. The genetic characteristics were those genes that affect these qualities. The results of this analysis were expected to reveal which types of genes correlated with which bone properties. Two strains of mice with the strongest and weakest bones were crossed. The new generation from that cross was then analysed. The outcome of this lab confirmed the hypothesis: the genes that affect bone strength in mice were clearly identified. Genetic predisposition to bone diseases like osteoporosis is therefore identifiable. This may enable physicians to warn patients of the high risk of fracture, enabling them to take preventative medication and avoid dangerous behaviour. Further research into the mutations in genes that control bone density could offer alternative treatments. Limitations of the research include a lack of historical perspective on this data. Adapted from: The Genetics of Bone Strength in Mice , The Writing Center @ the University of Wisconsin [online]. Available at: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example 3: Social Science: Safety on public transport

The aim of this report is to clearly describe current problems within the transport system and to provide possible solutions. Three major problem areas were identified for study: fare evasion, vandalism and crimes against people. These are the primary factors which contribute to a negative perception of public transport. The findings were expected to confirm that crimes against people are the cause for most concern, and that a preventative strategy is possible. A survey of the most recent research papers was undertaken. No primary research was used because of the scope of the topic. Key findings revealed that fare evasion and vandalism are difficult to measure accurately, while crimes against people are clearly on the rise and are the main deterrent to the use of public transport. Five solutions to these problems are proposed, including improving lighting in and around stations, and installing panic buttons at strategic locations. Implementing the changes would result in a reduction of crimes against passengers and an increase in public transport use. Limitations of the research include no first-hand data obtained from public transport users.

methods

objective

key findings key conclusions & recommendations

hypothesis

objective

key findings key conclusions & recommendations

methods thesis statement

limitations

limitations

http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html�



Common problems with abstracts/executive summaries

Too long Abstracts/executive summaries are often too long because it is a difficult task to summarise an entire research report into 10% of the total word count.

Too much detail Abstracts that are too long often have unnecessary details. Only the main points of the research should be presented.

Too short Shorter is not necessarily better. If the word limit is 200 but only 95 words are used, you may not have provided sufficient detail. Remember that in many cases readers decide whether to read the rest of the research just by looking at the abstract.

Failure to include important information Include at least one sentence summarising each section. You need to ensure you cover all the IMRAD points, plus the conclusions and recommendations. Often they are not all covered because too many words are used explaining, for example, the methods so there is not enough of word count left to present the conclusion.



Part E How to write an introduction

An introduction is the road map for the rest of the research report. It often provides some background to the topic. Think of the structure of the introduction as a funnel: from the broadest, most general information down to the narrowest, most specific.

Example introductions:

Example 1: Business: Sustainable International Supply Chain Management Sustainable international supply chain management aims to implement corporate procedures which promote the quality of life in the communities in which the company is located. Customers everywhere are looking to buy from companies who adopt socially responsible business practices. Even though the implementation of these initiatives would be challenging for a new player, the possible long-term advantages are considerable. This research is designed to compile information about international sustainable supply chain management. This knowledge will be analysed to elaborate an international supply chain strategy for a local dairy company in Vietnam – Vinamilk. Given the high level of interest in this aspect of business, the research methodology is expected to generate the information necessary to make informed sustainable supply chain strategy recommendations. Adapted from a report by a GAC student

Example 2: Science: a new way to fight malaria Scientists hope to release genetically modified mosquitoes into the wild in an effort to wipe out malaria. The insects would be changed so that they would no longer be able to carry the malaria parasite. As the modified mosquitoes breed with existing mosquitoes, the malaria parasite would no longer have the mosquitoes to transport it. The disease would quickly die out and many human lives might be saved. However, although releasing genetically modified mosquitoes may wipe out malaria, introductions of new species into nature have in the past proved disastrous. For example, there have been cases where the new species reproduced very quickly and its genes crossed into other species. The objective of this research is to evaluate the environmental risks associated with the introduction of new species of genetically modified mosquitoes into an existing ecosystem. It is expected that the life-saving benefits of such a measure will outweigh the possible risks.

state the objective/ s of the research

develop the background – why is the topic important?

share your thesis statement






Example 3: Social Science: The impact of mobile phones on the Surinamese Only a decade ago, many people in Suriname thought a mobile phone was a luxury reserved only for rich chief executives. There was only one, state-owned operator: Telesur. Today there are two additional main players in Suriname - Digicel and Uniqa – and between them these operators cover about 90% of the population. With so many more people now being contactable, many social changes have happened, most notably in terms of interpersonal interaction. For example, the newness of this technology often leads to poor mobile phone manners because appropriate behaviour has not yet been determined. In addition, people are withdrawing from one-on-one contact in favour of wireless interaction. The aim of this investigation is to find out how mobile phones have changed communication and society in Suriname. This report will show how mobile phones have permanently changed the way Surinamese interact. Adapted from a report of a GAC student

Introductory paragraphs = background + aim + thesis statement

Focus on writing a thesis statement A thesis statement for a research report indicates on what the research will focus and its limitations. It is also very useful for keeping on track. If the thesis statement and the body do not seem to go together, one of them will have to change. A strong thesis statement: • gives direction to the report • limits what you need to write about • requires proof: is a supportable opinion, not a fact • is in the form of a statement - NOT a question • is specific: words like ‘good’, ‘successful’ are too vague

Example thesis statements:

Example 1: Business

By sourcing cocoa beans for our Beacon chocolate bars in a sustainable way, it is expected that consumer perception of the brand will improve, and that new consumers will be persuaded to switch from competitors.

Example 2: Science

The hypothesis is that there will be no difference in the way that males and females perceive size.






Example 3: Social Science

Although governments are often accused of not addressing the issue of water scarcity, actually policies have changed in recent times, and this research will show that businesses have been made as accountable as individuals.

Part F How to write methods

The methods section may also be called Methods and Materials in a science report. In this section you: • explain how you gathered the data • describe any equipment you used • justify how this data collection method addressed the research question It is usually written in the third person, passive voice. Example methods:

Example 1: Business

Since the objective of this report was to elaborate an international supply-chain strategy for a local dairy company, Vinamilk, the international supply chain strategies of two already-global companies were studied. The main source of information was their annual reports which are published online. In addition, other Internet sites were consulted to define supply chain management and gain insight on some basic initiatives. To make sustainable international strategies for Vinamilk, feasible, similar approaches carried out by other dairy producers in the world were critically analysed to apply them to a Vietnamese situation. Three business executives of multinational corporations were interviewed to obtain feedback on the proposed Vinamilk international supply chain strategy. This research collected the relevant data in order to make viable international supply-chain strategy recommendations to Vinamilk. Adapted from a report by a GAC student



Example 2: Science

Six rubber balls of varying size and surface texture were chosen for comparison. The radius of the balls ranged from 2.5 cm to 5.0 cm. There were two balls in each size – one with a rough surface, one with a smooth surface. Two balls were 2.5 cm in radius, two balls were 3.5 cm in radius, and two balls were 5.0 cm in radius. The balls were weighed to be able to exclude differing weight as a variable in the subsequent analysis. They were then attached by a 2.2cm length of thread to a rotating spindle, which was driven at constant speed. Radius and period measurements were taken for speeds of 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 rev/s. This methodology enabled the determination of which of the two parameters – size and surface texture – most affects drag force on an object moving through air.

