Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles: Number 126

Textiles and Fashion

Materials, Design and Technology

Edited by

Rose Sinclair

The Textile Institute

ELSEVIER

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • CAMBRIDGE • HEIDELBERG

LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO

SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

WPWOODHEAD

PUBLISHING

Contents

Contributors xxxi

Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xxxiii

Preface xli

Acknowledgements x'v

How to Use this Book xlvii

PART 1 FIBRE TYPES

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Textile Fibres and

Their Properties: What is a Textile Fibre? 3

Learning Objectives 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Types of Textile Fibres 4

1.3 Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 7

1.4 Fibre Properties 9

1.5 Fibre Length, Shape and Diameter 10

1.6 Fibre Colour and Lustre 12

1.7 Fibre Fineness 13

1.7.1 Fibres 13

1.7.2 Yarns 13

1.7.3 Fabrics 14

1.8 Fibre Strength, Flexibility and Abrasion Resistance 15

1.8.1 Tensile Strength and Extension (Elongation) 15

1.8.2 Flexibility or Stiffness 16

1.8.3 Elasticity 18

1.8.4 Resiliency 18

1.8.5 Abrasion Resistance 18

1.9 Moisture Absorbency 18

1.10 Electrical Properties of Fibres 19

1.11 Thermal Properties of Fibres 20

1.12 Chemical Reactivity and Resistance 22

1.13 Case Studies: From Fibre Properties to Textile Products 22

1.13.1 Case Study 1: Choosing Apparel Fibres 22

1.13.2 Case Study 2: Microfibres 24

1.14 Summary 24

1.15 Project Ideas 24

1.16 Revision Questions 25

References and Further Reading 25

V

vi Contents

CHAPTER 2 Natural Textile Fibres: Vegetable Fibres 29

Learning Objectives 29

2.1 Introduction 29

2.1.1 Molecular Composition of Cellulose 29

2.1.2 Common Properties of Vegetable Fibres 30

2.2 Cotton 31

2.2.1 Definitions and Types of Cotton 31

2.2.2 Cultivation and Ginning 31

2.2.3 Structure of Cotton 32

2.2.4 Composition of Cotton 32

2.2.5 Physical Properties of Cotton 34

2.2.6 Measurement of Fibre Properties 36

2.2.7 Cotton Application in Textile 39

2.3 Other Seed Fibres 40

2.3.1 Kapok 40

2.3.2 Coir 42

2.4 Bast Fibre 43

2.4.1 Flax 43

2.5 Other Bast Fibres 46

2.5.1 Ramie 46

2.5.2 Jute 48

2.5.3 Kenaf 50

2.5.4 Hemp 50

2.5.5 Sisal, Abaca, and Pineapple Fibre 51

2.6 Sustainability Issues/Eco Issues 52

2.6.1 Biotech Cotton 52

2.6.2 Organic Cotton 52

2.6.3 Naturally Coloured Cotton 52

2.6.4 Bast Fibres 54

2.7 Case Studies 54

2.8 Future Trends 55

2.9 Summary 55

2.10 Project Ideas 55

2.11 Revision Questions 56

References 56

CHAPTER 3 Natural Textile Fibres: Animal and Silk Fibres 57

Learning Objectives 57

3.1 Introduction 57

3.2 Wool Fibres 58

3.2.1 Structure ofWool 58

3.2.2 Amino Acid Composition 59

Contents vii

3.2.3 Properties of Wool Fibres 61

3.2.4 Applications 62

3.3 Silk Fibres 62

3.3.1 Sericulture and Cocoon Production 63

3.3.2 Silk Reeling 64

3.3.3 Silk Manufacture 65

3.3.4 Fine Structure of Silk 66

3.3.5 Amino Acid Composition 67

3.3.6 Properties of Silk Fibres 68

3.3.7 Applications 70

3.4 Other Specialty Hair Fibres 71

