Kiev, June 23, 1941

Mass murder of Sovietcivilians near Minsk,Belarus, 1943

World War II casualties of the Soviet UnionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

World War II casualties of the Soviet Union from all related causes were over 20,000,000, both civilians and military, althoughthe statistics vary to a great extent largely because these figures are currently disputed. During the Soviet era information oncasualties was considered top secret; it was only later in the Glasnost period that information on Soviet World War II casualtieswas published. In 1993 a study by the Russian Academy of Sciences estimated total Soviet population losses due to the war at26.6 million,[1][2][3][4] including military dead of 8.7 million calculated by the Russian Ministry of Defense.[5] These figures havebeen accepted by most historians outside of Russia. However the figure of 8.7 million military dead has been disputed by somehistorians in Russia because it is in conflict with the official database of the Central Defense Ministry Archive (CDMA) which liststhe names of roughly 14 million dead and missing servicemen.[6][7] Some independent researchers in Russia have put totallosses in the war, both civilians and military, at over 40 million.[8][9] This article covers the details of the Russian governmentsources as well as a presentation of sources disputing these figures.

Contents

1 Military losses

1.1 Krivosheev's analysis

1.2 Criticism of Krivosheev

1.2.1 POW deaths

1.2.2 Reconciliation of persons conscripted

1.2.3 Russian Military Archives database of individual war dead

1.2.4 Historical revisionism in Russia

1.2.5 Total number of male war dead

1.3 Rebuttal by Krivosheev

2 Civilian losses

3 Total population losses

3.1 Studies by E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski and T. L. Kharkova (ADK)

3.1.1 Alternative sources of demographic losses

3.2 Estimated losses of each Soviet Republic

4 OBD Memorial database of Soviet war dead

5 Causes

6 The estimates and their sources

6.1 Official Soviet era estimates made 1946 to 1987

6.2 Period of Glasnost 1988 to 1992

6.3 Figures released in Russia 1993–95

6.4 Estimates by Russians published in the West 1950–83

6.5 Estimates of Soviet war dead by Western scholars

7 Sources

Soviet troops (Battle ofMoscow, 1941)

Soviet fighter aceLydia Litvyak was killedin action on August 1,1943. 800,000 womenserved in the SovietArmed Forces duringthe war. Some servedas pilots, snipers,machine gunners,tank crew membersand partisans, as wellas in auxiliary roles.

Starting attack inLeningrad battlefront

8 See also

9 References

Military losses

Krivosheev's analysis

A 1993 Russian Ministry of Defense report authored by a group headed by general G. I. Krivosheevdetailed Soviet military casualties in World War II.[10] The sources for their analysis were Soviet reportsfrom the field and other archive documents that were secret during the Soviet era, including a secretSoviet General Staff report from 1966–68. Krivosheev's study which puts Soviet military dead andmissing at 8.7 million is often cited by historians. However Krivosheev's analysis has been disputed bysome independent researchers in Russia (see section below on criticism of Krivosheev).

The schedules below summarize Krivosheev's analysis.

Soviet World War II military casualties 1939–45[5][11]

Dead andmissing

Woundedand sick

Battle of Khalkhin Gol1939

[5][12]9,703 15,952

Invasion of Poland1939[5][13]

1,475 2,383

Winter War 1939–40[5][13] 126,875 264,908

World War II 1941–45[14][15]

8,668,400 22,326,905

Total 8,806,453 22,610,148

Source of Figures:G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 51–97

The Schedule below summarizes Soviet casualties from 1941­1945.

Military dead and missing (1941–45)[16][17]

KIA or died of wounds 6,329,600

Noncombat deaths(sickness,

accidents,etc.)555,500

Subtotal KIA, died ofwounds and

Noncombat deaths6,885,100

MIA and POW 4,559,000

Total operational lossesduring war

11,444,100

Less:Missing laterReturned to Duty

(939,700)

Less:POWs returned toUSSR

(1,836,000)

Total irrecoverablelosses (from listed

strength)8,668,400

Soviet prisoners of war

Soviet conscripts 1941

Source of Figures:G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85–97and G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001ISBN 5­224­01515­4 page 237

Reconciliation of missing according to Krivosheev

Missing and presumed killed in action 500,000

POW dead 1,283,300

Missing Later Re­conscripted A. 939,700

POW returned to USSR 1,836,000

Total Reported Missing 4,559,000

A. Including 180,000 POW who emigrated to other countries

Source of Figures: G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85–97

Krivoshhev wrote According to German sources 673,000 died in captivity. Of the remaining 1,110,300, Soviet sources indicate

that over half also died captivity.[18] He also noted that according to German records on May 1, 1944 823,230 Soviet POW hadbeen released for service in Germany industry (concentration camps) and 877,980 were held in OKW POW camps. By January1945 930,287 were held in POW camps and 750,000 were working in Germany industry (concentration camps).[19]

The report of G. I. Krivosheev shows that of all the men serving in the military during the war, there were about 4,559,000reported missing (including 3,396,400 per field reports and an additional 1,162,600 estimated by Krivosheev), out of which500,000 were missing and presumed dead, 939,700 were conscripted back into the Soviet army during the war as territorieswere being liberated, 1,836,000 returned to the U.S.S.R. after the war, remaining balance of 1,283,300 died in German captivityas POW or while in German service.[20][21] This does not agree with Krivosheev's figure of 2.5 million POW dead listed in therevised edition of his study published in 2001.[22] In a 1999 article Krivosheev noted that 2,016,000 POW survived the war, ofwhich 1,836,000 POWs are known to have returned to the U.S.S.R. after the war and another 180,000 liberated POWs who mostlikely emigrated to other countries.[23]

Reconciliation of Soviet Forces 1941­1945 According to Krivosheev

Description Balance

Red Army & Navy Strength­ June 1941 4,902,000

Drafted during war 29,575,000

Discharged during war (9,693,000)

Red Army & Navy strength­ June 1945 (12,840,000)

Losses of Conscripted Reservists 1941 not inducted in ranks (500,000)

Subtotal: Operational Losses 11,444,000

Missing Later Re­conscripted (940,000)

Liberated POW returned to USSR (1,836,000)

Total Irrecoverable Losses 8,668,000

Discharged during war of 9,693,000 includes( sent on sick leave 3,798,200; transferred to work in industry, anti­aircraft defenseand armed guards 3,614,600; sent to NKVD troops and organs 1,174,600; transferred to Polish, Czechoslovak and Romanianarmies 250,400; imprisoned 436,600; discharged 206,000; missing in rear areas 212,400)

Red Army & Navy strength­ June 1945 12,840,000 includes (11,390,600 on active service; in hospital 1,046,000; in civiliandepartments 403,200)

Source of Figures:G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85–97

Carrying a wounded

soldier on the

Leningrad Front

Naked Soviet POWs in

Mauthausen

concentration

camp[24]

Numbers of Wounded & Sick by category According to records of military medical service

Wounded Sick Total

14,685,593 7,641,312 22,326,905

Of these:

Discharged (3,050,733) (747,425) (3,798,158)

Returned to Duty (10,530,750) (6,626,493) (17,157,243)

Died (also included in irrecoverable losses) (1,104,110) (267,394) (1,371,504)

Source of Figures:G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­

85367­280­4 Page 89

Casualties of Soviet Forces 1941­1945 According toField Reports

Description IrrecoverableLosses

Wounded &Sick

TotalLosses

1941 3rd Q 2,129,677 687,626 2,817,303

1941 4th Q 1,007,996 648,521 1,656,517

1942 1st Q 675,315 1,179,457 1,854,772

1942 2nd Q 842,898 706,647 1,549,545

1942 3rd Q 1,224,495 1,283,062 2,507,557

1942 4th Q 515,508 941,896 1,457,404

1943 1st Q 726,714 1,425,692 2,152,406

1943 2nd Q 191,904 490,637 682,541

1943 3rd Q 803,856 2,060,805 2,864,661

1943 4th Q 589,955 1,567,940 2,157,895

1944 1st Q 570,761 1,572,742 2,143,503

1944 2nd Q 344,258 965,208 1,309,466

1944 3rd Q 510,790 1,545,442 2,056,232

1944 4th Q 338,082 1,031,358 1,369,440

1945 1st Q 557,521 1,594,635 2,152,156

1945 2nd Q 243,296 618,055 861,351

Campaign in Far East 12,031 24,425 36,456

Subtotal Operational Losses:Army & Navy 11,285,057 18,344,148 29,629,205

Add:Losses Border/Internal Service Troops 159,100

Subtotal:Operational Losses 11,444,100

Less:Missing Later Re­conscripted (939,700)

Less:Liberated POW returned to USSR (1,836,000)

Total Irrecoverable Losses 8,668,400

Source of Figures:G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85–97

Krivosheev's group estimated losses for the early part of the war, because in the crucial period of 1941­1942 no surrounded or

defeated divisions sent any reports on their casualties, the field reports from that period regarded by military historians as being

unreliable.

Total wounded and sick includes: Wounded 15,205,592; Sick 3,047,675; Frostbite cases 90,881

According to the field reports the number of wounded and sick was 18,344,148, however the records of the military medical

service show a total of 22,326,905. According to Krivosheev the difference can be explained by the fact that the sick and

wounded figures of the medical service include sick personnel who did not take part in the fighting.[25]

Monument in Israel toJewish war dead inthe Soviet Army

Khatyn Memorial,Belarus

German photographof Soviet war dead inearly 1942

Soviet military dead and Missing by nationality (1941–45) According to Krivosheev[26]

Total Percentage

Russians 5,756,000 66.402%

Ukrainians 1,377,400 15.890%

Belarusians 252,900 2.917%

Tatars 187,700 2.165%

Jews 142,500 1.644%

Kazakhs 125,500 1.448%

Uzbeks 117,900 1.360%

Armenians 83,700 0.966%

Georgians 79,500 0.917%

Others 545,300 6.291%

Total 8,668,000 100.0%

Total losses by age group according to Krivosheev

Age Group Total losses  % of total losses

Under 20 years 1,560,000 18%

21­25 1,907,000 22%

26­30 1,517,000 17.5%

31­35 1,430,200 16.5%

36­40 1,040,200 12%

41­45 693,500 8%

46­50 433,400 5%

over 50 years 86,700 1%

All age groups 8,668,400 100%

Source:G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001ISBN 5­224­01515­4 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186) Page 236

Criticism of Krivosheev

Krivosheev's analysis has generally been accepted by historians, however his study has been disputedby some independent researchers in Russia.