Adapted from: Writing a Scientific Research paper (2001), Memorial University of Newfoundland Writing Center [online]. Available at: http://www.mun.ca/writingcentre/docs/OnlineWritingScientificResearchPaper.pdf [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example 3: Social Science To establish the extent to which mobile phones have changed the way people communicate and interact in Suriname, both Internet research and surveys were conducted. The Internet provided up-to-date statistics on the expansion of mobile phone coverage, as well as previous studies of their impact on society. The surveys were conducted in the form of interviews with 30 people ranging from 18 to 60 years of age. There were 6 people in each of the following age sub-categories: 18-25, 26 -30, 31-40, 41-50 and 51-60. 17 males and 13 females were interviewed, with an even spread across the age groups. Most of the respondents (80%) were located in urban areas, due to the difficulty of reaching people in rural districts. (See Appendix D for questionnaire). The surveys provided an inter-generational, first-hand perspective of the impact of mobile phones on a cross-section of Surinamese society. Adapted from a report by a GAC student

http://www.mun.ca/writingcentre/docs/OnlineWritingScientificResearchPaper.pdf�



Part G How to write results/findings

The purpose of the results section is to present and illustrate your findings, without interpretation. Here you: • compile the data into figures and tables • describe in text form the salient (significant) points from each of the figures

and tables. Be sure to convert the salient points into a complementary description – do not simply re-state the observable facts

• report the answers to the questions/hypothesis you investigated • include any negative/contradictory results. Doing this validates your

approach and provides you with interesting information for the discussion section

• use the past tense, passive voice

Do NOT:

• discuss or interpret the results • present the same data more than once • repeat the exact same information in the tables and in the text

Figures and tables Tables contain numbers and are labeled “Table”. Other data such as graphs, photographs and drawings should be labeled "Figure". Each table or figure should: • be numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, etc.) • have a descriptive title (the title goes above the table/figure) Example results/findings:

Example 1: Business

3.0 Findings 3.1 Service Description

Zhuya Deco Corporation is a medium-sized company in Wuhan, and has been in operation since 2005. The company uses eco-friendly approaches, materials and technology to create beautiful, comfortable and practical furnishings with a minimal eco footprint. Based on this mission, the company is expanding, and now has 25 employees in five branches. In 2009, the company had a turnover of 22 million Yuan and a 15% market share.

3.2 Target Market The research confirmed that people aged between 20 and 40 years old are the main investors in the home decoration market, accounting for 60% of this market in 2009. They are most interested in fresh approaches and eco-friendly technology and materials, and are disposed to pay a higher price for furnishings meeting these criteria.

3.3 Key Competitor’s Marketing Mix Aohua Decoration Corporation is the key competitor given it has 20% market share, offers reasonable prices and a good reputation among customers.



Figure 1: Aohua’s Marketing Mix

Product/ service

Above-average product quality Interior decorator team of consultants After-decoration service 1-week return policy

Place Branches in prominent places, e.g. crossroads

Price Service Price 335 RMB/m2

Promotion Advertise in bus shelters Offer 5% discounts on cash payments

Adapted from a report by a GAC student

Example 2: Science

Results

The hypothesis was correct – the amount of light does affect the growth rate of a seed. To see raw data findings, see tables in Appendix B. The graph in Figure 1.1 illustrates how initially the seeds germinated at the same rate, until the epicotyl elongated. Once the epicotyl was visible, the seedling which was in the light grew more rapidly than the seedling which was in the dark.

Figure 1.1: Graph comparing the day-by-day growth rate of a seed exposed to light vs. a seed in darkness.

In addition, the photos in Figure 1.2 below show how the seedling growing in the absence of light developed an elongated, thin stem with narrow leaves and poorly a developed shoot system.

Figure 1.2: Photos of the seedlings on day 13. Seedling exposed to light Photo not included here

Seedling in darkness Photo not included here



Example 3: Social Science MUNICIPAL WASTE Just over one quarter (27% or 8.9 megatonnes) of the solid waste generated in 2002–03 was municipal waste, that is, waste collected and treated by or for municipalities. Most of the municipal waste was generated by households, but some would also have come from commercial activities, offices, institutions and some small businesses. On a per person basis, Australians generated 450 kilograms of municipal waste per person in 2002–03. A smaller proportion of municipal waste was recycled compared with waste from other sources. Less than a third (30%) of municipal waste was recycled compared with 44% of commercial and industrial waste and 57% of construction and demolition waste. SOLID WASTE GENERATED BY SOURCE(a) — 2002-03

Waste to landfill Waste recycled Total waste generated

Proportion of waste recycled

Source of waste megatonnes megatonnes megatonnes %

Municipal 6.2 2.7 8.9 30 Commercial and industrial 5.3 4.2 9.5 44 Construction and demolition 5.9 7.8 13.7 57 Total 17.4 14.9 32.4 46 (a) Figures should be regarded as indicative. Data are not complete for every state and territory. Source: DEH data published in Productivity Commission 2006, Waste Management, Report no. 38, Canberra.

Adapted from GAC028 – Social Science III – Research Skills and Global Issues

Part H How to write discussions

The discussion section: • varies according to the subject area

• should interpret each of the findings in the results section

The sustained growth of certain low income economies suggests that…..

• refers to theories or other studies to support the interpretations

• should NOT introduce new results



Example discussions:

Example 1: Business

The survey confirmed previous studies which show that because fast-food is often associated with unhealthy eating habits, there is a definite niche in the CBD for food that is ‘fast’, but at the same time nutritious. Based on analysis of the business environment, the key perceived threats are the presence of nearby competitors, and the unreliable delivery of supplies. Another factor to consider is the difference in customer demographics at the weekend, as opposed to weekdays, and the corresponding need to alter the menu.

This information suggests that a ‘fast and nutritious’ business model, together with the building of close, long-term relationships with suppliers, will be the key success factors for the Tea, Coffee & Company Cafe. Adapting supply to meet the difference in demand between week day and weekend customers will further ensure break-even is quickly met and surpassed.

Example 2: Science When the average shoot lengths are plotted on a graph against time, the lengths of the shoots which were given plant food are almost the same as the length of the control shoots which were planted in plain tap water. In addition, their growth slopes run almost parallel, providing additional proof that both sets of seeds grew basically at the same rate. This suggests that the VF-11 fertiliser has a minimal impact on shoot growth. This confirms the results of the previous studies conducted at this university, but contradicts the hypothesis and challenges the manufacturer’s promise. The contradictory nature of the findings suggests that further study is needed.

Adapted from: The Effect of the Fertilizer VF-11 on Oat seed germination, Indiana University [online]. Available at: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/oat.sample.rep.pdf [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Example 3: Social Science

The facts about the effects of mobile phone masts, demonstrate beyond reasonable doubt that they are causing electro-hyper sensitivity. Regrettably, the research also confirms that pulsed telephony microwave radiation is affecting an increasing number of people, causing nervous, cardiovascular immune and reproductive system disorders. These results agree with Durand et al. (2002) who found that the frequency of headache, dizziness depression and memory loss was significantly higher among people living near electrical masts. Stress effects are well known to build up over time, making duration of exposure a key variable, which needs further research to be verified.

http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/oat.sample.rep.pdf�



Part I How to write conclusions and recommendations

This section: • Presents conclusions, that is, it examines how this research has modified your

thinking • Offers recommendations, for example on how to improve the research, or

address the problem, or clarify the inconsistencies • Shows different ways of presenting recommendations: dot points after “It is

recommended that:”; numbered; and in paragraph form. Example conclusions and recommendations

Example 1: Business Conclusions Key success factors include creating a wholesome and fresh image, and compensating for the lack of business patrons at the weekend by attracting families. The first year of operation is likely to be challenging, primarily due to significant start-up costs. Additionally, setting up the business processes (such as supply, billing etc.) is complicated and there are likely to be teething problems. Recommendations It is recommended that: • the ambience of the Tea, Coffee & Company cafe be a key feature of the company’s Unique Selling

Proposition (USP). Accordingly, the café will be furnished in a lounge style. As well as a typical café-restaurant indoor setting, the cafe will also have a terrace. This will definitely be a business advantage, because none of the competitors has a proper, shielded terrace.

• suppliers be diversified to shield the business from inconsistent deliveries. A ‘Preferred Supplier’ list will be created, offering rewards like shorter payment periods in exchange for reliability.

• the weekday menu differs from the weekend menu. While the weekday menu will focus on providing quality ‘fast food’, the weekend menu will be more elaborate, to allow for people looking for a more sophisticated dining experience.

Example 2: Science Conclusions It appears that the plant food had no significant effect on the germination and early growth of the seeds. Recommendations 1. Since other studies have concluded that the plant food helped growth in mature house plants, the

study time could be extended for at least two more weeks. 2. It would be interesting to try the plant food on different types of plants, since current studies

proving its effectiveness were carried out only on broad-leaf plants. 3. Another variation would be to try different plant foods.