3.4.1 Cashmere Fibres 71

3.4.2 Camel Hair Fibres 72

3.4.3 Mohair Fibres 73

3.5 Applications ofNatural Protein Fibres 74

3.6 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 75

3.7 Future Trends 75

3.8 Summary 76

3.9 Project Ideas 77

3.10 Revision Questions 77

References 77

CHAPTER 4 Synthetic Textile Fibers: Regenerated Cellulose Fibers 79

Learning Objectives 79

4.1 Introduction 79

4.2 Viscose Rayon 81

4.2.1 The History of Viscose Rayon 81

4.2.2 Viscose Rayon Production 82

4.2.3 Viscose Fiber Appearance 83

4.2.4 Viscose Fiber Mechanical Properties 85

4.2.5 Viscose Rayon Physical Properties 85

4.3 Lyocell Rayon 85

4.3.1 The History of Lyocell Rayon 85

4.3.2 Lyocell Rayon Production 86

4.3.3 Lyocell Fiber Appearance 87

4.3.4 Lyocell Fiber Mechanical Properties 87

4.3.5 Lyocell Fiber Physical Properties 89

4.4 Cellulose Acetate 89

4.5 Applications 90

4.6 Case Study 91

4.7 Future Trends 92

4.8 Summary 93

viii Contents

4.9 Project Ideas 93

4.10 Revision Questions 94

References 94

CHAPTER 5 Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyamide, Polyesterand Aramid Fibres 97

Learning Objectives 97

5.1 Introduction 97

5.2 Classification of Fibres 98

5.3 Polyamide Fibres 99

5.3.1 Production of Nylon 99

5.3.2 Structure and Properties of Nylon Fibres 100

5.3.3 Applications 101

5.4 Polyester Fibres 103

5.4.1 Production of PET Polyester 103

5.4.2 PET Fibre Formation 103

5.4.3 Structure and Properties of Polyester Fibre 104

5.4.4 Applications 105

5.5 Aramid Fibres 106

5.5.1 Production of Aramid Fibres 106

5.5.2 Structure and Properties of Aramid Fibres 108

5.5.3 Applications 109

5.6 Blended Fibres: Key Issues 109

5.7 Case Study: Polyester Fibres for Apparel and Clothing Applications 110

5.8 Future Trends 112

5.9 Summary 112

5.10 Project Ideas 113

5.11 Revision Questions 113

5.12 Sources of Further Information and Advice 113

References 114

CHAPTER 6 Synthetic Textile Fibres: Polyolefin, Elastomeric and AcrylicFibres 115

Learning Objectives 115

6.1 Introduction 115

6.2 Polypropylene (PP) Fibres 116

6.2.1 Production of Polypropylene (PP) 116

6.2.2 Fibre Manufacture 116

6.2.3 Types ofYarns 117

6.2.4 Spin Finishes 118

6.2.5 Additives 119

6.2.6 Fibre Structure 119

Contents ix

6.2.7 Fibre Properties 122

6.2.8 Applications 1226.3 Other Polyolefin Fibres 123

6.4 Acrylic Fibres 123

6.4.1 Production of Acrylic Fibres 125

6.4.2 Fibre Manufacture 126

6.4.3 Fibre Structure 127

6.4.4 Acrylic Fibre Variants 128

6.4.5 Fibre Properties 128

6.4.6 Applications 129

6.5 Modacrylic Fibres 129

6.6 Elastomeric Fibres 129

6.6.1 Elastane Fibres 130

6.6.2 Fibre Manufacture 131

6.6.3 Fibre Structure 131

6.6.4 Fibre Properties 131

6.6.5 Applications 132

6.7 Case Study: Why Are There So Many End-Uses for

Polypropylene (PP) Fibres, But So Few in Apparel? 133

6.8 Future Trends 133

6.8.1 Polyolefin Fibres 134

6.8.2 Acrylic Fibres 135

6.8.3 Elastomeric Fibres 135

6.9 Summary 135

6.10 Project Ideas 136

6.11 Revision Questions 136

6.12 Sources of Further Information and Advice 137

References 137

CHAPTER 7 Synthetic Textile Fibres: Non-Polymer Fibres 139Learning Objectives 139

