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International influence• Market mechanisms
• Import regulations
• International agreements
• Multilateral institutions– 40+ agencies govern international agreements
• Foreign aid (bi‐lateral, NGOs, multi‐lateral)
• Scientific collaboration and funding– USFS, IUFRO, CIFOR
Forest Cover (FAO, 2000)
Population
GDP at PPP in 2000
Generalizations about policy positions• forest‐rich developing countries use forest resources to fuel economic development;
• forest‐rich industrialized countries recognize that forests provide both environmental and economic benefits;
• forest‐poor developing countries depend on the forest for subsistence, often degrading forest ecosystems in the process; and,
• forest‐poor developed countries place extraordinarily high value on the environmental services of forest ecosystems.
Maini’s 4Q framework explainingNational positions on forest policy
Per capita forest cover
Economic Growthe.g., Brazil, Congo
Sustainable Developmente.g., Sweden, Canada
Subsistencee.g., China, India
Environmental Services e.g., Denmark, Germany
Per capita income
Maini (2001)
• Q2– agricultural output
• Q1+ control corruption + better education
• Q4+ control corruption‐ forest exports
• Q3+ better education
Linking Forests and Economic Well‐being: A Four Quadrant Approach, REPA Working Paper, by Sen Wang, C. Tyler DesRoches, Lili Sun, Brad Stennes, Bill Wilson, and G. Cornelis van Kooten, March 2007.
Lacey Act
• As part of 2008 Farm Bill, the Lacey Act was extended to make it illegal “to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase in interstate or foreign commerce, any plant or products made from plants—with limited exceptions—to be taken or traded in violation of domestic or international laws.”– For example, furniture from China
• Enforcement– APHIS and USF&W– Being phased in– Requires an import declaration for plants and plant products that includes the
scientific name of any plant, a description of the value, quantity, and the name of the country from where the plant was taken
– Civil or criminal penalties based on a defendant’s knowledge of the law
International Aid
• Overseas development assistance (ODA) = official financing to promote the economic development and welfare of developing countries (as main objective) on concessional terms (grants, loans, technical assistance)
• Bi‐lateral– USFS, USAID, Treasury Dept, Peace Corps
• Multi‐lateral– UN: UNDP, UNEP, FAO, World Food Program– Banks: IDB, ADB, AfDB, World Bank– Global Environmental Facility (GEF)– PPG7 Pilot Program to Conserve the Brazilian Rainforest– Conditionality on IMF/World Bank loans– How does US influence?
Quantity, net of debt payments
Tying
Selectivity
Project proliferation
Tax breaks for charity
Aid
0.90.9
2.12.12.3
2.83.23.43.43.6
4.34.4
4.85.05.2
5.65.7
9.811.2
11.712.2
14.3
0 Average (= 5)
South KoreaJapan
GreeceItaly
United StatesPortugal
AustriaNew Zealand
GermanyAustralia
SpainFrance
CanadaUnited Kingdom
SwitzerlandBelgiumFinlandIreland
NetherlandsNorway
DenmarkSweden
Aid
Public aid Private aid
US Agency for Internatl Development (USAID)
“Biodiversity earmark” ‐ created by Congress in 2004 – $150 ‐ $200 million per year from development assistance (~$2 billion)
International aid
• NGOs/ non‐profit organizations– For example, WWF tenth largest source of funds for biodiversity projects in Latin America
– Collaborate with bi‐lateral and multi‐lateral
agencies, e.g., BSP and WB Forest Initiative
– Pressure US government, e.g, extractive reserves
– ‘Observe’ international negotiations, e.g., climate change
– Partner, fund, and found NGOs in other countries
Debt for nature swaps
• Governments of many tropical developing countries owe more than they can pay
• Some evidence that higher debt leads to higher deforestation– To raise foreign exchange to make minimum payments, governments may encourage commodity exports
– Govts impose strict spending limits, and enforcement of protected areas, concessions, etc. is low priority
• Because there is some chance of default, debt is discounted (is bought and sold at less than its face value)
‘Debt for nature’
TFCATropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA), 1998Exchange debt owed US govt for deposits to environmental trust fundsInterest supports (1) establishing, maintaining, and restoring forest parks and
protected reserves; (2) increasing the capacity of personnel to manage reserves; (3) developing and supporting communities near or in tropical forests; (4) developing sustainable ecosystem and land management; and (5) identifying the medicinal uses of tropical forest plants and their products.
