Work Motivation

Work Motivation

Chapter 12

Five Critical Concepts in Motivation

Work Motivation Theories

Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories

The Application of Motivational Strategies

Work Motivation: Overview

Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration

Work Motivation: Definition

3 Dimensions

DirectionIntensity

Persistence

Behavior: Action from which we infer motivation

Performance: Evaluation of behavior

Ability: Determinant of behavior

Situational Constraints: Determinant of behavior

Motivation: Determinant of behavior

Work Motivation: 5 Concepts

Performance as a Function of BEHAVIOR

ABILITY MOTIVATIONSITUATIONAL CONSTRAINTSx - =

Overview of Work Motivation Theories

Need theories

Cognitive theories

Job design theories

Behavioral theories

Work Motivation Theories: Need Hierarchy Theory

Based on sequential ordering of human needs that individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression.

• Maslow’s Need Hierarchy• Alderfer’s ERG Theory• McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory

Work Motivation Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

(Air, food, water, etc.)

Safety

(Security & shelter)

Social

(Company and acceptance of others)

Esteem

(Recognition from others)

Self-Actualization

(Self-fulfillment)

Work Motivation Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Physiological

(Air, food, water, etc.)

Safety

(Security & shelter)

Social

(Company and acceptance of others)

Esteem

(Recognition from others)

Self-Actualization

(Self-fulfillment)

ExistenceExistence

RelatednessRelatedness

GrowthGrowth

Work Motivation Theories: McClelland’s Need for Achievement

Theory

People with a high need for achievement (high n’Ach) will put more effort into work than people without this need (low n’Ach)

High n’Achs tend to desire high levels of achievement whereas low n’Achs tend to only avoid failure

Low n’Achs can be trained to develop a need for achievement

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory

Equity Theory: Motivation theory based on the social comparison process of examining the ratio of inputs and outcomes between oneself and a comparison other.

Person compares themselves with OtherPerson perceived what they input into jobPerson perceives what they benefit from jobPerson compares input-benefit ratio of him/herself to

Other

Adams (1965)


Equity occurs when each person has equal ratios (e.g., 50:50)

Underpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one’s own inputs and outcomes is lower than the ratio of a comparison other.

Overpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one's own inputs and outcomes is greater that the ration of comparison other.

other’s-outcomes

other’s-inputs

self-outcomes

self-inputsvs

You: 50 Other: 50 Fair/Equitable 50 50

You:50 Other: 75 Underpayment 50 50

You:75 Other: 50 Overpayment 50 50



Equity theory posits that people who perceive an inequity will try to reduce inequity

Behavior

1. Change inputs

2. Change outcomes

3. Get other to change inputs or outcomes

4. Quit job

Cognitive

1. Distort own inputs or outcomes

2. Distort Other’s inputs or outcomes

3. Change comparison Other

Equity Theory Underpayment Inequity Predictions Hourly Wages

Workers will decrease effort Decreases in product quality and quantity

Piece Rate Wages To compensate for underpayment, workers would

produce more, but much lower quality


Equity Theory Overpayment Inequity Predictions Hourly Wages

Workers should expend more effort (i.e., increase inputs)

Piece Rate Wages Workers should expend more effort to

produce fewer, but more high quality products


Work Motivation Theories: General Expectancy Theories

effort performance outcomeexpectancy instrumentality

Vroom’s VIE theory – effort (force) is determined by:

• Perceived effort-performance expectancies• Perceptions that performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentalities)• Valence of outcomes

Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory

Motivation is derived from relationships among: Valence

value of outcomes Instrumentality

performance-reward contingencies Expectancy

effort-performance contingencies

Force = Expectancy * Σ (Valences * Instrumentalities)

Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory

studying

good grades

lack of social life

expectancies

praise from parents

graduate school

good job

less friends

no funinstrumentalities

valences

effort performance outcome

Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

• People set goals for themselves and they aremotivated to work toward these goals becauseachieving them is rewarding

• Goals affect task performance by • directing attention and action,

• mobilizing energy expenditure or effort, • prolonging effort overtime (persistence)

and • motivating the individual to develop

relevant strategies for goal attainment

Performance is best when: Goals are specific Goals are challenging Workers have necessary ability Rewards are clearly understood and provided Management supports goal attainment Provides necessary time & resources Goals are internalized and accepted by employees Feedback is provided

Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Work Motivation Theories: Self-Regulation Theories

•Major components •Goals •Self-monitoring or self-evaluation •Role of feedback •Self-efficacy •Goal revision

•Empirical tests of the theory •Evaluation of the theory

Work Motivation Theories: Job-based Theories

• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (also referred to as Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Job Characteristics Theory

Source of motivation is primarily in the content of the jobs employees perform

Work Motivation Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Meeting lower-level needs will prevent workers from becoming dissatisfied; they do not influence work motivation• hygiene factors

• e.g., pay, fringe benefits, relations with coworkers, physical working conditions

• Only conditions that allow people to fill upper-level needs for esteem and self-actualization will increase work motivation• Motivator factors

• e.g., level of challenge and discretion, intrinsic interest, opportunities to be creative

Job Characteristics Theory

Core job Core job dimensionsdimensions

Task identity

Skill variety

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Critical Critical Psychological Psychological

statesstates

Experienced meaningfulness

Experienced responsibility

Knowledge of results

Personal and work Personal and work outcomesoutcomes

Satisfaction

Motivation

Quality of Work

Low turnover and

absenteeism

Growth need strength

Job Characteristics Theory

task identity

skill variety

task significance

3

autonomyX feedbackX = motivation

Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory Based on principles of behaviorism Reinforcement

a stimulus that increases the probability of any given behavior

Punishment consequences that make a behavior less

likely

Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory

Schedules of reinforcement continuous intermittent

fixed interval variable interval fixed ratio variable ratio

• Distal construct theories: Exert indirect effects on

behavior

• Proximal construct theories: Begin with the

individual’s goals and characteristics of the

workplace that directly influence behavior.

• Genetic bases of motivation



Genetics/Heredity

Needs/Personality/Interests

Motives

Cognitive choice

Goals

Feedback/ Expectation discrepancy

Core job attributes

Distal constructs Proximal Constructs

Will to achieve from Big 5 Personality Theory

Need hierarchy theory

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

Self-regulation theory

Job characteristic theory

Seven Practices to Raise Motivation

1.Ensure that workers motives and values are appropriate for the jobs on which they are placed

2.Make jobs attractive and consistent with workers’ motives and values.

3. Define work goals that are clear, challenging, attractive, and attainable.

Seven Practices to Raise Motivation

4.Provide workers with the personnel and material resources that facilitate their effectiveness.

5.Create supportive social environments.6. Reinforce performance.7. Harmonize all these elements into a consistent

socio-technical system.

Application of Motivational Strategies

• There is no “best” theory.

• It may be necessary to match motivation strategies with varying organizational context.

Documents

Work Motivation