Example 3: Social Science Conclusions In conclusion, it is sad to see what the advanced technologies are doing to humanity. There have been several attempts to awaken the government of various countries. Researchers along with the media have tried to bring out the facts but unfortunately, not all countries listen to scientists. In Germany, the government removed most masts and switched from wireless connections to cable connections and, in China alone, the government removed 200 masts. Unfortunately, this is not the case in Suriname. Recommendations Even though Suriname is a developing country where advanced technologies have only recently become popular, it is believed that wireless masts should be removed, at the very least from populated areas. Alternative technologies are available to replace them. People are affected by EHS, and if it this affliction is not addressed, it is as if their death warrants have been signed. If the government does not act, people who want to live healthy lives should stand up for what is right.

Part J Criteria for assessment

You will be given a written copy of the assessment criteria for the research report. Make sure you understand all the requirements.

Although assessment criteria may vary, use the checklist overleaf to help you revise and polish drafts of research reports.



Figure 3.4 Research report checklist

Items My Review Peer review

Instructions and assessment criteria are carefully considered

Preliminary literature review is done to develop an overall understanding of the topic

Abstract is a brief summary of all sections of the report

Introduction outlines the area of research

Introduction clearly states the thesis statement/hypothesis

Introduction summarises related theories

Research methodology is described in detail

Data collection method is appropriate for the objective of the research

Results identify and summarise patterns and trends

Results presented in tables and figures

Text supporting tables and figures is clear and concise

Discussion restates the thesis statement/hypothesis

Discussion is based on the results obtained

Discussion includes reference to previous research/theories

Discussion identifies any limitations of the results

Conclusions are justified by the findings presented

Recommendations are supported by the findings

Recommendations identify areas for future research

Report is proofread by a friend

Plagiarism is avoided, i.e. own words are used

Research report is in the desired GAC format

All sources are cited according to the GAC Referencing Guide conventions

Research report is submitted on time

What have I learnt in Unit 3? In Unit 3 you learnt that a research report is a long type of academic writing in which it is important to use a variety of sources to research and interpret a specific issue or topic, and to formulate a clear, concise and logical argument on that topic. A research report does NOT simply reproduce existing facts. Instead, it interprets a question and critically analyses the information about that topic.

A research report = others’ ideas and information + own, original thinking

Academic Writing Manual Unit 4: Business Research Reports


Unit 4: Business Research Reports

Part A The purpose and content of each section

Part B An example business research report

Overview As the business environment becomes more complex, so the need for clear

formal communication becomes more necessary in order to achieve a company’s goals. Business reports usually follow a predetermined format. This familiar format allows readers to quickly understand the research and the outcomes. This unit examines the essential features of a business research report, and the purpose and content of each section.


Cover Page and Table of Contents Do not number these sections. Begin the business report with a cover page. The table of contents follows the cover page, and is on a separate page. The table of contents provides the reader with the location for different sections of the research report.

Executive Summary: approximately 10% word count Do not number the executive summary. In the executive summary:

• draw the reader in, get the reader interested • include at least one sentence summarising each section (the introduction, the

thesis statement, methods, results, discussion and conclusions and recommendations)

• make it short – from a paragraph to a page, depending on the length of the report - usually no longer than 10% of the total report

• generally use the past tense Hint: write the executive summary/abstract after the rest of the report when all the information has been evaluated

Unit 4: Business Research Reports Academic Writing Manual


1. Introduction: approximately 20% word count

Start numbering at this section. The introduction section lays the groundwork for the research. In it: • describe the aims and objectives of the research • present the business context/background • provide a thesis statement: state what the outcome of the research is

expected to be 2. Methods: approximately 15% word count

This section is more technical than the rest of the research. In it: • detail the techniques to be used to achieve the research objectives • describe the method of data collection: interviews, articles, online data etc. • explain how the method of data collection will address the research

objectives 3. Findings: approximately 20% word count

The findings section reports the facts uncovered by the research. In this section: • include the key findings of the research, often presented in summary form

in tables or graphs • provide titles for the tables/graphs • write explanations – NOT interpretations – for the tables and graphs • present the information in headings and sub-headings which reflect the

contents of each section • only the explanations are included in the word count, NOT the

tables/graphs

4. Discussion: approximately 25% word count

The discussion considers what the findings mean in the situation and more broadly. In the discussion:

• base your remarks on the findings - DO NOT introduce new details

• interpret the findings, draw conclusions and provide details to explain how they were reached

• assess the effectiveness of the research – are there any factors which may have influenced the findings?

5. Conclusions and Recommendations: approximately 10% word count

• explain how this research has modified your thinking

• make recommendations: suggest actions that should be taken, present them in a logical sequence



Appendices

Do not number this section. Include information that clarifies your thinking but is not essential to its explanation. Examples of material that might be put in an appendix include: • raw data • maps • extra photographs • explanation of formulas • diagrams of specialised equipment

There should be one appendix per page: label it with a number/letter, give it a title, and provide a brief description.

Reference List

Do not number this section. List the material you consulted while researching your report. Make sure the referencing format follows GAC guidelines.

Part B An example business research report

Sustainable International Supply Chain Management of Vinamilk Executive Summary As governments regulate business to facilitate environment-preserving initiatives, corporations are being compelled to develop sustainable practices. This research aimed to produce a data-based international sustainable supply chain strategy for a local dairy company, Vinamilk. It was expected that research would generate sufficient data to support recommendations. In fact, Internet sources offered considerable insight into international best practices, which were validated by interviewing managers in global corporations. Volkswagen and Nokia prove that sustainable practices offer a unique opportunity for companies to influence their suppliers, and that for implementation of a sustainable strategy to be successful, it must be led by top management. Vinamilk has a unique opportunity to be at the forefront of sustainable practices in Vietnam. Two different strategies are recommended to lead Vinamilk to meet its corporate social responsibility goals: direct sourcing from farmers, and the development of organic dairy products. Limitations of the research include scant developing country-specific data. 1.0 Introduction Sustainable international supply chain management aims to implement corporate procedures which promote the quality of life in the communities in which the company is located. Customers everywhere are looking to buy from companies who adopt socially responsible business practices. Even though the implementation of these initiatives would be challenging for a new player, the possible long-term advantages are considerable. This research is designed to compile information about international sustainable supply chain management. This knowledge will be analysed to elaborate an international supply chain strategy for a local dairy company in Vietnam – Vinamilk. Given the high level of interest in this aspect of business, the research is expected to generate the information necessary to make informed sustainable supply chain strategy recommendations. 2.0 Methods Since the objective of this report was to elaborate an international supply chain strategy for a local dairy company, Vinamilk, the international supply chain strategies of two already-global companies were studied.



The main source of information was their annual reports, published online. In addition, other Web sites were also consulted to define supply chain management and gain insight on some basic initiatives. To make sustainable international strategies for Vinamilk feasible, similar approaches carried out by other dairy producers in the world were critically analysed to apply them to a Vietnamese situation. Three business executives of multinational corporations were interviewed to obtain feedback on the proposed Vinamilk international supply chain strategy. These research methods were designed to collect the relevant data to make viable international supply chain strategy recommendations to Vinamilk. 3.0 Findings The research provided ample information on the importance and implementation of sustainable international supply chain management. 3.1 Sustainable International Supply Chain Management – Theory 3.1.1 Definition of sustainable international supply chain activities According to DeGhetto (2009, p.15), sustainable international supply chain activities refer to the initiatives which are implemented by the business to guarantee the sustainability in its operations throughout the supply chain. Sustainability can be defined as expending current resources “without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs” (DeGhetto 2009, p.15). Therefore, modern corporations have a tendency to put an emphasis not only own their profits, but also the communities in which they operate as a whole. 3.1.2 Examination of possible company influences on supplier to adopt sustainable practices With the purpose of expanding sustainable activities throughout the supply chain, international businesses have exerted considerable pressure on their suppliers by different means. Organisations which foster the concept of sustainability in their practices have established various indicators to evaluate their suppliers, including a supplier audit program, surveys and a code of conduct. The code of conduct regulates all of the business’s partners in its supply chain, ranging from environment-friendly approaches and work security, to protecting human rights. Furthermore, the companies which create codes of conduct are in charge of periodically keeping track of their suppliers to determine whether to continue the relationship (Koplin2006, p.3). For example, in 2006, Wal-Mart launched a policy which assessed the packaging process of its 2,000+ private label suppliers to reduce the amount of trash in the landfills (ElAmin 2006).