7.1 Introduction 139

7.2 Carbon Fibres 139

7.2.1 Manufacture 140

7.2.2 Structure 142

7.2.3 Properties 143

7.2.4 Applications 1477.3 Glass Fibres 147

7.3.1 Manufacture 147

7.3.2 Structure 148

7.3.3 Properties 148

7.3.4 Applications 148

x Contents

7.4 Metallic Fibres 149

7.4.1 Manufacture 149

7.4.2 Basic Structure and Properties 150

7.4.3 Applications 150

7.5 Ceramic Fibres '52

7.5.1 Manufacture 152

7.5.2 Basic Structure and Properties 152

7.5.3 Applications 152

7.6 Case Study: The Use of CFRP in Sporting Goods 153

7.7 Future Trends 153

7.8 Summary Points 153

7.9 Project Ideas '54

7.10 Revision Questions 154

References and Further Reading 154

PART 2 MANUFACTURING TEXTILES: YARN TO FABRIC

CHAPTER 8 Conversion of Fibre to Yarn: an Overview 159

Learning Objectives 159

8.1 Introduction 159

8.2 Classification ofYarns 159

8.2.1 Staple Yarns 159

8.2.2 Continuous-Filament Yarns 159

8.2.3 Novelty Yarns 160

8.2.4 Industrial Yarns 161

8.2.5 High-Bulk Yarns 161

8.2.6 Stretch Yarns 161

8.3 Staple-Fibre Yarns 161

8.3.1 Spinning Methods 161

8.3.2 Operations in Staple-Fibre Spinning 162

8.3.3 Yarn Structure 162

8.3.4 Applications of Staple-Spun Yarns 164

8.4 Filament Yarns 164

8.4.1 Spinning Methods 164

8.4.2 Polymer Spinning Processes 1658.4.3 Structures of Continuous Filament Yarns 166

8.4.4 Applications of Filament Yarn 168

8.5 Fancy Yarns 170

8.5.1 Marl Yarn 170

8.5.2 Spiral or Corkscrew Yarn 170

Contents xi

8.5.3 Gimp Yarn 1708.5.4 Diamond Yarn 171

8.5.5 BoucleYarn 171

8.5.6 Loop Yarn 171

8.5.7 Snarl Yarn 172

8.5.8 KnopYarn 1728.5.9 SlubYarn 173

8.5.10 Fasciated Yarn 173

8.5.11 Tape Yarn 1748.5.12 Chainette Yarn 174

8.5.13 Chenille Yarn 174

8.5.14 Ribbon Yarns 175

8.5.15 Composite Yarns 1758.5.16 Covered Yarns 175

8.5.17 Metallic Yarns 176

8.6 Staple-Fibre Yarn Manufacturing 1768.6.1 Ring (Conventional) Spinning 1768.6.2 Hollow-Spindle Spinning 1788.6.3 Combined Systems 1788.6.4 The Doubling System 180

8.6.5 Open-End Spinning 1828.6.6 Air-Jet Spinning 1848.6.7 The Chenille Yarn System 1858.6.8 Flocking 1868.6.9 Mock Chenille 186