The main points of the criticism of Krivosheev are as follows:

POW deaths

Krivosheev's analysis puts Soviet military POW dead at 1.283 million,[18] however most estimates byWestern historians for Soviet prisoners of war deaths is about 3 million out of 5.7 million total POWs inGerman hands.[27][28] Russian researcher Vadim Erlikman puts Soviet military dead at 10.6 million; hemaintains that Soviet military casualties should also include the deaths of an additional estimated 1,500,000 conscriptedreservists captured before being listed on active strength as well as draft age men treated as military POW by Germany, alsoabout 150,000 militia and 250,000 Soviet partisan dead.[29] However, according to Krivosheev the figure of 3.0 million POWdead probably includes partisans, militia, and many civilian men of military age taken as POW, they are considered civiliandeaths in his figures.[30] According to S. A. Il’enkov, Krivosheev's analysis obviously conflicts with the Russian Military Archivesdatabase of individual war dead, which still lists over 7 million missing soldiers and sergeants alone, as well as opinions of thehighest ranking Russian officials.[31]

Author/FiguresLev Lopukhovsky and

Boris Kavalerchik[32]Christian Streit

(Germany)[33]Igor Ivlev[34]

Number of POWs 5,880,800 c.5,700,000 7,449,582

Re­Drafted

POW Deaths per Author 2,841,600 3,300,000 5,363,020

Released by Enemy 1,023,230 1,000,000

Fled or Liberated 500,000

POW Held by GermanyJan. 1945

930,000

Repatriated 1,836,000 1,836,562

Emigrated 180,000 250,000

Lopukhovsky and Kavalerchik dispute Krivoshhev's analysis of POW dead. According to the reconciliation of Krivosheev'sfigures by Lopukhovsky and Kavalerchik 4,059,000 were taken as POW, 939,700 were later liberated during the war anddrafted again; 1,836,000 were liberated after the war; 180,000 emigrated after the war, 1,023,230 were released during thewar by the Germans' less (159,000) escaped and 239,100 were dead as POW(5.9%).[35] It should be pointed out that the figureof 239,100 Soviet POW dead does not appear in Krivoshev's book. This figure was derived by Lopukhovsky and Kavalerchik. Infact Krivoshhev wrote According to German sources 673,000 died in captivity. Of the remaining 1,110,300, Soviet sources

indicate that over half also died captivity.[18]

Reconciliation of persons conscripted

In 2000 the late Dr. S. N. Mikhalev of the History department of Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University[36] published a criticalanalysis of the official Russian wartime casualty statistics. From 1989 to 1996 Mikhalev was an associate of the Institute ofMilitary History of the Ministry of Defence. Mikhalev estimated actual Soviet military war dead at more than 10.9 million persons.He maintained that the official figures cannot be reconciled to the total men drafted and that POW deaths wereunderstated. Mikhalev believed that the official figure of 26.6 million war dead should not be regarded as definitive. In 1995the Russian Academy of Science published his analysis of the demographic balance of the USSR in the war that indicatedtotal losses ranging from 21.240 million to 25.854 million, with the mid range being 23.568 million total war dead. Mikhalevpointed out that the figures for total war deaths are based on a range of possible estimates for the pre­war population in 1939and the population of the annexed territories that are by no means certain.[37]

The following schedule shows the reconciliation of losses of the field reports to the actual number of mobilizedpersons[38][39][40]

Description Balance per Kirvosheev Balance per Mikhalev Difference

Red Army & Navy Strength­ June 1941 ( A.) 4,902,000 4,704,000 (198,000)

Drafted during war ( B.) 29,575,000 29,575,000 0

Discharged during war (C.) (9,693,000) (9,693,000) 0

Red Army & Navy strength­ June 1945 (D.) (12,840,000) (11,999,000) 841,000

conscripted reservists (E.) (500,000) 0 500,000

Subtotal: Operational Losses 11,444,000 12,587,000 1,143,000

MIA Re­conscripted (F.) (940,000) 0 940,000

Liberated POW returned to USSR (1,836,000) (1,836,000) 0

Losses of NKVD & Border Troops (G.) 0 159,000 159,000

Losses in the Far East August 1945 H. 0 12,000 12,000

Total Irrecoverable Losses 8,668,000 10,922,000 2,254,000

Notes:

A. Strength Red Army June 1941­ Mikhalev excludes Construction troops whose casualties were not included in the fieldreports. B. Drafted during war ­Excludes those drafted twice. C.Discharged during war­Includes those sent on sick leave, those sent to industry, NKVD or foreign units and 437,000imprisoned after sentencing D. Red Army strength June 1945­Mikhalev excludes 403,000 Construction troops whose casualties were not included in the fieldreports and 437,000 imprisoned after sentencing already deducted in number of discharged E.Conscripted reservists captured in 1941 before being listed on active strength. Mikhalev maintains that they were a militaryoperational losses that should be included with total casualties F. MIA Re­conscripted were men conscripted back into the Soviet army during the war as territories were being liberated.Mikhalev maintains that they should not be deducted because were included in the Red Army strength in June 1945 and thatthe number conscripted excludes those drafted twice. G.NKVD & Border Troops ­Mikhalev adds these losses to the total because they were not part of the Red Army balance in June

1945. H.Losses in the Far East August 1945­ Mikhalev adds these losses to the total because they were not part of the Red Armybalance in June 1945

Russian Military Archives database of individual war dead

The analysis of Krivosheev and Mikhalev is based on the field reports of the Red Army and the reconciliation of the balance forpersons conscripted. An alternative method to determine Soviet war losses is the Russian Military Archives database ofindividual war dead. S. A. Il’enkov, an official of the Central Archives of the Russian Ministry of Defense writing in the Journal ofSlavic Military Studies, maintained that "complex military situation at the front did not always allow for the conduct of a fullaccounting of losses." He pointed out that reports from the field units did not include deaths in rear area hospitals of woundedpersonnel. Il’enkov maintains that the information in the Russian Military Archives alphabetical card­indexes can assist insolving the problem of determining the total number of Soviet military war dead.[31] In an article published by the CentralArchives of the Russian Ministry of Defense Il’enkov described the work of the archives to reconcile database of individual wardead. He believes the work has progressed to the point where we can determine an accurate accounting of war losses.Il’enkov concluded by stating "We established the number of irreplaceable losses of our Armed Forces at the time of theGreat Patriotic War of about 13,850,000.[41] A more recent compilation made in March 2008 of the individuals listed in the cardfiles puts total dead and missing at 14,241,000 (13,271,269 enlisted men and 970,000 officers)[42] This database is incompleteand does not include all men killed in the war; currently graves registration teams in Russia are identifying war dead that arenot currently included in the database.[43]

Historical revisionism in Russia

Some researchers in Russia dispute the official figures of 8.7 million military dead and the total population loss of 26.6 million.These critics base their arguments on their own analysis of documents in the Soviet archives and on alternative demographicmodels of the Soviet population during the Stalin era. They maintain that the Russian government should conduct newinvestigations on losses suffered in the war.

Mark Solonin Russian author Mark Solonin maintains that Soviet military losses were understated by Krivoshev to cover upcasualties that were three to four times greater than those of Germany. Solonin also believes current Russian officialsources that list deaths of 13.7 million civilians due to the German occupation also include victims of Stalinist repression. Hepoints out that the current figures for civilian war dead are taken from sources published in the Soviet era. Overall Soloninestimates Soviet war losses were somewhat under 20 million. Military dead were at least 10.7 million,[44] however inaddition Solonin states 2.18 million soldiers are simply unaccounted for; while he assumes half of these died, some mayhave deserted or emigrated but a higher death toll is certainly possible; Solonin estimates 5­6 million civilians were killed bythe fascist occupiers (including 2.83 million Jews) and over 1 million civilians perished in the Siege of Leningrad and indestroyed Stalingrad; In addition to these war related deaths Solonin maintains that 6­9 million Soviet citizens were victimsof Stalin's repressions, in contemporary Russian official sources they are included with civilian war dead.[45]

Viktor Zemskov Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov disputes the official figures, he maintains that the total demographicpopulation loss due to the war was 20 million persons, including 16 million direct losses and 4 million deaths due to thedeterioration in the living conditions of wartime. According to Victor Zemskov the figure issued by the Russian Academy ofScience of 26.6 million total war dead includes about 7 million deaths due to natural causes based on the mortality ratethat prevailed before the war. Zemskov maintains that the figure 8.7 million military dead issued by Krivosheev was in factfalse. Zemskov believes that actual military dead were 11.5 million persons including nearly 4 million prisoners of war.Zmeskov maintains that the figure of 6.8 million civilian deaths in the occupied regions issued by the government'sExtraordinary State Commission was overstated because they included persons who were evacuated to the rear areas.He maintains that the correct total is 4.5 million civilians who were victims of the Nazis or killed in the fighting in the areaunder German occupation. Zemskov also believes that the government figure of 2.1 million civilian deaths due to forcedlabor in Germany is not correct based on German wartime records that put the actual deaths of forced workers at200,000.[46][47]