3.1.3 Comparison/contrast of sustainable international supply chain strategies of two key players 3.1.3.1 Volkswagen AG The automobile corporation Volkswagen has integrated practical strategies towards the demand for sustainability in the world. To meet its sustainable objectives, Volkswagen plans to produce new models which harness alternative energy sources and do less harm to the environment. The latest Blue Motion models are expected to cut the harmful nitrogen oxide emissions by almost 90percent (Sustainability Report 2009). Furthermore, the company has participated very dynamically in numerous activities associated with sustainable supply chain management, such as its support for the Global Compact and code of conduct called “Declaration of social rights and industrial relationships at Volkswagen”. For example, the business set up the Corporate CO2 Steering Group to keep control of the level of carbon dioxide released from exhaust pipes. Over a long period of time, Volkswagen has established training programs to provide its suppliers with the company’s objectives to fulfil its responsibilities towards society (Duisterwinkel, 2009). 3.1.3.2 Nokia Nokia has been ranked first in the list of technological companies which successfully devise sustainable supply chain practices. For the past ten years, the corporation has saved a massive amount of energy by reducing “the average no-load power consumption” of their chargers (2008 In Short, 2008). All of the



chargers are designed to meet the standards of sustainability, including the EU Code of Conduct and US Environmental Protection Agency’s Energy Star. In addition, packaging and device materials are taken into consideration to restrict the level of toxic substances in electronic equipment. With the recent model of Nokia 3110 Evolve, 50 percent of the bio-covers are made of renewable materials, and 60 percent of its packaging can be reprocessed. Nokia has constructed an operated a number of recycle factories in around 85 nations, and is in partnership with partners around the globe to guarantee the treatment of outdated devices. To raise awareness of sustainability among its stakeholders, the corporation targets four principal points: energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, water consumption and waste generation. The company demands its suppliers receive the Environmental Management System ISO14001 in order to ensure the consistency of its sustainable initiatives (2008 In Short, 2008).

3.2 Sustainable International Supply Chain Management – Practices

3.2.1 Identification of a local business: key activities and industry sector Vinamilk Vinamilk is regarded as the most reputable dairy corporation in Vietnam. It has been in operation over the last three decades. The company is specialised in manufacturing liquid and powdered milk, as well as other dairy products in a variety of flavours. Facilitated by a large-scale distribution system, Vinamilk products are widely available, accessing millions of customers across the nation. 3.2.2 Reasons the company would benefit from implementation of a sustainable international

supply chain The implementation of sustainable approaches in the international supply chain will benefit the corporation in many ways. Firstly, customer satisfaction would be enhanced due to improved quality. The government would be satisfied of its commitment to social responsibility. The company’s reputation would improve. Profits would also improve because some of the sustainable practices involve the reduction of costs.

3.2.3 Two Sustainable international supply chain strategies 3.2.3.1 Strategy 1: Direct contact with farmers Vinamilk should incorporate rural Vietnamese farmers into its supply chain, rather than wasting land to construct big farms nationwide. Local farmers could be supplied with appropriate training and tools to lessen the impact on the environment. By introducing sustainable methods for raising cows and minimising the nutrient loss in the final products, productivity would increase, as would the quality of the dairy products. This would establish a connection between uneducated farmers and regulatory boards. 3.2.3.2 Strategy 2: Organic dairy products development Nowadays, dairy corporations strive to boost their profitability by taking advantage of artificial hormones and genetically modifying cows. Many consumers are against these practices. By developing organic dairy products, Vinamilk would not only build customer satisfaction, but reinforce its position and protect it against foreign competition. Not only is the health and safety of customers guaranteed, but also the environmental footprint is reduced.

4.0 Discussion The research confirms that integration of sustainable supply chain management in most global companies heralds a shift from a purely profit-oriented business attitude. Initially, global companies introduced basic initiatives in order to meet the regulations of the nations in which their headquarters were based. Later on, most of them recognized that adjustments in their supply chain management could help them gain a big leap forward in influencing purchase decisions. Reinforced by flexible and creative ideas from the leadership, businesses, such as Volkswagen and Nokia, are able to balance between their own profits, customer satisfaction and the environment. Vinamilk, a prominent local dairy, has the opportunity of capitalising on this trend to be at the forefront of sustainable practices in Vietnam.



This research reflects the current sustainable supply chain trends of most global companies. Both of the proposed strategies have been implemented in a variety of situations around the world, with outstanding results. However, since the push for sustainable supply chain practices is a fairly new field, data for developing countries was scarce. Further research should focus on the specific challenges of adopting sustainable supply chain strategies in developing countries. 5.0 Conclusions and recommendations Vinamilk has achieved prominent successes and significant consumer approval. The only problem is that its sustainable supply chain initiatives are still vague and impractical. Therefore, precious experience from other international businesses should be analysed and adapted. Vinamilk should implement the two following sustainable procedures: direct contact with farmers and the development of organic dairy products. In the first instance, relations with rural farmers would lessen the environmental footprint of the company. In the second instance, organic dairying would reinforce the company’s reputation, protecting it against foreign brands.

Appendices (not reproduced here) Reference List (not reproduced here)

Adapted from a report by a GAC student

What have I learnt in Unit 4? In Unit 4 you learnt that a Business research report is a formal way of communicating in an increasingly complex business environment. To facilitate effective communication, business reports usually follow a predetermined format. This familiar format allows readers to quickly understand the research and the recommendations. This unit examined the essential features of a Business research report, and the purpose and content of each section.

Academic Writing Manual Unit 5: Science Research Reports


Unit 5: Science Research Reports


Part B An example science research report

Overview It is part of a scientist’s responsibility to report to other people the findings of a

hypothesis they have investigated. Readers of science reports have two primary goals: • understanding the research process • knowing that the findings are valid Although the IMRAD format is generally used for presenting a science research report, bear in mind that you could write the methods and results sections before the others if this helps structure your thoughts and communication.

You may find that science research reports have more words in the results section.


Cover Page and Table of Contents

Do not number these sections. Begin the science report with a cover page. The table of contents follows the cover page, and is on a separate page. The table of contents provides the reader with an outline and a location for different sections of the research report.

Abstract: approximately 10% word count

Do not number the abstract. This part summarises each section of the whole research report. It should create a desire to read on. In the abstract:




• generally use the past tense

Hint: write this section after the rest of the report, when all the information

has been evaluated.

Unit 5: Science Research Reports Academic Writing Manual



Start numbering at this section. Organise this section according to an inverted triangle – the broadest part is the most general information, the narrowest the hypothesis you researched.

• identify the subject area of interest • establish the context of the research, including relevant background

information and current thinking on the topic • state the purpose of the research • formulate your hypothesis

2. Methods and materials: approximately 15% word count In this section you explain clearly how you obtained your data. Provide enough details to enable the reader to repeat the research: • explain the organism/process you studied, and if important, when and where • if you carried out a field study, describe the study site including the

significant physical and biological features and precise location • if you carried out an experiment, specify how it was structured, how many

samples were collected, the variables measured, and how it was carried out • list materials used • explain how you analysed the data • use the past tense and the passive voice • explain how the method of data collection addresses the research objectives

3. Results or findings: approximately 20% word count

Present your key results WITHOUT interpretation:

• list in an orderly and logical sequence • put the information in numbered and labelled tables/charts/graphs • describe each figure: do NOT simply present the same values as in the

figure, but describe the key trends (changing patterns/characteristics) • present only data to which the Discussion section refers • do NOT state your opinion, and do NOT include bias or emotive language • use the passive voice • only the description is included in the word count, NOT the

tables/charts/graphs

4. Discussion: 25% approximately word count

This section is based on what the data tells you. Interpret your results in light of what was already known about the topic and explain any new learning:

• first, say whether or not the results confirmed your hypothesis • interpret the results light of what other research has shown • do NOT introduce new results • assess the effectiveness of the research – are there any factors which may

have influenced the findings?