8.7 Future Trends 187

8.8 Summary 1878.9 Project Ideas 1888.10 Revision Questions 188

References 189

CHAPTER 9 Fibre to Yarn: Staple-Yarn Spinning 191Learning Objectives 191

9.1 Introduction 191

9.2 Preparation of Cotton and Other Short Staple Fibres 1929.2.1 Opening and Cleaning 192

9.2.2 Blending 1939.2.3 Carding 1959.2.4 Combing 1959.2.5 Drawing 196

9.2.6 Roving 196

xii Contents

9.3 Preparation of Wool and Other Long Staple Fibres: The Woollen System 196

9.3.1 Opening 1989.3.2 Scouring and Carbonising 198

9.3.3 Drying or Oiling 1989.3.4 Blending 198

9.3.5 Carding 199

9.4 Preparation of Wool and Other Long Staple Fibres: The Worsted System 1999.4.1 Carding 200

9.4.2 Gilling 200

9.4.3 Combing 201

9.5 Spinning Techniques for Staple Fibres 201

9.5.1 Ring Spinning 2029.5.2 Twist-Spinning Methods: Open-End (Rotor and Friction) Spinning

and Self-Twist Spinning 204

9.5.3 Open-End Spinning: Rotor Spinning 2059.5.4 Open-End Spinning: Friction Spinning 2069.5.5 Self-Twist Spinning 208

9.6 Wrap-Spinning Techniques 2089.6.1 Air-Jet Spinning 2089.6.2 Filament Wrapping Techniques 210

9.7 Future Trends 210

9.8 Summary Points 2109.9 Project Ideas 211

9.10 Revision Questions 2119.10.1 Cotton System 2119.10.2 Wool System 212

References and Further Reading 212

CHAPTER 10 Fibre to Yarn: Filament Yarn Spinning 213Learning Objectives 213

10.1 Introduction 213

10.1.1 Definitions 213

10.1.2 Classification of CF Yarns 214

10.1.3 Yarn Count System 21510.2 Fibre-Extrusion Spinning 216

10.2.1 Melt-Spinning 21610.2.2 Wet Spinning 21910.2.3 Dry Spinning 221

10.3 Yarn Texturing 22210.3.1 False-Twist Texturing 22410.3.2 Air-Jet Texturing 229

Contents xiii

10.4 Bulk Continuous Fibre (BCF) Technology 231

10.4.1 Twisting/Plying of Continuous-Filament Yarns 231

10.4.2 Metallised Yarns 233

10.5 Properties of CF Yarns 234

10.5.1 Morphology 234

10.5.2 Tensile Properties 237

10.6 Adding Functionality to Yarn 242

10.6.1 Moisture Absorption 242

10.6.2 Dyeability and Printability 243

10.6.3 Functional Additives 246

10.7 Applications 247

10.8 Future Trends 250

10.9 Project Ideas 251

10.10 Revision Questions 251

References 251

CHAPTER 11 Yarn to Fabric: Weaving 255

Learning Objectives 255

11.1 Introduction 255

11.2 Looms 255

11.2.1 Rigid HeddleLoom 256

11.2.2 Table Loom 256

11.2.3 Floor/Treddle Loom 257

11.2.4 Counterbalanced Loom 258

11.2.5 Dobby Loom 258

11.2.6 Computerised Loom 259

11.2.7 Jacquard Loom 260

11.3 Making a Warp and Dressing the Loom 260

11.3.1 Selecting a Warp Yarn 260

11.3.2 Calculating the Warp Yarns 260

11.3.3 Making the Warp 261

11.3.4 Making a Chain 261

11.3.5 Dressing the Loom 262

11.4 Documentation 266

11.4.1 Point Paper 267

11.4.2 Threading Plan 267

11.4.3 Lifting Plan 267

11.4.4 Reed Plan 268

11.5 Pattern Drafting 268

11.5.1 Straight Draft 268

11.5.2 Pointed Draft 268

xiv Contents

11.5.3 Block Draft 270

11.5.4 Scattered Draft 271

11.6 Weave Structures 271

11.6.1 Balanced and Unbalanced Weave Structures 271

11.6.2 Balanced Plain Weave 271

11.6.3 Unbalanced Plain Weave 272

11.6.4 Basket Weave 272

11.6.5 Twill Weaves 272

11.6.6 Herringbone Twill 274

11.6.7 Satin Weave 275

11.7 Derivative-Weave Structures 276

11.7.1 Mock Leno 276

11.7.2 Double Weave 276

11.7.3 Honeycomb 278

11.7.4 Jacquard Weaves 278

11.8 Starting to Weave 279

11.9 Designing for Woven Textiles 279

11.10 Designing for the Jacquard Loom 280

11.11 Tapestry Weaving 281

11.12 Case Study: Honeycomb Woven Structures 283