Washed in Blood A study published in Russia (Umylis krovu, Washed in Blood) by Igor Pykhalov; L. N. Lopukhovskiĭ; ViktorZemskov; Igor Ivlev and Boris Kavalerchik has disputed the official figures for Soviet war casualties, they maintain theactual losses 2 — 2.5 times more than of Krivosheev's figure of 8.7 million.[48] Igor Ivlev, director of Archangelsk­city StateSocial Memorial Center "Poisk", based on his analysis of documentation from the Soviet era puts total Soviet losses in thewar at 38.5 million persons including military dead of 20.58 million and 18 million civilians. Ivlev's calculations are presentedon the internet site which he hosts www.soldat.ru.[48] He maintains that the official figures are understated and that theRussian government should conduct new investigations on war losses. The data was based on death or missed in actionnotifications, unclaimed personal bank deposits, front and rear hospital reports, Communist Party and Young CommunistLeague membership files, the 1946 Soviet electorate population and the gap between men and women prior and afterthe War. These sources reveal military losses exceeding those of Krivosheev's report by 2 — 2.5 times. The main points ofIgor Ivlev's analysis are as follows:.[48] The total demographic losses of the Soviet male population capable for militaryservice is 20,580,000. A reconciliation of men drafted indicates 19.4 to 19.7 million dead and missing military personnel. Thecard files in the Russian Archives contains the names of 16.7 million dead and missing, in addition Ivlev maintains that 1.75million missing and 1.0 to 1.2 million who died of wounds in rear area hospitals are not included in the Russian archives

card files. According to Ivlev's analysis the list of Soviet electorate voters for February 10, 1946 indicates a gap of 22.7million males. According to Ivlev the personal records of those soldiers drafted before and during the war were reportedlydestroyed under a secret order of the Soviet Defense Ministry soon after Stalin’s death in 1953 and most war draft relateddocuments are still classified. According to Ivlev there were 38.5 million war dead ( 20.5 million military; 6.7 million civilians murdered by the Nazis, 2.7million civilians killed by work in Germany and 8.5 million civilians who died of Death by natural causes ) Ivlev's figures werepublished in "Military History Archive", 2012, № 9, p. 41­58, Available online[49] In Ivlev's analysis 8.5 million persons in the ADKfigures who hypothetically would have died in the war due to natural causes were actually war dead. Ivlev maintains thatthe 11.9 million natural deaths were arbitrarily subtracted by Andrev, Darski and Kharkova (ADK) and that this deductionfrom the total is a "trick" to lower the figure of war dead.Lev Lopukhovsky and Boris Kavalerchik – Russian military historians Lev Lopukhovsky and Boris Kavalerchik maintainKrivosheev's understatement of military casualties and their transfer to civilian losses as "ingratitude and blasphemy overtheir cherished memory." They condemn what they consider the deliberate reduction of the losses of the armed forces ofthe Soviet Union by Krivosheev, they have demanded that the Russian government conduct new investigations on lossessuffered in the war.[50] According to Lev Lopukhovsky and Boris Kavalerchik Krivosheev's group kept maintaining: noreports — no losses. And in the most crucial period of 1941­1942 no surrounded or defeated units sent any reports on theircasualties. They simply disappeared with their servicemen, arms, documents and the banner. Krivosheev's analysis alsoignored reinforcements that often outnumbered the initial personnel of a unit. As a result, the real irrecoverable casualtiesof the North­Western Front in 1941, for example, are 2.8 times bigger, than in Krivisheev's book (507,703 : 182,264).[51]

Krivosheev adds only 1,162,600 dead to compensate for "no reports" situation of 1941 and his irrecoverable losses for 1941diminish the official Soviet figures for that year by 2.16 million:[52] from 5,300,000 to 3.137.673 (but he maintains 6.3 millionfirearms were lost). In Moscow winter offensive his irrecoverable Soviet casualties and lost firearms stand at 1 : 7.9.[53] Thereare official Soviet figures of military casualties in 1941, i.e. 5.3 million dead, captured and missing.[54] Later generalKrivosheev diminished them by more than two million to 3,137,673; he maintains that they were civilians taken as POW bythe Germans.[55]The Extraordinary State Commission has revealed 3,912,283 Soviet POWs killed by the Germans in the USSRalone,[56]

Boris Sokolov – In 1996 Boris Sokolov a Russian academic published a study that estimated total war dead at 43.3 millionincluding 26.4 million in the military. Sokolov’s own calculations show that the official figures for population in 1941 to beunderstated by 12.7 million and the population in 1946 to be overstated by 4.0 million, thus resulting in 16.7 millionadditional war dead bringing the total to 43.3 million.[57] Sokolov's analysis of Soviet war losses has been published in theJournal of Slavic Military Studies.[9][58] The Russian demographer Dr. L. L. Rybakovsky dismissed these hypotheticalcalculations and believes they are not based on sound judgment.[59]

V. E. Korol – Writing in the Journal of Slavic Military Studies, V. E. Korol estimated overall Soviet war dead at 46 millionpersons including military dead of 23 million. He maintains that the official figure of 8.7 million military war dead was“groundless”, based on the actual accounts, cited by Korol, of the individual battles on the eastern front. Korol maintainsthat these solid sources are more than sufficient, and it is practically impossible to refute them. V. E. Korol believes that theofficial figures of Krivosheev are an attempt to cover up the disregard for human life by the military leaders under Stalin’stotalitarian system. Korol cites Soviet authors writing during the Glasnost era that put wartime losses much higher than theofficial figures; In 1990 General I. A. Gerasimov published information from the Russian Military Archives database ofindividual war dead and missing that put losses at 16.2 million enlisted men and 1.2 million officers. Krol also cited historian­archivist Iu. Geller who put total Soviet war dead at losses at 46 million including military dead of 23 million.[8] and A.N.Mertsalov writing in the Journal Voprosy Istorii(Questions of History) estimating 14 million military dead based on documentsin the Russian Military Archives.[60][61]

Hypothetical population loss for children unborn due to the war – Some Russian writers have argued that war losses shouldalso include the hypothetical population loss for children unborn due to the war; using this methodology total losses wouldbe about 46 million.[62]

Total number of male war dead

The study by Andreev, Darski and Karkova (ADK) put total Soviet population war losses at 26.6 million. The authors did notdispute Krivoshev's report of 8.7 million military dead, however according to the (ADK) study total war deaths were 20.1 millionmales and 6.6 million females, a difference of 13.5 million more males. In mid­1941 there were 8.3 million more females in theSoviet population; by 1946 this gap was 22.8 million more females than males, an increase of 13.5 million.[2][63]

Rebuttal by Krivosheev

In 2002 G.F. Krivosheev, author of the 1993 official study of military casualties, defended the results of his report that found8.668 million military war dead. Krivosheev maintains that the figures were derived in a scientific manner by a team ofprofessional researchers who had access to the military archives. He also maintains that the results of the study reflect arealistic view of casualties based on the military operational situation during the war. Krivosheev believes that the CentralArchives data base of individual war dead is not reliable because some personnel records are duplicated and othersomitted.[64]

Executed partisan,Minsk

Tanya Savicheva diary

Civilian losses

In 1995 a paper published by the Russian Academy of Science M. V. Philimoshin put the civilian deathtoll in the regions occupied by Germany at 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from Soviet era tosupport his figures, he used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when referring todeaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied USSR caused by the direct, intentional actions ofviolence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major part of thehuge toll.[65] The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany totaling2,164,313. G. I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a total of 1,283,000 POW dead. Thetotal of these two figures is 3,447,613, which is in close agreement with estimates by western historiansof over 3 million deaths of prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions Nazi Germany had apolicy of forced confiscation of food that resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of thepopulation, 4.1 million persons.[66]

Soviet civilian war dead estimated by Russian Academy of Science[67][68][69]

Deaths caused by theresult of direct, intentional

actions of violence7,420,379 [70]

Deaths of forced laborersin Germany 2,164,313[70]

Deaths due to famineand disease in theoccupied regions

4,100,000[71]

Total 13,684,692

According to M. V. Philimoshin there were in addition to the above losses civilian deaths during the Siege of Leningrad; 641,000due to starvation and 17,000 killed by artillery fire. Also these figures do not include an additional 451,100 persons who did notreturn to the USSR after 1946.[72]

Source: The figures for civilian losses are taken from a report published by the Russian Academy of Science Human Losses of

the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles (In Russian). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 ­M. V.Philimoshin of the War Ministry of the Russian Federation About the results of calculation of losses among civilian population of

the USSR and Russian Federation 1941­1945 Pages 124­131

Russian sources generally include Jewish Holocaust deaths with total civilian dead. Martin Gilbert puts Jewish losses at onemillion within the borders of 1939; Holocaust deaths in the annexed territories there were an additional 1.5 million deathsbringing the total Jewish losses in Soviet territory to 2.5 million.[73]

Soviet civilian losses include deaths in the siege of Leningrad. David Glantz has noted that Soviet era sources put thenumber of dead in the Siege of Leningrad at “greater than 800,000” and that a Russian source from 2000 put the numberof dead at 1,000,000.[74] However, other Russian historians have put the death toll in the siege of Leningrad at between 1.4and 2.0 million persons.[75]

These figures are for the regions of the USSR occupied by Germany with a population of about 70 million persons.[65]

These casualties are for 1941­1945 within the 1946­1991 borders of the USSR.[1] Included with civilian losses are deaths in theterritories annexed by the USSR in 1939­1940 including 600,000 in the Baltic states[29] and 1,500,000 in Eastern Poland.[76]

In addition to the losses listed above an estimated 2.5 to 3.2 million civilians died due to famine and disease in non­occupied territory of the USSR which was caused by wartime shortages in the rear areas.[77]

Documents from the Soviet archives list the total deaths of prisoners in the Gulag from 1941 to 1945 at 621,637. In the 1995Report by the Russian Academy of Science V.N. Zemskov noted "due to general difficulties in 1941­1945 in the camps, theGULAG and prisons about 1.0 million prisoners died[78]

These figures do not include an additional 622,000 persons who did not return to the USSR after 1946 according to the 1993Russian Academy of Science report on total war losses by E.M. Andreev[79]

Mark Solonin, in his book Screwing the Brains: the False History of the Great War, proposes that the figures of civiliancasualties were deliberately inflated in order to hide the number of Stalin's own victims ­ the same people whose absencecaused the banning of the results of the 1937 Soviet census, as well as those who died in the following war­free years. Hisown estimates of civilian casualties are 5­6 million killed by Germans (including the Holocaust victims) and over a millionpeople who died during the sieges of Leningrad and Stalingrad. The attitude of the Germans toward the non­JewishSoviet population, as he states, while cruel, was pragmatical and thus not genocidal (exceptions happened, but not as ageneral policy). Also, he claims that the Soviet documents for civilian casualties per republic are inconsistent with thepopulations of said republics, unless one assumes the soldiers who died while held in camps upon that territory areincluded.[80]

Volkovo cemetery,Leningrad 1942

Men hanged aspartisans somewherein the Soviet Union

Total population losses

Studies by E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski and T. L. Kharkova (ADK)

Population of the Soviet Union 1922–91

Russian demographers E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski and T. L. Kharkova (ADK) authored a study, ThePopulation of the Soviet Union 1922­1991, which was published by the Russian Academy of Science in

1993. Since 1970 in the Soviet Union, Andreev worked in the Department of Demography Research

Institute of the Central Statistical Bureau the (now the Research Institute of Statistics of Federal State

Statistical Service of Russia ). The (ADK) study estimated total Soviet population losses of 26.6 million in

the war. This is the current official Russian government figure for total losses.[1] These losses are a

demographic estimate of excess deaths, not an exact accounting of losses. The main areas of

uncertainty when calculating losses were the estimated figures for increase in the Soviet population in

the territories annexed from 1939–1945 and the loss of population due to emigration during and after

the war. The figures also include victims of Soviet repression as well as the deaths of Soviet citizens in

German military service.[81] Michael Haynes has noted that "We do not know the total number of

deaths as a result of the war and related policies". We do know that the demographic estimate of

excess deaths was 26.6 million plus an additional 11.9 million natural deaths of persons born before

the war and 4.2 million children born during the war that would have occurred in peacetime, bringing

the total dead to 42.7 million. At this time the actual total number of deaths caused by the war is

unknown since among the 16.1 million "natural deaths" some would have died peacefully and others

as a result of the war.[4]

Total Soviet losses by demographic balance (1941–45) per (ADK)

Population in June 1941 196,700,000

Births during war 12,300,000

Death by natural causes during war of those alive

before war(11,900,000)

War related deaths of those alive before war (25,300,000)

War related deaths of those born during war (1,300,000)

Total population Jan. 1, 1946 170,500,000

Source:E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski and T. L. Kharkova (ADK) Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993,

Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Population dynamics: consequences of regular and irregular changes. in Demographic

Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union Before 1991. Routledge. 1993. ISBN 0415101948

Notes:

1­Births and natural deaths during war are rough estimates since no accurate records were kept for vital statistics.