5. Conclusion and Recommendations: approximately 10% word count

In this section:

• draw conclusions as to the reason for the results • recommend possible next steps: What experiments would you do next? To

which uses could your findings be put? • explain how this research has moved forward your thinking

Appendices

Do not number this section. Include information that clarifies your thinking but is not essential to its explanation. Examples of material that might be put in an appendix include: • raw data • maps • extra photographs • explanation of formulas • diagrams of specialised equipment


Reference List


Part B

An example science research report

The connection between physical data Abstract This scientific research investigates whether there is a connection between people’s height shoe size, arm span and gender. The relationship between arm span and height is particularly rich in clinical applications. The measurements were taken from a group of 20 Asian males and females. The hypotheses were that males are generally taller than females, that correspondingly, their shoe size is bigger than that of females, and that height is similar to arm span. The results confirmed this hypothesis, although not all men were taller than all women. The results pave the way for clinical applications such as the development of appropriate prosthetic devices. Business applications include the marketing of unisex clothing items. To unequivocally confirm the results, further studies are needed covering other ethnic groups. Introduction There are always great differences in physical features between genders, races, ages and even people living in different areas. Arm span is a very reliable body parameter for predicting the height of an individual. Other studies have shown that when height is affected by disease, arm span can be used to determine the impact of the distortion on lung volume. (Reference Values for Adults, 2007). There is a lot of interest in finding the relationship between these factors due to its potential use for clinical

Unit 5: Science Research Reports Academic Writing Manual


purposes. The investigation aimed to find out some basic relationships and connections between four human physical features: height, shoe size, arm span and gender. The hypotheses were that males are generally taller than females, that male shoe size is bigger than that of females, and that and height is similar to span. The experiment was designed to gather accurate data in order to make comparisons and verify the hypotheses. Methods and Materials The experiment was conducted on 8 Asian males and 12 Asian females between 17 and 18 years of age. To implement the experiment, the material needed was a tape measure to measure people’s height and arm span. The height was measured barefoot, and the arm span was measured as the distance between the two middle fingers of the arms expanded outwards. The measurement units were centimetres. Shoe size was according to the European system. The data was collected into tables for analysis. Results The results confirmed the hypotheses, although certain relationships not conclusively. The raw data on people’s height shoe size, arm span and gender may be found in Appendix 1. For perspective, the tallest person was a male measuring 189cm, and had the longest arm span of 205cm. The shortest person was a female measuring 159cm, and had the shortest arm span of 158,5cm. The collected data indicated that every male was taller and had a larger shoe size than every female. Figure 1: Graph comparing gender and shoe size in males and females (in cm.) Comparing measurements in Table 1, it can be seen that the females’ arm span is mostly shorter than their height, except for 3 people (one quarter of the sample) who have differences up to 2cm.

The graph is not reproduced here

This trend was repeated when considering gender height. Again, the graph below shows how males are consistently taller than females. Figure 2: Graph comparing gender and height in males and females (in cm.) In figure 2, the line representing the height of males is high above that of females, but there are some points that are close, such as around 173cm.

The graph is not reproduced here

The column chart below shows the difference between the arm span of females and males (difference = arm span – height). If the outcome is positive, the arm span is longer than the height. If negative, it is the opposite. Most of the bars are below 0. Table 1: Difference between the height and arm span of females and males studied (in mm.)

Females - The table is not reproduced here

Males - The table is not reproduced here



Discussion The findings confirmed the hypotheses. There is a clear correlation between gender and shoe size, since the males had a larger shoe size than the females in all cases. Men are mostly taller than women, but the investigation failed to prove this is consistently so. The length of the arm span is very similar height, although in males arm span tends to be longer than height while in women it tends to be marginally shorter. Limitations of the research include the participants being solely of Asian ethnicity, thereby not being able to validate the results as universally true. Conclusions and recommendations The close relationship between height and arm span has both clinical and business applications. Examples of clinical applications include prosthetic devices and prediction of lung function. An example of a business application is the marketing of unisex sporting gear, such as wetsuits. Further research should conduct this experiment with other age groups (children and seniors) to verify whether its findings are age neutral. Another variation could be to conduct the research among different ethnic groups to establish whether the findings hold across ethnic groups. Adapted from a report by a GAC student

What have I learnt in Unit 5? In Unit 5 you learnt that it is part of a scientist’s responsibility to report to other people the findings of hypothesis they have investigated. The readers’ major concerns will be to understand the research process so it could be replicated, and to know that the research findings are valid. Although the IMRAD format is generally used for presenting a science research report, you could write the methods and results sections before the others if this helps structure your thoughts and communication. This unit examined the essential features of a science research report and the purpose and content of each section.

Academic Writing Manual Unit 6: Social Science Research Reports


Unit 6: Social Science Research Reports


Part B An example social science research report

Overview This section introduces social research and the approaches commonly used in

social science research projects. Social research is the term used for research in the social sciences.

The aim of social research is to describe, explore and understand different aspects of social life. An example of social phenomena would be the age at which people were marrying for the first time. This information could be compared to the situation 20 years ago to identify changing patterns of behaviour, known as trends.


Cover Page and Table of Contents

Do not number these sections. Begin the social science report with a cover page. The table of contents follows the cover page, and is on a separate page. The table of contents provides the reader with a location for different sections of the research report.

Abstract/Summary: approximately 10% word count

Do not number this section. This part condenses the entire document. In the abstract/summary:




• generally use the past tense

Hint: write this section after the rest of the report, when all the information

has been evaluated.

Unit 6: Social Science Research Reports Academic Writing Manual



Start numbering at this section. This section identifies the topic and purpose of the report. In it:

• include the reasons for choosing this topic and the particular area on which you will focus and why

• explain the limitations. For example, if you decide to focus on a particular country

• supply background information. For example: definitions, key indicators, details about the chosen country etc.

• provide a thesis statement: state what the outcome of the research is expected to be

2. Methods: approximately 15% word count

In this section: • describe the research methodology (qualitative or quantitative, or both) you

have used to obtain the data • specify whether primary or secondary data or both have been used • provide the details of any literature (background reading) you have read

3. Results or findings: approximately 20% word count

This section shares gathered facts about the topic:

• provide information in tables/charts/graphs to support your findings • number, label and briefly describe each figure • do NOT state your opinion, and do NOT include bias or emotive language • use the passive voice • only the description is included in the word count, NOT the

tables/charts/graphs

4. Discussion: approximately 25% word count

This section is based on what the data tells you:

• identify what you consider to be the most significant information • evaluate the implications of the most significant information • assess the effectiveness of the research – are there any factors which may

have influenced the findings? 5. Conclusions and recommendations: approximately 10% word count

This section is based on what the data tells you:

• draw conclusions as to the reason for the statistics • make some recommendations, using data to support your argument



Appendices

Do not number this section. Include information that clarifies your thinking but is not essential to its explanation. Examples of material that might be put in an appendix include: • raw data (survey questions, interview questions and interview transcripts or

summaries) • maps or photographs


Reference List


Part B An example Social Science research report AIDS in Africa Abstract

This report is based on previous studies about AIDS in Africa. Africans are concerned about reducing the spread of AIDS and minimising its associated social problems. The objective of the research was to gather and analyse the data about AIDS in Africa in order to establish its primary impact and make informed recommendations to improve the situation. Certain countries were expected to offer limited data. The findings confirmed that poverty is the main cause of the spread of AIDS in Africa; that it is essential for governments to play a leading role in controlling the spread of AIDS; and that the social costs are too important to be ignored. Recommendations include setting up regional AIDS-fighting blocs.