11.13 Finishing 283

11.14 Tips for Weaving 284

11.15 Future Trends 284

11.16 Summary 285

11.17 Revision Questions 286

11.18 Sources of Further Information and Advice 286

11.18.1 Collections 286

Further Reading 286

CHAPTER 12 Yarn to Fabric: Knitting 289

Learning Objectives 289

12.1 Introduction 289

12.2 Loop Formation 290

12.3 Knitting Terminology 291

12.4 Weft-Knitted Structures 292

12.4.1 Weft-Knitting Machines 293

12.5 Warp Knitted Structures 294

12.5.1 Warp Knitting Machines 295

12.6 Knitting Developments 29612.7 The Impact of Computers in Design and Technology 298

12.8 Quality Control 299

Contents xv

12.9 Case Study 300

12.10 Future Trends 301

12.11 Summary 302

12.12 Project Ideas 303

12.13 Revision Questions 303

12.14 Sources of Further Information and Advice 304

References 305

CHAPTER 13 Fibre to Fabric: Nonwoven Fabrics 307

Learning Objectives 307

13.1 Introduction 307

13.2 Technologies for the Formation of Nonwoven Fabrics 308

13.2.1 Fibrous Web Formation 309

13.2.2 Web Bonding Technologies 310

13.2.3 Nonwoven Fabric Finishing and Converting Techniques 312

13.2.4 Coating and Laminating 314

13.3 Characteristics of Nonwoven Fabric Structure and Properties 315

13.3.1 Characterisation of Fabric Bond Structure 315

13.3.2 Nonwoven Fabric Structural Parameters 322

13.4 Properties and Performance ofNonwoven Fabrics 327

13.5 Methods for the Evaluation of Nonwoven Fabric Structure, Propertiesand Performance 328

13.5.1 Standard Test Methods for the Evaluation of the Structure and

Properties of Nonwoven Fabrics 328

13.5.2 Standards for the Evaluation of the Performance of Nonwoven Products ...328

13.6 Nonwoven Fabrics and Their Applications 329

13.7 Nonwoven Fabrics in Fashion 330

13.8 Future Trends 332

13.9 Project Ideas 332

13.10 Revision Questions 332

13.11 Sources of Further Information 333

References 333

CHAPTER 14 Yarn to Fabric: Specialist Fabric Structures 337

Learning Objectives 337

14.1 Introduction 337

14.2 Triaxial Fabrics 337

14.3 Pile Fabrics 339

14.4 Knotted Fabrics 341

14.4.1 Nets 341

14.4.2 Macrame 341

xvi Contents

14.4.3 Lace 342

14.4.4 Crochet 342

14.4.5 Knotting 342

14.5 Braided Fabrics 344

14.6 Three-Dimensional Fabrics and Future Developments 346

14.6.1 3D Solid Structures 346

14.6.2 Hollow Structures 347

14.6.3 Shell Structures 348

14.6.4 Knitted Structures 349

14.6.5 Nonwoven Structures 350

14.7 Summary 352

14.8 Project Ideas 352

14.9 Revision Questions 352

References and Sources of Further Information 353

CHAPTER 15 Yarn to Fabric: Intelligent Textiles 355

Learning Objectives 355

15.1 Introduction 355

15.2 What Are Intelligent Textiles Used For? 356

15.2.1 Smart Textile Applications 357

15.2.2 Research and Development of Smart Textiles 359

15.2.3 Phase Change Materials 360

15.2.4 Shape Memory Materials 363

15.2.5 Chromic and Conductive Materials 365

15.2.6 Stress-Responsive Materials 367

15.2.7 Wearable Electronics 367

15.3 Case Study: Biomimetics and Intelligent Textiles 368

15.3.1 Examples of Biomimetic Products 368

15.3.2 The Lotus Effect 368

15.4 Future Trends 369

15.4.1 Future Applications of Intelligent Textiles 36915.4.2 Future Market Development 372

15.5 Summary 373

15.6 Project Ideas 374

15.7 Revision Questions 375

15.8 Sources of Further Information and Advice 375

References and Further Reading 375

PART 3 FABRIC FINISHING AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 16 Fabric Finishing: Joining Fabrics Using Stitched Seams 379