2­Figures do not include an estimated 20 million children that were not born during war.

3­According to Michael Haynes at this time the actual total number of deaths caused by the war is unknown since among the

deaths by natural causes some would have died peacefully and others as a result of the war.[4]

3­ ADK points out that the beginning population in 1941 and at the ending population at 1/1/1946 are rough estimates since

figures for the territories annexed in 1939­1940 and emigration from the USSR during the war are based fragmentary

information.

Total War Deaths by Age Group and Gender

AgeGroup

Mid1941–Males

(millions)

1941–45MaleWar

Deaths(millions)

 %Age

Group

Mid1941–

Females(millions)

1941–45Female

WarDeaths

(millions)

 %Age

Group

Mid 1941–Total

Population(millions)

1941–45TotalWar

Deaths(millions)

 %Age

Group

Excess MaleDeaths(Millions)

0­14 27.879 1.425 5.1% 27.984 1.398 5.0% 55.863 2.823 5.1% .027

15­19 11.092 1.064 9.6% 11.220 0.340 3.0% 22.312 1.404 6.3% .723

20­34 24.948 9.005 36.1% 26.330 2.663 10.1% 51.278 11.668 22.8% 6.342

35­49 18.497 6.139 33.2% 20.236 781 3.9% 38.733 6.920 17.9% 5.358

Over 49 11.999 2.418 20.2% 16.976 1.380 8.1% 28.975 3.798 13.1% 1.038

All AgeGroups

94.415 20.051 21.2% 102.746 6.562 6.4% 197.161 26.613 13.5% 13.489

Source:Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 978­5­02­013479­9 Page 78(Population of the Soviet Union 1922­1991 Russian Academy of Science), Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Populationdynamics: consequences of regular and irregular changes. in Demographic Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union Before1991. Routledge. 1993. ISBN 0415101948

Remarks:

Age Group 0­14­ The deaths of 2.8 million children was due primarily to the famine and disease caused by the war.

Age Group 15­19 The excess deaths of 724,000 males compared to females was due primarily to military losses. The draft agein the USSR was 18 during the war.

Age Group 20­34 The excess deaths of 6,342,000 males compared to females was due primarily to military losses. The deaths of2,663,000 women is an indication that women were also involved in the partisan war and became victims of Nazi reprisals.

Age Group 35­49 The excess deaths of 5,358,000 males compared to females was due primarily to military losses.

Age Group over 49 The excess deaths of 1,038,000 males compared to females was due primarily to military losses. Some menfrom the older age group did serve in the Armed Forces. They were involved in the partisan war and became victims of Nazireprisals.

All Age Groups­ The excess deaths of 13,489,000 males compared to females was due primarily to military losses with theregular forces as well the partisan forces. The figures are a clear indication that many Soviet civilians died in the war as a resultof Nazi reprisals as well as famine and disease caused by wartime shortages which took a large toll.

B. Analysis of the voters lists in 1946 Soviet election

Andreev, Darski and Kharkova (ADK) published a study, The Demographic History of Russia 1927–1959, which analyzed thevoters in the February 1946 Soviet election in order to estimate the surviving population over the age of 18 at the end of thewar. The population under 18 was estimated based on the results of the 1959 census. The official total for the 1946 electionlisted 101.7 million registered voters, the actual number of voters was 94.0 million, 7.7 million less than the expected figure.(ADK) maintains that the official results of the 1946 election are not an accurate source for the determination of thepopulation. According to (ADK) the actual total of expected voters should be increased by 10.5 million because the roll ofvoters excluded persons deprived of their rights, in prison or in exile, (ADK) maintains that many young men in military servicedid not participate in the election, they also noted that there was an overestimation of women in rural areas without internalpassports who sought to avoid compulsory heavy labor. Included in the actual number of voters of 94.0 million persons thereare 29.9 million more women,however in the total of expected voters estimated by (ADK) the gap between males andfemales is 21.4 million, which correlates with 20.7 million gap revealed by the census of 1959. The prewar population of 1939(including the annexed territories) had a gap of 7.9 million more females, the analysis of the 1946 voters lists by (ADK) indicatesthat the gap had increased by about 13.5 million.[82][83]

Alternative sources of demographic losses

According to the Russian demographer L. L. Rybakovsky there are a wide range of estimates for total war dead by Russianscholars. He estimated the actual population in 1941 at 196.7 million and losses at 27­28 million. Rybakovsky cites figures of totalwar dead that range from 21.7 million up to 46 million. Rybakovsky points out that the variables that are used to computelosses are by no means certain and are currently disputed by historians in Russia. Estimates for the population in mid 1941range from 191.8 million up to 200.1 million; the figures for the surviving population at the end of 1945 range from 167.0 millionup to 170.6 million. Based on the birth rate prior to the war there is a population shortfall of about 20 million births in 1946, some

would have been born but died during the war and the balance were never born. The figures for the number of children bornduring the war who did not survive as well as those unborn are rough estimates. Estimates for the population of the territoriesannexed by the Soviet Union in 1939­45 range from 17 to 23 million persons. [84]

L. L. Rybakovsky has provided a list of the various estimates of Soviet war losses by Russian scholars since 1988.[84]

Estimates of the casualties of the Soviet Union in World War II

Author of Estimate Total war dead

A. Kvasha (1988) 26­27 million

A. Samsonov (1988) 26­27 million

Yu. Polyakov (1989) 26­27 million

L.L. Rybakovsky (1989) 27­28 million

I. Kurganov (1990) 44 million

S. Ivanov (1990) 46 million

E. M. Andreev (1990) 26.6 million (A.)

A. Samsonov (1991) 26­27 million

A. Shevyakov (1991) 27.7 million

A. Shevyakov (1992) 29.5 million

V. Eliseev, S. Mikhalev (1992) 21.8 million

A. Sokolov (1995) 21.7­23.7 million

Boris Sokolov (1998) 43.3 million

A. Currently the figure used by Russian government sources.

Estimated losses of each Soviet Republic

Estimates by former republics of the Soviet Union

The contemporary nations that were part of the former Soviet Union dispute the official military casualties published byKrivosheev and are proud of their sacrifices as being the dearest contribution to the common victory. In a live broadcast ofDecember 16, 2010 "A Conversation with Vladimir Putin" the then Prime Minister of Russia maintained that the RussianFederation had suffered the greatest losses in World War II — 70 per cent of the total.[85] Official estimates by the formerrepublics of the USSR claim military casualties exceeding those of Krivosheev's report by 3.5 times. It is claimed by the websitesovsekretno.ru that there are no Memory Books published in the USSR, Russia and the other contemporary republics in 80s and90s listing casualties of 25 per cent of the draft or less, but there are many Memory Books with 50 per cent and more with sometelling us of 70, 75, 76 and up to 79 per cent mortality rate among the conscripted.[86]

(A) The Ukrainian authorities and historians ardently dispute these figures. They put the military casualties alone may beestimated as exceeding 7 million, according to the final volume of the Ukrainian Book "In the memory of posterity" andresearch of V. E. Korol, writes an American (former Soviet) Doctor of History Vilen Lyulechnik.[87] Former President of UkraineVictor Yanukovych maintains that Ukraine has lost more than 10 million lives during the Second World War.[88] The militarycasualties alone may be estimated as exceeding 7 million, according to the final volume of the Ukrainian Book "In the memoryof posterity" and research of V. E. Korol, writes an American (former Soviet) Doctor of History Vilen Lyulechnik.[87]

(B) According to a Belorussian military historian, Doctor of History, professor V.Lemeshonok, the Belorussian military casualties,including partisans and underground group members, exceed 682,291.[89]

(C) The Memory Book of Tatarstan Government contains names of about 350,000 inhabitants of the republic, mostly tatars.[90]

(D) An Israeli historian Itskhak Arad maintains that about 200,000 Soviet Jews or 40 per cent of all draft were killed in battles orcaptivity — the highest percentage of all nations of the USSR.[91]

(E) Kazakhstan estimates its military casualties at 601,029.[92]

(F) Armenians estimate their military casualties at over 300,000.[93]

(G) Georgians also estimate their military casualties at over 300,000.[94]

(I) Among the others Azerbaidzhans claim military casualties of 300,000,[95] Bashkirs of about 300,000,[96] Mordvas of 130,000and Chuvashes of 106,470.[92] But one of the most tragic figures comes from a Far Eastern republic of Yakutia and its smallnation. 37,965 citizens, mostly Yakuts, or 60.74 per cent of 62,509 drafted have not returned home with 7,000 regarded missing.About 69,000 died of severe famine in the republic. This nation could not restore its population even under 1959census.[97][98][99] The record breaking estimates of 700,000 military casualties out of a total 1,25 million Turkmenian citizens (withslightly less than 60 per cent being Turkmens) are attributed to the late President of Turkmenistan Saparmurat Niyazov.Historians do not regard them trustworthy.[100]

The casualties of each Soviet Republic estimated by Vadim Erlikman

Erlikman pegs total war deaths at 10.7 million, exceeding Krivosheev's 8.7 million by an extra two million. This extra two millionwould presumably include Soviet POWs that died in Nazi captivity, partisans, and those who fought on the side of the Axis (forexample, Moldova was a part of Romania at the time).