1998 – 200611 countries (Latin America, + Bangladesh, Botswana, Philippines)$136.5 million in local currency Example:2002 U.S. government forgave $6.6 million of Peru’s debt Partly paid by tax dollars, and partly by contributions from the Nature Conservancy,
the World Wildlife Fund, and Conservation InternationalPeru committed $10.6 million to conservation of 27.5 million acres of tropical forest
H.R.4959Global Conservation Act of 2010
The President shall establish a comprehensive and integrated strategy (hereafter referred to as the ‘International Conservation Strategy’) to help combat global natural resource and biodiversity degradation in developing countries and that builds on existing bilateral and multilateral programs and strengthens the capacity of the United States to collaborate with developing countries and other donor countries and the private sector and be an effective leader of an international effort of such Strategy.
Strategy should(b) Specific and measurable goals, benchmarks, and time frames, including‐‐
(1) advancing conservation in the world’s most ecologically and economically important terrestrial wilderness areas and marine ecosystems such that conservation or sustainable development consistent with long‐term conservation has been achieved on an area of land exceeding 2,000,000 square miles and an area of sea exceeding 6,000,000 square miles;(7) expanding substantially the amount of economically and ecologically significant forested land under a credible sustainable forest management certification system.
(c) Coordinate and leverage the participation of relevant executive branch agencies, foreign governments, and the private sector in ways that‐‐(1) clarify United States efforts to address the conservation crisis within the broader United States development, foreign policy, and security agendas;(4) provide a plan to identify and improve United States policies that could be undermining the conservation of critical natural resources and biodiversity abroad;
Findings motivating bill
(15) Several executive branch agencies are engaged in some aspect of international conservation, yet their efforts are not coordinated in a manner that maximizes the effectiveness of the United States’ international conservation efforts overall.
(16) Participation by the United States in multilateral efforts to conserve natural resources, such as through the World Bank and the Global Environmental Facility, leverages financial commitments by other countries by a much as 14 to one.
Findings motivating bill(3) Wild species provide more than $300,000,000,000 in benefits to world agriculture from natural pest control and the
pollination of two‐thirds of the crop species that feed the world.
(6) Forests prevent catastrophic flooding and severe drought, and coral reefs and mangroves reduce the impact of large storms on coastal populations saving $9,000,000,000 in damages each year and reducing outlays for disaster assistance.
(7) The destruction of forests mostly in developing countries releases more greenhouse gases than the entire world transportation sector. As one of the most cost effective ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, a global forest conservation program could help reduce the cost to the United States of efforts to reduce emissions.
(8) More than half of the most prescribed medicines in the United States are derived directly from natural compounds or patterned after them. Due to the loss of natural areas and compounds from wild species, one marketable prescription drug is estimated to be lost every two years.
(9) The U.S. National Intelligence Council expects demographic trends and natural resource scarcities relating to water, food, arable land, and energy sources to lead to instabilities and conflict in the years ahead.
(10) Illegal logging, fishing, and mining in developing countries flood the international market with low‐cost products that undercut the competitiveness of responsible companies in the United States. In the absence of competition from illegal producers, the United States would be able to increase wood product exports by $460,000,000 a year.
(11) Sound natural resource management, healthy levels of species diversity, and functioning natural ecosystems are vital to alleviating poverty for many communities in developing countries that depend on these resources for food, medicine, housing material, and other necessities.
(13) The initial stages of a major extinction crisis are occurring now, and as many as two‐thirds of all known species could be near extinction by the end of this century. Three‐quarters of the world’s terrestrial species are in developing countries that are rapidly destroying their natural areas and habitats.
Since March 5 …
• Your webpages– Answer your own research question
• Goods and services from forests: biodiversity, ecotourism, biodiversity– Protected areas and tourism (Yu‐Fai Leung)
– Non‐market valuation (Katrina Mullan)
– Biodiversity
Since March 5 …Management options• Community forestry (Ian), agroforestry
Multiple use, integrated conservation and development, sustainable forest management
• Ecolabelling (Lauren)• Indigenous knowledge (Diane)vs.Managing for highest and best use• Plantations and natural forest conservation (Jenny)
Policy• Case studies of Zambia (development for conservation), Russia (policy flip‐flops)• UNCED 1992 (Earth Summit)• Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators• CITES and Lacey• International aid (debt for nature)
Overarching
REDD
• Basic concepts
• Concerns for indigenous rights (Blake)
Deforestation
• Environmental Kuznet’s Curve
• Agents and causes of deforestation