Introduction

AIDS is one of the most powerful killers worldwide, especially in developing regions like Africa. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a medical condition and damages people’s natural defences against disease. It is caused by a virus called HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) that destroys CD4-T cells in the immune system. HIV can be passed from one person to another. Someone can become infected with HIV through contact with the bodily fluids of someone who already has HIV. People can be infected with HIV in several ways, including unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person, contact with an infected person’s blood, and it can also be passed from mother to child (Avert.org, 2008).

The objective of this research was to find and analyse current available data on the rate of HIV infections in Africa in order to evaluate its primary consequences and make informed additional recommendations. Given the disparities in infrastructure and resources among African countries, it was expected that there would be some difficulty in obtaining reliable and timely information from some countries.

Methods

The research is based on secondary sources – previous studies on the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. Ten African countries were considered: Algeria, Angola, DR of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Raw data is mainly quantitative, obtained from international organisations such as UNAIDS and the World Health Organisation (WHO). Most research findings were found online. Each source was evaluated (see the reading log) to verify its validity.



Findings

Even though AIDS was virtually unknown in Africa 25 years ago, it is now the leading killer in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is estimated by UNAIDS that in 2007, there were 32.8 million African people living with HIV, and 2.5 million of them were newly infected. 2 million people died from AIDS in Africa that year. More than two-thirds of infections and 80% of deaths were in Sub-Saharan Africa (WHO, 2008). Although there is controversy over the accuracy of the figures, there is no doubt that Africa remains the most affected region. Table 1 shows the population and the number of HIV carriers in the ten African countries in 2007.

Country Population (millions)

Estimated number of adults and children living with HIV/AIDS

Infection Rate (%)

Estimated number of deaths due to AIDS

Algeria 32,339 9,100 0.03 <500

Angola 14,078 240,000 1.70 21,000

DR of Congo 54,417 1,100,000 2.02 100,000

Ethiopia 72,420 1,5000,000 2.07 120,000

Ghana 21,337 350,000 1.64 30,000

Kenya 32,420 1,2000,000 3.70 150,000

Liberia 3,487 100,000 2.87 7,200

Madagascar 17,901 140,000 0.28 7,500

Mozambique 19,182 1,300,000 6.78 110,000

Zimbabwe 12,932 1,800,000 13.92 170,000 Table 1. The number of HIV carriers in ten African countries in 2007 (Source: UNAIDS - Sub-Saharan Africa - AIDS epidemic update – Regional Summary, 2008) It can be seen from the table that while most of the African countries considered have an infection rate between 1% and 3%, there are great disparities, with Zimbabwe’s infecting rate reaching over 10%. Interestingly, Algeria and Kenya have about the same population, but in Algeria the infections rate is 0.03%, whereas in Kenya it is 3.70%.

Two of the most direct consequences of AIDS in Africa are the low life expectancy and the large number of orphaned children. In most of the African countries with high HIV infection rates, the average life span is only around 40 years. According to UNAIDS, of the 15 million children who are orphaned by AIDS, 11.4 million are from Sub-Saharan Africa. Table 2 shows the average life expectancy and the number of children orphaned by AIDS in the countries considered.

Country Infection Rate (%)

Life Expectancy (years)

Estimated number of children orphaned by AIDS (000s)

Algeria 0.03 69 n/a

Angola 1.70 40 110

DR of Congo 2.02 44 770

Ethiopia 2.07 48 720

Ghana 1.64 58 170

Kenya 3.70 51 650

Liberia 2.87 42 36

Madagascar 0.78 56 30

Mozambique 6.78 43 470

Zimbabwe 13.92 38 980 Table 2. Life expectancy and the number of children orphaned by AIDS in ten African countries in 2007 (Source: UNAIDS - Sub-Saharan Africa - AIDS epidemic update – Regional Summary, 2008)



There is a close relationship between the HIV infection rate, life expectancy and the number of children orphaned by AIDS. In countries with a low infection rate, like Algeria, people have a longer life span. Zimbabwe has both the highest infection rate (13.92), and the lowest life expectancy (38). In addition, Zimbabwe has the highest number of orphans – almost 1 million in 2008. The extent of the catastrophe is even more evident when one considers that Zimbabwe has a relatively small population, only 13 million people, second-to-last in population of the countries considered.

Discussion

The reasons for the prevalence of AIDS in Africa are overwhelmingly attributed to poverty, and the social ills associated with poverty, such as a lack of education and cultural barriers. The WHO and UNAIDS findings that poverty contributes the most to the spread of HIV in Africa are logical. Health spending in most African countries is totally inadequate. There is no developed public health care system in that region, and people lack medicine and treatment such as the anti-retrovirals (AVRs) that are available in developed countries. The inability to access medical care means that millions of infected people unable to work. Thus these people are unable to contribute to the country’s economy and die young. Already-struggling economies continue to stagnate, or even weaken.

Additionally, the epidemic has left many orphaned children. This makes society more unstable and contributes to the cycle of poverty. Some international organisations are providing financial and professional help. UNAIDS started a World AIDS Campaign in 2001. The WHO adopted a resolution stating that comprehensive health care was a basic right and a responsibility of government. USAID has focussed its efforts on preventing the spread of AIDS among migrant workers. To complement these efforts, it would be worthwhile also lobbying those multinational corporations which are very present in Africa. The limitations of the research were that in addition to sometimes unreliable data, this research focussed on 10 African countries at varying stages of economic development and with very different cultures and HIV prevalence rates. Future research may want to focus on the countries with the top 10 prevalence rates, for example.

Conclusions and recommendations

The spread of AIDS has reached epidemic proportions in Africa, and is largely attributed to ills associated with poverty. Each year, the economy suffers huge losses and it causes millions of children to be orphaned.

Declaring that comprehensive health care is a basic right is honourable, but unrealistic given that many African governments do not even have the funds to provide other basic services like clean water, electricity and education. Rather, to slow the spread of AIDS in Africa, regional groups should be established to gather accurate, culture-specific data. These data could help governments better understand how the virus is spread in their communities, share successful AIDS-combating strategies, and successfully lobby for local and international assistance. For example, one initiative of a regional group could be to persuade multinational companies to support the AIDS reduction campaign by educating company employees about risky behaviours. Given the extent of the disease, only government bodies have the necessary reach and clout to help their citizens. Adapted from a report by a GAC student



What have I learnt in Unit 6? In Unit 6 you were introduced to social research and the approaches commonly used in social research projects. Social research is the term used for research in the social sciences. The aim of social research is to describe, explore and understand different aspects of social life. This unit examined the essential features of a social science research report, and the purpose and content of each section.

Review of the manual: conclusion The Academic Writing Manual has introduced you to the process of academic writing. It was designed to be a useful guide to refer to during your studies. It proposed a systematic approach to academic writing. The six units covered all stages of the writing process. It was emphasised that the planning stage is key to the success of both essay and research report writing. Exemplars were provided to help you master academic writing.

In Appendix C you will find a table of GAC writing assessments related to this manual.

Academic Writing Manual Appendix A


Appendix A: Format for GAC Academic Essays and Reports

(Reading/Writing, Business, Social Science & Science Modules)

I. Cover page

Format accordingly: 1. Title of the module and assessment. (First line top left of the page, Arial 14, bold) 2. Title of the essay/research report. (center of the page, Arial 28, bold) 3. Student’s name, student ID number, teacher’s name, due date and word count. (bottom left of the page) 4. No headers or footers on the cover page. (turn on “Different First Page” function in the header and footers design menu) 5. A Table of Contents page is included in research reports only, on a separate page. No headers or footers on

the Table of Contents page.

GAC008 Assessment Event 4: Academic Research Essay

No Longer Safe:

The Threat of Terrorism in the Modern

World

Student’s Name: John Moon

Student ID #: GA20004

Teacher: Jon Maes

Due Date: 19 March 2010

Word Count: 234

Arial 14pt.

Bold

Title

Arial 28pt.

Student name, student ID number, teacher

name, due date, word count., Times New

Roman 11pt.