Soviet Republic Population 1940 Military Dead Civilian Dead Total Deaths as % 1940 Pop.

Armenia 1,320,000 150,000 30,000 180,000 13.6%

Azerbaijan 3,270,000 210,000 90,000 300,000 9.1%

Belarus 9,050,000 620,000 1,670,000 2,290,000 25.3%

Estonia 1,050,000 30,000 50,000 80,000 7.6%

Georgia 3,610,000 190,000 110,000 300,000 8.3%

Kazakhstan 6,150,000 310,000 350,000 660,000 10.7%

Kyrgyzstan 1,530,000 70,000 50,000 120,000 7.8%

Latvia 1,890,000 30,000 230,000 260,000 13.7%

Lithuania 2,930,000 25,000 350,000 375,000 12.7%

Moldova 2,470,000 50,000 120,000 170,000 6.9%

Russia 110,100,000 6,750,000 7,200,000 13,950,000 12.7% (A)

Tajikistan 1,530,000 50,000 70,000 120,000 7.8%

Turkmenistan 1,300,000 70,000 30,000 100,000 7.7%

Uzbekistan 6,550,000 330,000 220,000 550,000 8.4%

Ukraine 41,340,000 1,650,000 5,200,000 6,850,000 16.3% (B)

Unidentified ­ 165,000 130,000 295,000

Total USSR 194,090,000 10,700,000 15,900,000 26,600,000 13.7%

The source of the figures on the table is Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik. Moscow 2004.ISBN 5­93165­107­1 pp. 23–35 Erlikman notes that these figures are his estimates. This table includes civilian losses inTranscaucasian and Central Asian republics due to famine and disease caused by wartime shortfalls estimated by VadimErlikman.

OBD Memorial database of Soviet war dead

The names of Soviet war dead are presented at the OBD (Central Data Bank) Memorial database online.[101]

Tomb of the unknownsoldier in Voronezh

Causes

The Red Army suffered catastrophic losses of men and equipment during the first months of the German invasion.,[11][102] Inthe spring of 1941 Stalin ignored the warnings of his intelligence services of a planned German invasion and refused to put theArmed forces on alert. The bulk of the Soviet combat units were deployed in the border regions in a lower state of readiness. Inthe face of the German onslaught the Soviet forces were caught by surprise. Large numbers of Soviet soldiers were captured

Soviet prisoners of warheld in German camp

Citizens of Leningradleaving their housesdestroyed by Germanbombing

and many perished due to the brutal mistreatment of POWs by the Nazis[103] U.S. Army historiansmaintain the high Soviet losses can be attributed to 'less efficient medical services and the Soviettactics, which throughout the war tended to be expensive in terms of human life"[104]

Russian scholars attribute the high civilian death toll to the Nazi Generalplan Ost which treated theSoviet people as "subhumans", they use the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination"when referring to civilian losses in the occupied USSR.[105] German occupation policies implementedunder the Hunger Plan resulted in the confiscation of food stocks which resulted in famine in theoccupied regions. During the Soviet era the partisan campaign behind the lines was portrayed as thestruggle of the local population against the German occupation.[106] To suppress the partisan unitsthe Nazi occupation forces engaged in a campaign of brutal reprisals against innocent civilians.Historian Albert Seaton maintains that the Soviet government's " disregard for life and its contempt forany form of humanity and decency was one of the decisive factors in recruiting and control of thepartisan movement". According to Seaton the local population was coerced by the Soviet ledpartisans to support their campaign which led to the reprisals.[107] The extensive fighting destroyedagricultural land, infrastructure, and whole towns, leaving much of the population homeless andwithout food. During the war Soviet civilians were taken to Germany as forced laborers underinhuman conditions.[108][109]

The estimates and their sources

Estimates for Soviet losses in the Second World War range from 7 million to over 43 million.[110] During the Communist era in theSoviet Union historical writing about World War II was subject to censorship and only official approved statistical data waspublished. In the USSR during the Glasnost period under Gorbachev and in post communist Russia the casualties in World War IIwere re­evaluated and the official figures revised.

Official Soviet era estimates made 1946 to 1987

Joseph Stalin in March 1946 stated that Soviet war losses were 7 million dead. This was to be the official figure until theKhrushchev era.[81] In November 1961 Nikita Khrushchev stated that Soviet war losses were 20 million, this was to be the officialfigure until the Gorbachev era of Glasnost.[81][111] Leonid Brezhnev in 1965 put the Soviet death toll in the war at “more than 20million”[112] Ivan Konev at in a May 1965 Soviet Ministry of Defense press conference stated that Soviet military dead in WorldWar II were 10 million.[113] In 1971 the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis put losses at 20 million including 6,074,000 civilians and3,912,000 prisoners of war killed by Nazi Germany, military dead were put at 10 million[114]

Period of Glasnost 1988 to 1992

During the period of Glasnost the official figure of 20 million war dead was challenged by Soviet scholars. In 1988­1989estimates of 26 to 28 million total war dead appeared in the Soviet press.[110] The Russian scholar Dmitri Volkogonov writing atthis time estimated total war deaths at 26­27,000,000 including 10,000,000 in the military[115] In March 1989 Mikhail Gorbachevset up a committee to investigate Soviet losses in the war. In a May 1990 speech Gorbachev gave the figure for total Sovietlosses at "almost 27 million". This revised figure was the result of research by the committee set up by Gorbachev thatestimated total war dead at between 26 and 27 million.[81] In January 1990 M.A. Moiseev Chief of the General Staff of theSoviet Armed Forces disclosed for the first time in an interview that Soviet military war dead totaled 8,668,400.[116]

From 1942­1946 the Soviet Extraordinary State Commission collected information on Nazi crimes in the USSR. The reports of theCommission detailing the number of civilian deaths were kept secret until the collapse of the USSR. In 1991 the Russian scholarA.A. Shevyakov published an article with summary of civilian losses based on the reports of this commission, civilian dead weregiven as 17.7 million[117] In a second article in 1992 A.A. Shevyakov gave a figure of 20.8 million[118] civilian dead, noexplanation for the difference was given.[81][119][120]

Figures released in Russia 1993–95

In 1993 the Russian Ministry of Defense published a study by Krivosheev that gave a detailed accounting of Soviet militarylosses for the campaigns in the war, total Soviet military dead and missing were put at 8,668,400. These figures were based onan official report of the Soviet General Staff from 1966­1968 that was previously classified secret.[16][17] A report published bythe Russian Academy of Science in 1993 estimated that the total Soviet population losses were 26.6 million. This is a currentofficial figure for total losses in the war.[1][81] In 1995 the Russian Academy of Science published an article that analyzed Sovietcivilian losses in the war. They estimated civilian deaths in the German occupied USSR at 13.7 million, which includes 7.4 million

victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 2.2 million deaths of persons deported to Germany for forced labor; and 4.1 millionfamine and disease deaths in occupied territory. They also estimated an additional 3 million deaths due to famine anddisease in the regions not occupied by Germany[121]

Estimates by Russians published in the West 1950–83

In 1949 a Soviet Colonel Kalinov defected to the west, he published a book claiming that Soviet records indicated the militaryloss of 13.6 million men including 2.6 million POW dead.[122][123][124] Sergei Maksudov a Russian demographer living in the westestimated Soviet war losses at between 24.5 and 27.4 million, including 7.5 million military dead.[81][125][126] The Sovietmathematician Iosif G. Dyadkin published a study in the United States that estimated the total Soviet population losses from1939–1945 due to the war and political repression at 30 million. Dyadkin was imprisoned for publishing this study in the west.[127]

Estimates of Soviet war dead by Western scholars

Historians writing outside of the Soviet Union and Russia have evaluated the various Russian language sources and haveoffered their estimates of Soviet war dead. Here is a listing of estimates by recognized scholars published in the West.

Source Military Dead Civilian Dead Total Dead

Frank Lorimer(1946),[128][129] 5,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000

Pierre George (1946)[130] 7,000,000 10,000,000 17,000,000

N. S. Timasheff(1948),[131] 7,000,000 18,300,000 25,300,000

Helmut Arntz (1953)[132][133] 13,600,000 7,000,000 20,000,000+

Jean­Noël Biraben(1958)[134] 8,000,000 6,700,000 14,700,000

Warren W. Eason(1959)[135][136] 10,000,000 15,000,000 25,000,000

E. Ziemke(1968)[104]more than 12,000,000

Albert Seaton(1971)[137] 10,000,000

Gil Elliot (1972)[138] 10,000,000 10,000,000 20,000,000

Charles Messenger(1989)[139] 20,000,000

John Keegan(1989)[140] 7,000,000 7,000,000 14,000,000

R. J. Rummel (1990)[141] 7,000,000 12,250,00019,625,000 plus 10,000,000 due to Sovietrepression

John Ellis(1993)[142] 11,000,000 6,700,000 17,700,000

Michael Ellman and SergeiMaksudov(1994) [81]

8,700,000 18,000,000 26­27,000,000

Norman Davies(1998)[143] 8­9,000,000 16­19,000,000 24­28,000,000

Richard Overy(1997)[144] 8,668,400 17,000,000 25,000,000

Mark Mazower(1998)[145] 9,500,000 10,000,000 19,500,000

David Wallechinsky(1995)[146] 13,600,000 20­26,000,000

Michael Clodfelter (2002)[147] 8,668,400 20­26,000,000

Michael Haynes (2003) [148] 8,700,000 17,900,000 26,600,000

Martin Gilbert(2004)[149]10,000,000 KIA& 3,300,000 POW

7,000,000 20,000,000+

H. P. Willmott (2004)[150] 8,700,000 16,900,000 25,600,000

Tony Judt (2005)[151] 8,600,000 16,000,000 24,600,000

Norman Davies(2006)[152] 8,668,000 18,332,000 27,000,000

Cambridge History ofRussia(2006)[153]

8.7 million +

13.7 million in Nazioccupied USSR and 2.6 million in interiorUSSR

24­26 million

Steven Rosefielde(2010)[154]8,700,000 "allcauses"

"17.7 or 20.3 million""26.4 to 29 million" plus 5.458 million dead due toSoviet repression