Learning Objectives 37916.1 Introduction 379

Contents xvii

16.2 The Stitch 380

16.2.1 Class 100 Chain Stitches 380

16.2.2 Class 300 Lockstitches 381

16.2.3 Class 400 Multi-Thread Chain Stitches 381

16.2.4 Class 500 Overedge Stitches 382

16.2.5 Stitch Quality 382

16.3 The Seam 382

16.3.1 Class 1: Superimposed Seams 384

16.3.2 Class 2: Double-Lap Seams 385

16.3.3 Class 3: Bound Seams 385

16.3.4 Class 4: Flat Seams 385

16.4 Sewing Machines 385

16.4.1 The Needle 390

16.4.2 Machine Feeding Systems 394

16.4.3 Machines for Different Stitching Operations 400

16.5 Seam Quality Problems 402

16.5.1 Pucker 402

16.5.2 Thread Breakage 405

16.6 Future Trends 405

16.7 Summary 409

16.8 Case Study and Project Idea 409

16.9 Revision Questions 410

References and Further Reading 410

CHAPTER 17 Joining Fabrics: Fastenings 413Learning Objectives 413

17.1 Introduction 413

17.2 Zips 413

17.2.1 Components of a Zip 415

17.2.2 Zip Functions and Applications 416

17.2.3 How to Measure the Correct Length of Opening for a Zip 416

17.2.4 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Zips 419

17.2.5 Continuous Zips 419

17.2.6 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and

Applying Zips 419

17.3 Buttons 422

17.3.1 Types of Buttons 423

17.3.2 Materials Used to Make Buttons 425

17.3.3 How to Measure Buttons 425

17.3.4 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Buttons 425

17.3.5 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and ApplyingButtons 431

xviii Contents

17.4 Hook-and-Loop Fasteners 432

17.4.1 Types of Hook-and-Loop Tapes 433

17.4.2 Materials Used to Make Hook-and-Loop Tape 434

17.4.3 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Hook-and-Loop Tape 434

17.4.4 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying

Hook-and-Loop Tape 434

17.5 Press Fasteners 435

17.5.1 Types of Press Fasteners 436

17.5.2 Materials Used to Make Press Fasteners 437

17.5.3 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Press Fasteners 439

17.5.4 Other Non-Snap Components 442

17.5.5 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying Press

Fasteners 442

17.6 Cords, Ties and Belts 446

17.6.1 Materials Used to Make Cords, Ties and Belt Fastenings 446

17.6.2 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Cords, Ties and Belts 447

17.6.3 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying Cords,Ties and Belts 448

17.7 Hook-and-Eye Fasteners 448

17.7.1 Types of Hook-and-Eye Fasteners 449

17.7.2 Materials Used to Make Hooks and Eyes 449

17.7.3 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Hooks and Eyes 450

17.7.4 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying Hooks

and Eyes 450

17.8 Hook-and-Bar Fasteners 451

17.8.1 Types of Hook-and-Bar Fasteners 451

17.8.2 Materials Used to Make Hooks and Bars 452

17.8.3 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Hooks and

Bar/Fasteners 453

17.8.4 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying Hooks

and Bar/Fasteners 453

17.9 Buckles and Adjustable Fasteners 454

17.9.1 Types of Buckles and Adjustable Fasteners 454

17.9.2 Materials Used to Make Buckles and Adjustable Fasteners 454

17.9.3 Machinery and Attachments Used to Apply Buckles and AdjustableFasteners 455

17.9.4 Safety Standards and Legislation for Selecting and Applying Buckles

and Adjustable Fasteners 455

17.10 Summary 456

17.11 Project Ideas 456

17.12 Revision Questions 457

Contents xix

17.13 Sources of Further Information 457

References and Further Reading 457

CHAPTER 18 Fabric Finishing: Pretreatment/Textile Wet Processing 459Learning Objectives 459