Appendix A Academic Writing Manual


II. Essay Format Format accordingly:

1. Essay is double-spaced between lines (with the first line of each paragraph indented), and there is a 6pt. space in between paragraphs.

2. Headers and footers as in the example below. 3. In-text citation (Level II and III) as in the example: the authors last name, year, then a comma (,)

followed by “p.” and the page number the evidence can be found in the book or “online” if it is an Internet resource. If there is no author, it is the first two words in the title (not the whole title).

4. For Reports with headings (Business, Social Science & Science): the headings should be in Arial 16pt., bold and centered.

GAC008 AE#4 John Moon GA20004 Question: Many people regard terrorism as the most important issue confronting our

world. Is this the case or is there something else? What do you think? Support your

arguments with evidence from reference to contemporary sources.

There have been numerous terrorist attacks around the world. However, those people who

did not suffer from or experience terrorism directly might insist that other issues are more serious

such as global warming, poverty or the world economic crisis. Nonetheless, the global issue that

needs to be dealt with most urgently is terrorism for several reasons, which are attacks cannot be

predicted, innocent victims are harmed or killed, and it has terrible long-lasting effects on the

whole world.

The first reason that Terrorism is greatest threat to us nowadays because other social ills

are easier to target, protect against and prevent. For example, in the case of global warming, it

has been happening slowly according for many decades according to scientific research (Causes

2007, p. Online). Moreover, it is possible to protect the planet not to be in danger. Although it

might be looked impossible to stop global warming, some scientists believe that with effective

policy changes such as cheaper renewable energy projects that stop companies from recklessly

releasing CO2 in to the atmosphere, this phenomenon can be stopped (Evans 2002, p. Online).

Additionally, if public awareness is increased and individuals change their everyday habits to

more environmentally friendly actions such as saving energy and riding public transportation, it

would do wonders to reverse global warming (Global Warming 2007, p. Online).

In contrast, terrorist attacks are shocking to all because no one can predict where it will

happen, when it will happen and who will be a victim. In other words, unlike most battles in

wars and other forms of conflict, terrorism is unpredictable. For instance, the London bus terror

in July 7, 2005, shows...............

______________________________________________________________________________

19/3/2010 page 1

Header Arial 8pt.

Module Name & AE #

Aligned Left Border below

In-text citation for Internet reference

with an author

Footer Arial 8pt. Due date

aligned center. Line above.

Body Text:

Times New Roman 11pt.

Double spaced. Indent the first line of each paragraph.

Paragraphs with a following space of 6pt.

Header Students Full Name:

aligned center. Student ID

number: aligned right

Footer Page Number: Aligned Right

In-text citation for Internet reference without an author.

Title in italics.

Essay Question: Arial 11pt.

Top of first page

Academic Writing Manual Appendix A


III. Reference List Format accordingly:

1. Heading is aligned left and is in Arial 16pt., bold font. 2. Heading says “Reference List” (or “References”). 3. Double-spaced like the rest of the document and no extra spaces between references. 4. References are in alphabetical order. 5. References are “left aligned” not “justified” (“justified” is when the lines on the page are spread out with

spaces so they fit exactly across the page evenly). 6. All lines after the first line of each reference are indented. 7. If there is an author, the name is last name first, then a comma (,), then the first initial of their first name

and a full-stop/period (.). 8. Titles are in italics and the first letter of each word is capitalised except for: articles (a, an, the),

coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, so), the word ‘to’ when it precedes a verb, and prepositions with fewer than five letters.

9. The name of the website goes before the [online]. 10. Note: there is a comma after the publication date, and a period after [online]. 11. Accessed date has the day, month, and year in brackets [ ].

GAC008 AE#4 John Moon GA20004

References

Categories of Terrorist Group. (2006), Terrorism Research [online]. Available at:

http://www.terrorism-research.com. [Accessed 23 March 2009]

Cause and Effect for Global Warming (2007), Time for change [online]. Available at:

http://timeforchange.org/cause-and-effect-for-global-warming [Accessed 20 March 2009]

Evans, L. (2002), Kyoto Protocol Said to Harm Effort to Stop Global Warming—But There Is

Something Better. UCLA International Institute [online]. Available at:

http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=1900. [Accessed 23 March 2009]

Global Warming – It’s about You. (2007), Time for change [online]. Available at:

http://www.timeforchange.org/responsibility_and_carbon_footprint [Accessed 20 March

2009]

Perlman, D. (2004), Shrinking Glaciers Evidence of Global Warming. SFGate [online]. Available

at: http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/12/17/MNGARADH401.DTL

[Accessed 25 March 2009]

Roverts, A. (2007), The Changing Faces of Terrorism. BBC News [online]. Available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01. [Accessed 23 March 2009]

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3/19/2009 page 7

Article titles are in Italics

Author’s last name with a comma (,) then first name initial with a

period (.)

All lines after the first line are indented.

References Times New Roman

11pt. Double-spaced

No spaces between

references

Name of website then [online].

In brackets [ ] Accessed, day, month and year.

Available at, followed by colon

(:) The web address is on the

following line, underlined

Heading Arial 16pt. Bold font.

Aligned left.

http://www.terrorism-research.com/�

http://timeforchange.org/cause-and-effect-for-global-warming�

http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=1900�

http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/12/17/MNGARADH401.DTL�

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01�

Academic Writing Manual Appendix B


Appendix B: Recording research information

Completing this template when consulting sources will help you incorporate interesting ideas while elaborating on them in your own words.

Preliminary information

Title:

Author(s):

Source:

Analysis of Information

Subject:

Purpose:

Audience:

Sources:

Primary Details

Thesis:

Limits:

Evidence:

Appendix B Academic Writing Manual


Quotations or sections for paraphrasing:

Presentation and Argumentation

Concepts/Words:

Conclusion:

Implications:

Evaluation

Personal Reaction:

Strength of Case:

Adapted from: The Annotated Sheet: A Guide to filling out the record sheet (1998), Yukon College [online]. Available at : http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/~agraham/guides/aguide.htm Article Information [Accessed 15 June 2010]

Academic Writing Manual Appendix C


Appendix C: GAC writing assessments related to the Academic Writing Manual

The following table relates GAC writing assessments to the corresponding sections in this manual.

Module Assessment

Event Writing Assessment Related to AWM

002 AE1 Paraphrase text into summaries 1A-J

AE2 Written description: 250 word Unit 2E

AE4 Academic essay: 500 words: chronological, compare and contrast, then and now, argumentative, advantages/disadvantages, cause and effect, problem/solution

Unit 2A-G

003 AE1 Reflective learning journal: at least 15 entries of about 150 words per entry.

Unit 2E

006 AE1B Five short answers: approximately 75 words each.

Unit 1A-J

AE2B Short essay: 250 words reflecting on group role play

Unit 2E

008 AE1 Summary 1A-J

AE2 Two written descriptions: 225 word description of a process and a 150 word description of a graph.

Unit 2C and 2E

AE4 Academic research essay: 750-1,000 words: persuasive, compare and contrast, description, cause and effect, argumentative, classification

Unit 2A-J

011 AE2 Spreadsheet report: 400-500 words Unit 3A-J

AE3 Word database report: 250 words Unit 3A-J

AE3 Business letter

012 AE1B Short answer test – three short essays of about 250 words

Unit 1A-J

AE2 Project report – approximately 1,000 words

Unit 4A and B

013 AE1 Scientific Investigation and report: 750 words

Unit 5A and B

AE2 Case study investigation: 500 words Unit 5A and B

AE4 Assignments: short essay responses Unit 1A-J

Appendix C Academic Writing Manual


027 AE1 Primary research project: 800 words Unit 6A and B

AE3 Secondary research project: 1,000 words

Unit 6A and B

015 AE1 Description comparing data from more than one source: 300-400 words

Unit 2B and E

AE2 Literature review: 500 words Unit 1A-J

AE3 Summary of points of view: 300-400 words

1A-J

AE4 Academic research essay: 1,000-1,250 words: argumentative, process description, persuasive, chronological, definition