David Glantz maintains that “ the war with Nazi Germany cost the Soviet Union at least 29 million military casualties”(dead,wounded and sick) “ The exact numbers can never be established, and some revisionists have attempted to put thenumber as high as 50 million”[155]

Richard Overy believes the figures for military dead published in 1993... give the fullest account yet available, but theyomit three operations that were clear failures. The official figures themselves must be viewed critically, given the difficultyof knowing in the chaos of 1941 and 1942 exactly who had been killed, wounded or even conscripted"[156] Regardingmilitary dead Richard Overy believes that "for the present the figure of 8.6 million must be regarded as the mostreliable"[157]

Norman Davies points out that not all Soviet war dead were killed by the Nazis; many perished due to Soviet repression.Davies notes It lies in the nature of the problem that the victims of Soviet wartime repressions cannot be easily quantified.The records of the victorious Soviets, unlike those of the defeated Nazis have never been opened for scrutiny. Whether thefraction of Soviet civilians who perished at the hands of their own régime was one quarter, one third or even one half ofthe whole will never be firmly established until the Soviet government itself comes clean.[158]

The authors of the Cambridge History of Russia have provided an analysis of Soviet wartime casualties. Overall losses wereabout 25 million persons plus or minus 1 million. Red Army records indicate 8.7 million military deaths, “this figure is actually

the lower limit”. The official figures understate POW losses and armed partisan deaths. Excess civilian deaths in the Nazioccupied USSR were 13.7 million persons including 2 million Jews. There were an additional 2.6 million deaths in the interiorregions of the Soviet Union. The authors maintain “scope for error in this number is very wide”. At least 1 million perished inthe wartime GULAG camps or in deportations. Other deaths occurred in the wartime evacuations and due to war relatedmalnutrition and disease in the interior. The authors maintain that both Stalin and Hitler “were both responsible but indifferent ways” for these deaths. The authors of the Cambridge History of Russia believe that “In short the general picture of Soviet wartime losses suggests ajigsaw puzzle. The general outline is clear: people died in colossal numbers but in many different miserable and terriblecircumstances. But individual pieces of the puzzle do not fit well; some overlap and others are yet to be found"[159]

Steven Rosefielde puts the war related demographic losses of the USSR from 1941 ­45 at 22.0 to 26.0 million persons (7.8million military and 14.2 to 18.2 million civilians). The actual wartime losses are higher because some persons who wouldhave died peacefully actually perished as a result of the war. Rosefielde estimated the actual military dead at 8.7 millionmen and 17.7 to 20.3 million civilians killed by the Nazis in the war­ (exterminated, shot, gassed burned 6.4 or 11.3 million;famine and disease 8.5 or 6.5 million; forced laborer in Germany 2.8 or 3.0 million and 500,000 who did not return to USSRafter war.) [160] In addition to these war deaths Rosefielde also estimated the excess deaths attributed to the “totalpotential crimes against humanity” due to Soviet repression at 2.183 million persons in 1939­40 and 5.458 million from 1941­1945. The figures for losses due to Soviet repression do not include 1 million military deaths of men drafted from the Gulaginto penal suicide battalions.[161]

Sources

(English)

G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Population dynamics: consequences of regular and irregular changes. inDemographic Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union Before 1991. Routledge. 1993. ISBN 0415101948Michael Haynes, Counting Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: a Note Europe Asia Studies Vol.55, No. 2, 2003, 300–309Michael Ellman and S. Maksudov, Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War:a note­World War II­ Europe Asia Studies, July1994 (http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM­War_Deaths.pdf)Boris SokolovThe cost of war: Human losses for the USSR and Germany, 1939­1945 The Journal of Slavic Military StudiesVolume 9, Issue 1 March 1996Boris Urlanis, Populations and Wars Progress Moscow 1971Iosif G. Dyadkin, Unnatural Deaths in the Ussr, 1928­1954 Transaction 1983S. A. Il'Enkov Concerning the registration of Soviet armed forces' wartime irrevocable losses, 1941­1945 The Journal of SlavicMilitary Studies Volume 9, Issue 2 June 1996

(Russian)

G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001ISBN 5­224­01515­4 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)S. N Mikhalev Liudskie poteri v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine 1941­ 1945 gg: Statisticheskoe issledovanie Krasnoiarskii gos.pedagog. universitet • 2000 ISBN 978­5­85981­082­6. Mikhalev's book is available in libraries in the U.S. and the UKРоссийская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей(Human Losses of the USSR in the Period of World War II: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 978­5­02­013479­9Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Population dynamics: consequences of regular and irregular changes. inDemographic Trends and Patterns in the Soviet Union Before 1991. Routledge. 1993. ISBN 0415101948A. A. Shevyakov “Gitlerovski genotsid na territoriyakh SSR.” Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 12, 1991(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/719/825/1219/01Shevyakov.pdf) This article by a researcher at the Russian Academyof Science is a brief summary of the work of the Soviet Extraordinary State Commission.A. A. Shevyakov “Zhertvy sredi mirnogo nasseleniya v gody otechestvennoi voiny” Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 11, 1992(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/068/084/1217/001.SHEVIAKOV.pdf) This article by a researcher at the RussianAcademy of Science gives a detailed breakdown by locality of civilian losses in the occupied USSR based on the reportsof the Soviet Extraordinary State Commission.L L Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 6.(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/419/925/1216/014.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)L L Rybakovsky The Great Patriotic War Russian Human Losses (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2001. № 6.(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/267/764/1217/013Rybakovskij.pdf)Л.Л. РЫБАКОВСКИЙЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ СССР В ВЕЛИКОЙ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ВОЙНЕ LL Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSRin the Great Patriotic War In Russian Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 8.(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/200/357/1216/012.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)Б.В. Соколов ЦЕНА ВОЙНЫ:ЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ СССР И ГЕРМАНИИ, 1939­1945 Boris Sokolov, Truth about the Great PatrioticWar 1998 ( In Russian) (http://www.infran.ru/vovenko/60years_ww2/demogr8_3.htm) Russian translation of the article thatappeared in the Journal of Slavic Military Studies # 3 1996.

S. A. Il’enkov Pamyat O Millionach Pavshik Zaschitnikov Otechestva Nelzya Predavat Zabveniu Voennno­Istoricheskii Arkhiv

No. 7(22), Central Military Archives of the Russian Federation 2001, pp. 73–80 ISBN 978­5­89710­005­7,The Memory of those

who Fell Defending the Fatherland Cannot be Condemned to Oblivion In Russian ­Available at the New York Public Library

See also

Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs

Soviet historiography

Soviet women in World War II

References

1. Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 978­5­02­013479­92. Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Population dynamics: consequences of regular and irregular changes. in Demographic Trends and

Patterns in the Soviet Union Before 1991. Routledge. 1993. ISBN 04151019483. Michael Ellman and S. Maksudov, Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War:a note­World War II­ Europe Asia Studies, July 1994 Page 677

(http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM­War_Deaths.pdf)4. Michael Haynes, Counting Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: a Note Europe Asia Studies Vol.55, No. 2, 2003, 300–3095. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Page 796. S. A. Il'enkov Pamyat o millionah pavshih zaschitnikov Otechestva nelzya predavat' zabveniyu, Voenno­Istoricheskii Arkhiv No. 7(22),

Central Military Archives of the Russian Federation, 2001, pp. 73–80. ISBN 978­5­89710­005­7. (Translation of the Russian title: The Memoryof Those Who Fell Defending the Fatherland Cannot Be Condemned to Oblivion.)

7. S. A. Il'Enkov Concerning the registration of Soviet armed forces' wartime irrevocable losses, 1941­1945 The Journal of Slavic MilitaryStudies Volume 9, Issue 2 June 1996

8. The Price of Victory: Myths and reality, V.E. Korol, Journal of Slavic Military Studies Vol. 9 No. 2 (June 1996) pp 417­4239. Boris Sokolov The cost of war: Human losses for the USSR and Germany, 1939­1945 The Journal of Slavic Military Studies Volume 9, Issue 1

March 1996,10. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­411. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)12. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Table 111 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)13. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Tables 111 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)14. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85­86 Includes 12,031 dead and

missing and 24,425 in the Invasion of Manchuria15. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Tables 121 &123 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)16. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Table 120 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)17. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Page 8518. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Page 23619. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 Pages 233­234 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­420. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Table 176 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)21. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 85­8622. «Россия и СССР в войнах ХХ века: Потери Вооруженных Сил»,М., ОЛМА­ПРЕСС, 2001, стр. 511, ISBN 5­224­01515­423. Г.Ф.КРИВОШЕЕВ, НЕКОТОРЫЕ НОВЫЕ ДАННЫЕ АНАЛИЗА СИЛ И ПОТЕРЬ НА СОВЕТСКО­ГЕРМАНСКОМ ФРОНТЕ, Мир истории 1999 Nr

1­ так как в конце войны в лагерях для военнопленных было зарегистрировано 2 016 тыс. человек, из них вернулось 1 836 тыс. человек, а 180 тыс. невернулось (http://www.historia.ru/1999/02/krivosheyev02.htm) G. Krivosheev, Some new data analysis on forces and losses on the SovietGerman front in Mir Istorii 1999­1

24. Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (p. 290) – "2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly bystarvation ... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs ... was stopped" and the Germans "began touse them as laborers".

25. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Page 8726. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Table 121 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)27. R. J. Rummel. Democide Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder. Transaction 1992 ISBN 1­56000­004­X. Table A28. "Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2011­06­15.29. Erlikhman, Vadim. Потери народонаселения в XX веке: справочник (Population Losses in the 20th century: Reference). Moscow, 2004. ISBN

978­5­93165­107­130. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Pages 230­23831. Il'enkov, S. A. "Concerning the registration of Soviet armed forces' wartime irrevocable losses, 1941­1945." The Journal of Slavic Military

Studies. Volume 9, Issue 2, June 1996.32. Лев Лопуховский, Борис Кавалерчик, "Когда мы узнаем реальную цену разгрома гитлеровской Германии? (Lev Lopukhovsky, Boris Kavalerchik,

When shall we Learn Real Price of VG?) http://podelise.ru/docs/89408/index­221.html?page=7

33. Christian Streit: Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die Sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941­1945, Bonn: Dietz (3. Aufl., 1. Aufl.1978), ISBN 3­8012­5016­4 ­ "Between 22 June 1941 and the end of the war, roughly 5.7 million members of the Red Army fell into Germanhands. In January 1945, 930,000 were still in German camps. A million at most had been released, most of whom were so­called"volunteers" (Hilfswillige) for (often compulsory) auxiliary service in the Wehrmacht. Another 500,000, as estimated by the Army HighCommand, had either fled or been liberated. The remaining 3,300,000 (57.5 percent of the total) had perished."