18.1 Introduction 459

18.2 Processing Methods 460

18.3 Fabric Preparation Processes 461

18.3.1 Desizing 461

18.3.2 Scouring 462

18.3.3 Bleaching 463

18.3.4 Mercerization 464

18.3.5 Carbonization 465

18.3.6 Heat Setting 465

18.3.7 Drying 465

18.4 Quality Control in Fabric Preparation 466

18.5 Environmental Impact and Sustainability of Fabric Preparation 467

18.6 Research and Future Trends 467

18.7 Summary 468

18.8 Case Study 468

18.9 Project Ideas 469

18.10 Revision Questions 469

18.11 Sources of Further Information 469

References 469

CHAPTER 19 Fabric Finishing: Dyeing and Colouring 475Learning Objectives 475

19.1 Introduction 475

19.2 Colour Theory 475

19.2.1 Light and the Human Eye 476

19.2.2 Colour Description and Measurement 476

19.2.3 Instrumental Colour Match and Shade Assessment 477

19.3 Selection of Dyes 477

19.3.1 Achieving the Required Shade 478

19.3.2 Compatibility of Dyes 479

19.3.3 Metamerism 479

19.3.4 Colour Fastness 479

19.3.5 Environmental Considerations 480

19.4 The Dyeing Process 480

19.4.1 Dyeing Conditions 481

19.4.2 Machinery for Dyeing 481

19.4.3 Further Textile Colouration 481

xx Contents

19.5 Classes of Dye for Different Fibre Types 485

19.5.1 Cellulosic Fibres 485

19.5.2 Protein Fibres 487

19.5.3 Polyamide Fibres 489

19.5.4 Polyester Fibres 491

19.5.5 Acrylic Fibres 492

19.5.6 Fibre Blends 493

19.5.7 Fluorescent Brightening Agents 493

19.6 Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural and Synthetic Dyes 494

19.6.1 Safety 494

19.6.2 Shade Range and Reproducibility 494

19.6.3 Colour Fastness 494

19.6.4 Availability of Natural Dyes 494

19.6.5 The Way Forward 495

19.7 Ensuring Quality and Effectiveness of Dyeing 495

19.7.1 Assessment of Shade 495

19.7.2 Assessment of Colour Fastness 496

19.7.3 Assessment of Overall Substrate Quality 496

19.8 Environmental Impact ofDyeing 496

19.8.1 Water Consumption 497

19.8.2 Energy Consumption 497

19.8.3 Air Emissions 497

19.8.4 Effluent Emissions 497

19.8.5 Occupational Safety 498

19.8.6 Safety of Dyed Products 498

19.9 Research and Future Trends 499

19.10 Summary 500

19.11 Case Study: Reactive Dyeing ofKnitted Cotton Garments 500

19.11.1 Selection of Dyes 500

19.11.2 Selection of Process Method 501

19.11.3 Selection of Machinery 502

19.11.4 Post-Dye Operations 502

19.12 Project Ideas 503

19.12.1 Process Control to Reduce the Environmental Impact

of Dyeing 503

19.12.2 Restricted Substances List 504

19.12.3 Controls Within a Dyeing and Finishing Operation 504

19.13 Revision Questions 504

19.14 Sources of Further Information 505

References 505

Contents xxi

CHAPTER 20 Fabric Finishing: Printing Textiles 507Learning Objectives 507

20.1 Introduction 507

20.2 Direct Printing 50820.2.1 Pigment Printing 50920.2.2 Reactive Dye Printing 51020.2.3 Disperse Dye Printing 51020.2.4 Vat Dye Printing 51020.2.5 Acid Dye Printing 511

20.2.6 Digital Inkjet Printing 51120.3 Other Printing Techniques 511

20.3.1 Resist Printing 512

20.3.2 Discharge Printing 51220.3.3 Burn-Out (Devore) Printing 512

20.4 Traditional Printing Methods 51320.5 Screen Printing 515

20.5.1 Table Screen Printing 51520.5.2 Automatic Flat-Bed Screen Printing 51620.5.3 Rotary Screen Printing 51720.5.4 Screen Design and Production 518