Unit 2C,D, E and F

022 AE1B Short answers test: 3 essays of at least 250 words

Unit 1A-J

AE2 Project report: 1,250 words Unit 4A and B

023 AE1 Environmental study of a major river: approximately 1,000 words

Unit 5A and B

AE2 Local environmental survey report: approximately 1,250 words

Unit 5A and B

028 AE1 Four short essays: approximately 250 words each

Unit 1A-J

AE3 Research report: approximately 1,250 words

Unit 6A and B

Academic Writing Manual Reference List


Reference List All online: [Accessed 15 June 2010] Abstracts. (2007), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [online]. Available at:

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html Abstracts: Examples. The University of Wisconsin [online]. Available at:

http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html Anorexia Nervosa: Understanding the signs, symptoms and treatment, Helpguide [online]. Available

at: http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm A Problem Solution Essay. Tesol Tasks [online]. Available at:

http://www.tesoltasks.com/ProblemSolution.htm Article Analysis Sheet. (1998), Yukon College [online]. Available at:

http://ycdl4.yukoncollege.yk.ca/~agraham/guides/asheet.htm A Student’s Guide to Writing in the Life Sciences. (2007), Harvard University [online]. Available at:

http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic649702.files/Life_Sciences.pdf Auman, Maureen E. (2006), Step Up to Writing, Sopris West: Longmont, CO Bowes, P. (2010), NASA drone embarks on science flights, BBC News [online]. Available at:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8620742.stm Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). St.John’s Ambulances [online]. Available at:

http://www.sja.org.uk/sja/first-aid-advice/life-saving-procedures/cpr-for-adults.aspx Coffee Development – From Bean to Cup. Holland by Mail [online]. Available at:

http://www.hollandbymail.com/coffee/coffee_bean_to_cup.html Comparing and Contrasting. (2007), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [online]. Available at:

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/comparison_contrast.html Definition Essay. (2007), Kamehameha Schools [online]. Available at:

http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/writingresource/definition.html Developing a Definition. (2004), Capital Community College [online]. Available at:

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/GRAMMAR/composition/definition.htm Developing a Research Thesis. Empire State College. Available at:

http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menud.htm Education on the Halfshell, Cassie Zanca [online]. Available at:

http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/halfshell/pdf/dicot3all.pdf Essay 2: Problem-Solution. Humboldt State University [online]. Available at:

http://www.humboldt.edu/~jmo2/P-Sessay.html Extended Definition Essay. (2008), Cerritos College [online]. Available at: http://e-courses.cerritos.edu/tperalta/Extended%20definition%20notes.essay2.htm

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html�


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http://www.tesoltasks.com/ProblemSolution.htm�

http://ycdl4.yukoncollege.yk.ca/~agraham/guides/asheet.htm�

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http://www.sja.org.uk/sja/first-aid-advice/life-saving-procedures/cpr-for-adults.aspx�

http://www.hollandbymail.com/coffee/coffee_bean_to_cup.html�

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/comparison_contrast.html�

http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/writingresource/definition.html�

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/GRAMMAR/composition/definition.htm�

http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menud.htm�

http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/halfshell/pdf/dicot3all.pdf�

http://www.humboldt.edu/~jmo2/P-Sessay.html�

http://e-courses.cerritos.edu/tperalta/Extended%20definition%20notes.essay2.htm�

Appendix C Academic Writing Manual


Graphic Organizers for Reading Comprehension. Sask Schools Canada [online]. Available at: http://www.saskschools.ca/~qvss/curriculum/goread.pdf

How is Paper made from Trees? essortment [online]. Available at: http://beta.essortment.com/20118-paper-made-trees.html [Accessed 11 May 2010]. How to Write an Argumentative Essay in 9 Easy Steps. Enotes [online]. Available at:

http://www.enotes.com/topics/how-write-argumentative-essay How to Write a Persuasive Essay. Bright Hub [online]. Available at:

http://www.brighthub.com/education/homework-tips/articles/34372.aspx Narrative Essay. (2008), Mrs. Scotten’s 8th Grade Language Arts Class [online]. Available at: http://www.mrsscotten.com/narrative_essay.html NASA drone embarks on science flights. BBC [online]. Available at:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8620742.stm [Accessed 25 March 2010]. Nature’s Fury – Volcanoes. National Geographic [online]. Available at:

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/volcanoes/phenomena.html [Accessed 11 May 2010] Paragraph types –comparison and/or contrast. University of New England [online]. Available at:

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/students/factsheets/paragraph-comp.pdf Patterns of Organization. Montgomery College [online]. Available at:

http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/~steuben/Patterns%20of%20Organization.pdf Process Paper. Wahama High School [online]. Available at:

http://whs.maso.k12.wv.us/metz/process.html Problem-Solution Essay. (2006), Ms Mattison [online]. Available at:

http://www.charlottemattison.com/problem%20solution/G0W23_ED.PDF Research Paper Academic Tip Sheet. (2007), Edith Cowan University [online]. Available at:

http://www.ecu.edu.au/CLT/tips/docs/research_paper.pdf Research and Writing. (2008), IPL2 [online]. Available at:

http://www.ipl.org/div/aplus/linkscommon.htm Research Papers and Reports. (2009), University of Sydney [online]. Available at:

http://www.arch.usyd.edu.au/documents/ebs/Research%20Paper%20and%20Report%20Outline.pdf The Annotated Sheet: A Guide to filling out the record sheet (1998), Yukon College [online]. Available

at: http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/~agraham/guides/aguide.htm Article Information The Case for Graduated Licenses [online]. Available at:

http://www.charlottemattison.com/problem%20solution/G0W23_ED.PDF The Effect of the Fertilizer VF-11 on Oat seed germination – sample research report. Indiana University

[online]. Available at: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/oat.sample.rep.pdf The Genetics of Bone Strength in Mice. The Writing Center @ the University of Wisconsin – Madison

[online]. Available at: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/presentations_abstracts_examples.html

http://www.saskschools.ca/~qvss/curriculum/goread.pdf�

http://beta.essortment.com/20118-paper-made-trees.html�

http://www.enotes.com/topics/how-write-argumentative-essay�

http://www.brighthub.com/education/homework-tips/articles/34372.aspx�

http://www.mrsscotten.com/narrative_essay.html�


http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/volcanoes/phenomena.html�

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/students/factsheets/paragraph-comp.pdf�

http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/~steuben/Patterns%20of%20Organization.pdf�

http://whs.maso.k12.wv.us/metz/process.html�


http://www.ecu.edu.au/CLT/tips/docs/research_paper.pdf�

http://www.ipl.org/div/aplus/linkscommon.htm�

http://www.arch.usyd.edu.au/documents/ebs/Research%20Paper%20and%20Report%20Outline.pdf�


http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/oat.sample.rep.pdf�


Academic Writing Manual Reference List


The Thesis Statement. (2004), Palomar College [online]. Available at: http://daphne.palomar.edu/handbook/thesis.htm#single

Thesis Statements: How to Write Them. Seton Hill University [online]. Available at:

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/thesis.htm Tokaimura Criticality Accident, (2007), World Nuclear Association [online]. Available at:

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf37.html

Transitional Words and Phrases. (2005), University of Richmond [online]. Available at: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html

Transitional Words and Phrases. (2005), Writer’s Web [online]. Available at:

http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html [Accessed 26 March 2010] Writing a Process Paper. Butte College [online]. Available at:

http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/procress_paper.html Writing a Scientific Research paper (2001). Memorial University of Newfoundland Writing Center

[online]. Available at: http://www.mun.ca/writingcentre/docs/OnlineWritingScientificResearchPaper.pdf

Writing a Scientific Research Paper. M.I.T. [online]. Available at:

https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~ggilfoyl/intermediate/writing.pdf

http://daphne.palomar.edu/handbook/thesis.htm#single�

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/thesis.htm�

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf37.html�

http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html�

http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html�

http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/procress_paper.html�

http://www.mun.ca/writingcentre/docs/OnlineWritingScientificResearchPaper.pdf�

https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~ggilfoyl/intermediate/writing.pdf�

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Academic Writing Manual - V1 -JULY 2010