34. Игорь Ивлев, "А в ответ тишина ­ он вчера не вернулся из боя!". Часть 9. Определение численности военнослужащих ВС СССР, попавших в плен ипогибших в плену, http://www.soldat.ru/news/933.html(В итоге мы получаем следующие данные об общем количестве граждан призывныхвозрастов СССР, попавших в распоряжение органов по делам военнопленных Германии и её союзников:а) погибло в плену ­ около 5363020 чел.; б)вернулось из плена ­ 1836562 чел.;в) остались "невозвращенцами" на Западе после плена ­ около 250000 чел.; г) всего попало в плен ­ около 7449582чел.)

35. Лев Лопуховский, Борис Кавалерчик, "Когда мы узнаем реальную цену разгрома гитлеровской Германии? (Lev Lopukhovsky, Boris Kavalerchik,When shall we Learn Real Price of VG?) http://podelise.ru/docs/89408/index­221.html?page=7

36. Obituary of S N Mikhalev (http://www.andjusev.narod.ru/a/Michalev.htm)37. Великая Отечественная: демографические и военно­оперативные потери // Людские потери СССР в Великой Отечественной войне: Сб.ст. ­ СПб., 1995.

­ 1,0 п. л. The Russian Academy of Science published the details of his analysis of total population losses here38. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4 Page 85­9139. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Tables 120 and 132 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)40. S. N Mikhalev Liudskie poteri v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine 1941­ 1945 gg: Statisticheskoe issledovanie Krasnoiarskii gos. pedagog.

universitet • 2000 ISBN 978­5­85981­082­6. Pages 18­21. S. N Mikhalev Human Losses in the Great Patriotic War 1941­1945 A StatisticalInvestigation Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (In Russian)

41. S. A. Il’enkov Pamyat O Millionach Pavshik Zaschitnikov Otechestva Nelzya Predavat Zabveniu Voennno­Istoricheskii Arkhiv No. 7(22),Central Military Archives of the Russian Federation 2001, pp. 73­80 ISBN 978­5­89710­005­7,( The Memory of those who Fell Defending the

Fatherland Cannot be Condemned to Oblivion In Russian ­Available at the New York Public Library42. Лев Лопуховский. К вопросу о достоверности официальных данных о безвозвратных потерях в Великой Отечественной войне

(http://www.zhitipomnit.ru/publik/p13.html). // «Военно­исторический архив» № 11(142), ноябрь 2011 г.43. «Вокруг Света» / Июнь 2011 / the Vokroug Sveta monthly magazine of June 2011 "Ушли под дерн" (Military Archaeology)

http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/article/7441/44. including 7.4 million killed; 2.54 million POWs; 400,000 non combat dead and 380,000 executed by Soviets45. Mark Solonin Fire in the Storehouse (http://www.solonin.org/en/article_fire­in­the­storehouse)46. Viktor Zemskov, The extent of human losses USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Russian) Democcope.ru

(http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0559/analit01.php)47. Viktor Zemskov, The extent of human losses USSR in the Great Patriotic War in Military History Archive (In Russian) журнале "Военно­

исторический архив", 2012, №9, с. 59­7148. Ivlev, Polyhovskii, Zmeskov and Pyhalov, "Washed in Blood"? Lies and Truth on Losses in Great Patriotic War" Yaouza—Aexmo Publishing

House 2012. Игорь Пыхалов, Лев Лопуховский, Виктор Земсков, Игорь Ивлев, Борис Кавалерчик, "Умылись кровью"? Ложь и правда о потерях вВеликой Отечественной войне" [1] (http://www.soldat.ru/news/937.html)

49. (Опубликовано в журнале "Военно­исторический архив", 2012, №9, с. 41­58) (http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0559/analit02.php)50. Лев Лопуховский, Борис Кавалерчик, "Когда мы узнаем реальную цену разгрома гитлеровской Германии?" http://podelise.ru/docs/89408/index­

221.html51. Лев Лопуховский, Борис Кавалерчик, "Когда мы узнаем реальную цену разгрома гитлеровской Германии? (Lev Lopukhovsky, Boris Kavalerchik,

When shall we Learn Real Price of VG?) http://podelise.ru/docs/89408/index­221.html?page=352. Великая Отечественная война, 1941­1945; События. Люди. Документы: Краткий исторический справочник. – М.: Политиздат, 1990, ­ С. 76.

http://poteri­sssr.livejournal.com/16158.html53. Лев Лопуховский, Борис Кавалерчик, "Когда мы узнаем реальную цену разгрома гитлеровской Германии? (Lev Lopukhovsky, Boris Kavalerchik,

When shall we Learn Real Price of VG?) http://podelise.ru/docs/89408/index­221.html?page=554. Великая Отечественная война, 1941­1945; События. Люди. Документы: Краткий исторический справочник. – М.: Политиздат, 1990, ­ с. 76,

http://poteri­sssr.livejournal.com/16158.html#cutid155. НЕКОТОРЫЕ НОВЫЕ ДАННЫЕ АНАЛИЗА СИЛ И ПОТЕРЬ НА СОВЕТСКО­ГЕРМАНСКОМ ФРОНТЕ (Доклад на заседании Ассоциации

историков Второй мировой войны 29.12.1998 г.) http://www.conservator.ru/forums/telegraf/posts/724.html.56. Киселева Е. "Документы о гибели советских военнопленных в фонде "Чрезвычайной Государственной комиссии по установлению и расследованию

злодеяний немецко­фашистских захватчиков", статьи и доклады международной конференции в Дрездене, 06­07.07.2010, сайт http://www.dokst.de;также газета "Правда" от 24.03.69 "Забвению не подлежит"

57. Соколов Б.В. Правда о Великой Отечественной войне. СПб., 1998. B. Sokolov, Truth about the Great Patriotic War In Russian58. Соколов Б.В. Правда о Великой Отечественной войне. СПб., 1998. (B. Sokolov, Truth about the Great Patriotic War In Russian59. Л.Л. РЫБАКОВСКИЙЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ СССР В ВЕЛИКОЙ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ВОЙНЕ LL Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great

Patriotic War In Russian Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 8. P. 89(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/200/357/1216/012.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)

60. The Price of Victory: Myths and reality, V.E. Korol, Journal of Slavic Military Studies Vol. 9 No. 2 (June 1996) pp 42361. Letter to editor by A.N. Mertsalov Voprosy in Istorii(Questions of History) nr 2/3 1991 p. 25062. L L Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 6.

(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/419/925/1216/014.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf) pp.110­11163. Andreev, E.M., et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 978­5­02­013479­9 Page 7864. Г.Ф. КРИВОШЕЕВ, «Историк должен ЛИКОВАТЬ и ГОРЕВАТЬ со своим народом ВОЕННО­ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ №11 2002 G. I.

Krivosheev “Historians Should Triumph and Grieve with their People, Military History Journal Nr. 11 200265. Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt­Peterburg 1995 ISBN 978­5­86789­023­

0 M. V. Philimoshin of the War Ministry of the Russian Federation About the results of calculation of losses among civilian population of

the USSR and Russian Federation 1941­1945 Pages 124­131 In Russian (These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR in 1941, includingterritories annexed in 1939–40).

66. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей ­Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles. Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 Page 12667. G. I. Krivosheev Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil ; statisticheskoe issledovanie OLMA­Press, 2001 ISBN 5­224­

01515­4 Tables 116­118 (http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939­1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w02.htm­186)68. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: рник стсбоатей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­069. Perrie, Maureen (2006), The Cambridge History of Russia: The twentieth century, Cambridge University Press, p. 226, ISBN 0­521­81144­9

Total civilian deaths under the German occupation were 13.7 million including 2 million Jews70. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: рник стсбоатей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 Pages 124­131 The RussianAcademy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.

71. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: рник стсбоатей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 Pages 124­131 The RussianAcademy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war relatedfamine and disease.

72. Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt­Peterburg 1995 ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 M. V. Philimoshin of the War Ministry of the Russian Federation About the results of calculation of losses among civilian population of

the USSR and Russian Federation 1941­1945 Page 12773. Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. 1988. ISBN 978­0­688­12364­274. David M. Glantz, Siege of Leningrad 1941 1944 Cassell 2001 ISBN 978­1­4072­2132­875. Л.Л. РЫБАКОВСКИЙ ВЕЛИКАЯ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННАЯ ЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ РОССИИ L. L. Ryebakovsky Russia’s Human Losses in the Great

Patriotic War In Russian Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya 2001. № 6. Page 86(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/267/764/1217/013Rybakovskij.pdf)

76. Łuczak, Czesław. Szanse i trudnosci bilansu demograficznego Polski w latach 1939­1945. Dzieje Najnowsze Rocznik XXI. 1994. The losses inthe former Polish eastern regions are also included in Poland's total war dead of 5.6 to 5.8 million

77. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 Page158 deaths resultingfrom harsh conditions, like lack of food and medicine, on Soviet territory not occupied by the Germans were due to wartime shortages

78. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 Page174­177 deathsresulting from harsh conditions, like lack of food and medicine, on Soviet territory not occupied by the Germans were due to wartimeshortages

79. Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 978­5­02­013479­9 The 1952 Foreign Ministryfigures gave a total of 451,100 who return to the USSR after 1946, this figure did not include an additional 170.000 persons whoemigrated to Germany and Rumania

80. Mark Solonin, Мозгоимение. Фальшивая история Великой войны, Chapter 1381. Michael Ellman and S. Maksudov, Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War:a note­World War II­ Europe Asia Studies, July 1994

(http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM­War_Deaths.pdf)82. (1998) E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski and T. L. Kharkova (ADK) Demographic History of Russia 1927–1959 Chapter 7(in Russian [2]

(http://demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/andr_dars_khar/adk.html)83. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: рник стсбоатей (Human

Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 pp.36­4084. L L Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 6.

(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/419/925/1216/014.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)85. http://fablewar.ru/2011/11/vklad/86. Sovershenno Secretno (The Top Secret) Monthly has put together the highlights of republican and regional Memory Books in its article

"Жгучая память" (Burning Memory) of May 2, 2011. http://www.sovsekretno.ru/articles/id/2788/87. УКРАИНЦЫ В КРАСНОЙ АРМИИ http://www.rusamny.com/352/t03(352).htm88. В.Янукович: “Потери Украины в ВОВ превысили 10 млн. человек” http://top.rbc.ru/society/08/05/2011/588498.shtml89. Site of the Allied State (Информационно­аналитический портал Союзного государства), soyuz.by›ru/print.aspx?guid=13517590. http://rus.ruvr.ru/2013_05_07/V­Moskve­predstavili­Knigu­pamjati­respubliki­Tatarstan/91. “Soviet Jews in the War against Nazi Germany,” in Yad Vashem Studies (Hebrew), vol. 23 (1993), pp. 51–89.

http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/ru/pdf/yad_vashem_studies/arad_2.pdf92. http://www.sovsekretno.ru/articles/id/2788/93. http://www.golosarmenii.am/ru/20402/home/26665/94. http://viperson.ru/wind.php?ID=63450495. http://sovzem.mgimo.ru/news/council/186575.phtml96. http://bashmemorial.narod.ru/VOV.html97. A statement by President of Sakha Republic (Yakutia) E.Borisov of May 9, 2012 http://sakhapress.ru/archives/7308398. http://i.aldanlib.ru/portal/page0029.htm99. http://ilin­yakutsk.narod.ru/2010­12/34.htm

100. http://news.rambler.ru/14038068/101. OBD Memorial database (http://www.obd­memorial.ru)102. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 978­1­85367­280­4103. Richard Overy, Russia's War 1997104. Earl F. Ziemke, Stalingrad to Berlin, the German Defeat in the East;Office of the Chief of Military History U.S. Army 1968 pp 500105. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей (Human Losses

of the USSR in the Period of World War II: Collection of Articles). Saint­Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0106. Great patriotic war of the Soviet Union, 1941­1945 : a general outline ­ Moscow : Progress Publishers, [1974] pp. 456­60107. Albert Seaton, The Russo­German War 1941­45 Prager 1971 pp 221­222108. Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt­Peterburg 1995 ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0.

109. Crimes of the German Wehrmacht, Hamburg Institute for Social Research 2004 (http://www.verbrechen­der­wehrmacht.de/pdf/vdw_en.pdf)

110. LL Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War In Russian Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 6. P. 108­118(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/419/925/1216/014.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)

111. Л.Л. РЫБАКОВСКИЙЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ СССР В ВЕЛИКОЙ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ВОЙНЕ LL Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the GreatPatriotic War In Russian Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 8. P.90­91(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/200/357/1216/012.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf) The Russian researcher L L Rybakovsky assumes that thesource of Nikita Khrushchev’s figure of 20 million war dead was the 1957 Soviet translation,(Itogi vtoroj mirovoj vojny. Sbornik statej) of theWest German book Bilanz des Zweiten Weltkrieges Hamburg 1953

112. L L Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 6.(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/419/925/1216/014.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf)

113. Boris Urlanis, Populations and Wars Progress Moscow 1971 Page 132114. Boris Urlanis, Populations and Wars Progress Moscow 1971 Page 284115. Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and tragedy 1991116. Tsena Pobeda Voenno­istoricheskii zhurnal # 3 The Price of Victory –Military History Journal # 3 1990 Interview with M.A. Moiseev Chief of

the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces.117. 6.390 million exterminated; 2.8 million forced labor ; 8.5 million famine and disease голода и эпидемий in occupied regions118. 11.3 million exterminated ; 3.0 forced labor; 6.5 million famine and disease голода и эпидемий in occupied regions119. A. A. Shevyakov “Gitlerovski genotsid na territoriyakh SSR.” Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 12, 1991

(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/719/825/1219/01Shevyakov.pdf) This article by a researcher at the Russian Academy of Science isa brief summary of the work of the Soviet Extraordinary State Commission.

120. A. A. Shevyakov “Zherty sredi mirnogo nasseleniya v gody otechestvennoi voiny” Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 11, 1992(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/068/084/1217/001.SHEVIAKOV.pdf) This article by a researcher at the Russian Academy of Sciencegives a detailed breakdown by locality of civilian losses in the occupied USSR based on the reports of the Soviet Extraordinary StateCommission.

121. Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt­Peterburg 1995 ISBN 978­5­86789­023­0 M. V. Philimoshin of the War Ministry of the Russian Federation About the results of calculation of losses among civilian population ofthe USSR and Russian Federation 1941­1945Pages 124­131 In Russian (These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR in 1941, includingterritories annexed in 1939–40).

122. Kalinov, Cyrille­ Les maréchaux soviétiques vous parlent. Paris 1950123. Gregory, Frumkin. Population Changes in Europe Since 1939, Geneva 1951.124. S. N Mikhalev Liudskie poteri v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine 1941­ 1945 gg: Statisticheskoe issledovanie Krasnoiarskii gos. pedagog.

universitet • 2000 ISBN 978­5­85981­082­6. Page 36125. S. Maksudov, Pertes subies par la population de l'URSS, 1918­1958, Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique, XVIII, 3, July–September 1977126. S. Maksudov Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR 1918­1958 The Samizdat register II / edited by Roy Medvedev New York :

Norton, 1981.(English translation of Maksudov's 1977 article)127. Iosif G. Dyadkin, Unnatural Deaths in the Ussr, 1928­1954 Transaction 1983 ISBN 978­0­87855­919­0128. Frank Lorimer, The population of the Soviet Union: history and prospects, Geneva, League of Nations, 1946. Pages 181­183.129. Lormimer's hypothetical figures, not an estimate, put the total demographic loss at 20.0 million. 9.0 million civilians over age 5 and 6.0

million children under age 5 not born during the war or deaths due to an increase in infant mortality. The figure of 5.0 million militarydead was based on information available in early 1946 which was published in the USSR during the war. Lormier's figures are for the USSRin 1939 borders and does not include territories annexed in 1939­1940

130. Esquisse d'une étude démographique de l'Union soviétique Population(Paris) No.3 July–September 1946131. N. S. Timasheff: “The Post­war Population of the Soviet Union”The American Journal of Sociology, September 1948132. Bilanz des Zweiten Weltkrieges, Oldenburg­Hamburg, 1953. – Professor Dr. Helmut Arntz. Die Menschenverluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg133. Л.Л. РЫБАКОВСКИЙЛЮДСКИЕ ПОТЕРИ СССР В ВЕЛИКОЙ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ВОЙНЕ LL Rybakovsky Casualties of the USSR in the Great

Patriotic War (In Russian) Sotsiologicheskie issiedovaniya, 2000. № 8. P.90­91(http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/data/200/357/1216/012.RYBAKOVSKIY.pdf) The Russian researcher L L Rybakovsky assumes that thesource of Nikita Khrushchev’s figure of 20 million war dead was the 1957 Soviet translation,(Itogi vtoroj mirovoj vojny. Sbornik statej) of theWest German book Bilanz des Zweiten Weltkrieges Hamburg 1953

134. Jean­Noël Biraben, Essai sur l'évolution démographique de l'U.R.S.S. Population (French Edition) Jun., 1958, vol. 13, no. 2, p. 29­62135. Eason, Warren W. , “The Soviet Population Today” Foreign Affairs 37 (July 1959): 598­606Eason made his calculations based on the

preliminary results of the 1959 Soviet census. His estimate was 25 million deaths of those persons alive at the beginning of the war and anadditional wartime loss of 20,000,000 children under age 5 due to a decline in births and an increase infant mortality, thus bringing thetotal to 45,000,000

136. Obituary of Warren Eason (http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/dispatch/obituary.aspx?n=warren­wortman­eason&pid=141103167)137. Albert Seaton, The Russo­German War 1941­45 Prager 1971 pp 586138. Gil Elliot, Twentieth Century Book of the Dead C. Scribner, 1972 ISBN 978­0­684­13115­3139. Messenger, Charles, The Chronological Atlas of World War Two (Macmillan, 1989)140. Keegan, John, The Second World War (1989)141. R. J. Rummel Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917 Table 7.A

(https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/USSR.TAB7A.GIF) pp. 167 Transaction 1990 ISBN 978­1­56000­887­3142. Ellis John, World War II : a statistical survey 1993143. Davies, Norman, Europe A History (1998)144. Richard Overy, Russia's War 1997145. Mazower, Mark, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (1998)146. Wallechinsky, David, Twentieth Century / History With the Boring Parts Left Out (1995)147. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts­ A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000. 2nd Ed. 2002 ISBN

978­0­7864­1204­4. Pages 515­516148. Michael Haynes, Counting Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: a Note Europe Asia Studies Vol.55, No. 2, 2003, 300–309149. Martin Gilbert The Second World War: A Complete History 2004

150. H. P. Willmott , Robin Cross, Charles Messenger, and Neil Grant , World War II, ISBN 978­0­7566­0521­6151. Tony Judt Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (2005)152. Davies, Norman, Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory (2006)pp.367 however on p. 24 Davies put Soviet military dead at

11,000,000153. Perrie, Maureen (2006), The Cambridge History of Russia: The twentieth century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 225­227

(https://books.google.com/books?id=KAPxOl_mh4YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cambridge+history+russia&hl=en&ei=bZyVTpiAGWKsALusYnvAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false)

154. Steven Rosefielde Red Holocaust Routledge, 2009 ISBN 0­415­77757­7 Pages 72 and 179155. David M. Glantz & Jonathan House, When Titans Clashed...How the Red Army Stopped Hitler Univ Pr of Kansas, 1998 ISBN 978­0­7006­

0899­7 pp285156. Richard Overy, Russia's War 1997 pp.XV157. Richard Overy, Russia's War 1997 pp.287158. Norman Davies ,NOT TWENTY MILLION, NOT RUSSIANS, NOT WAR DEAD, The Independent on December 29, 1987

(http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/histn/histn004.pdf)159. Perrie, Maureen (2006), The Cambridge History of Russia: The twentieth century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 225­227, ISBN 0­521­

81144­9 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KAPxOl_mh4YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cambridge+history+russia&hl=en&ei=bZyVTpiAGWKsALusYnvAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false)

160. Steven Rosefielde. Red Holocaust Routledge, 2009 ISBN 0­415­77757­7 Page 72161. Steven Rosefielde Red Holocaust Routledge, 2009 ISBN 0­415­77757­7 Page 179

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