20.6 Transfer Printing 51920.6.1 Gravure Printing 51920.6.2 Digital Paper Printing 52020.6.3 Heat Transfer Press 520

20.7 Digital Inkjet Printing 52020.7.1 Technology and Characteristics 522

20.7.2 Design Application 52320.8 Impact of CAD/CAM on the Design of Printed Textiles 52320.9 Research and Future Trends 525

20.10 Summary 52620.11 Case Study 52620.12 Project Ideas 52720.13 Revision Questions 52820.14 Sources of Further Information and Advice 528

References 529

CHAPTER 21 Applications of Textile Products 531Learning Objectives 531

21.1 Introduction 531

21.2 Apparel 53221.3 Furnishing or Interior Textiles, Including Household Products 534

xxii Contents

21.4 Technical Textiles 536

21.4.1 Industrial Textiles and Geotextiles 536

21.4.2 Smart Fabrics and Intelligent Textiles 536

21.4.3 Medical Textiles 537

21.4.4 Wearable Textiles and Protective Clothing 537

21.4.5 Eco Textiles 538

21.5 Textile Art 538

21.6 Textile Industry 539

21.7 Case Study: Traditional Bedouin al Sadu Hand-Woven Products and

Contemporary Digital Applications 540

21.8 Future Trends 542

21.9 Summary 543

21.10 Revision Questions 543

21.11 Sources of Information 544

Further Reading 544

CHAPTER 22 Sustainable Textile Production 547

Learning Objectives 547

22.1 Introduction 547

22.2 Key Issues in Sustainability 548

22.3 The Textile Supply Chain 549

22.3.1 Supply Chain for Fabrics Made from Natural Fibres 550

22.3.2 Synthetic Fibres 552

22.4 Assessing the Environmental Impact of the Textile Supply Chain 553

22.5 Minimising the Environmental Impact of the Textile Supply Chain 554

22.6 Case Study: Creating Sustainable and Socially ResponsibleFashion 556

22.6.1 Future Thinking in Sustainable Futures 556

22.7 Summary and Project Ideas 558

22.8 Sources of Further Information and Advice 559

References 560

PART 4 DEVELOPING TEXTILE PRODUCTS: THE CASE OF APPAREL

CHAPTER 23 Material Culture: Social Change, Culture, Fashion and

Textiles in Europe 563

Learning Objectives 563

23.1 Introduction 563

23.2 Art and Society 564

23.2.1 Advances in Technology: The Industrial Revolution 564

23.2.2 Advances in Technology: Modern Developments 567

Contents xxiii

23.2.3 Travel and Discovery 568

23.2.4 Orientalism 569

23.2.5 The Space Race 57223.2.6 Modern Day 575

23.3 Politics 575

23.3.1 Poster Art 575

23.3.2 Soviet Posters 576

23.3.3 Guerilla Art 578

23.3.4 T-Shirts 580

23.4 War 584

23.4.1 Bayeux Tapestry 58423.4.2 Guernica 584

23.4.3 Fashion and World War II 585

23.4.4 Textile Design Following World War II 58623.5 Impact of Culture on Design, Fashion and Textiles 589

23.5.1 Cubism and Delaunay 589

23.5.2 Surrealism and Schiaparelli 589

23.5.3 Pop Art 58923.5.4 Op Art 593

23.5.5 Popular Culture/Pop Culture 59423.5.6 Counter-Culture 595

23.5.7 Punk 595

23.6 Definitions ofTextile Culture and Fashion Culture: Are They the Same? 59723.7 Project Ideas 600

23.8 Revision Questions 600

23.9 Further Reading 600

References 602

Electronic Sources 603

CHAPTER 24 Fashion and Culture: Global Culture and Fashion 605

Learning Objectives 605

24.1 Introduction 605

24.2 Impact of Culture in European and Non-European Arenas 60624.3 Case Study 607

24.3.1 Cultural Exchanges: Japan and the West 60724.4 Future Trends 619

24.4.1 Globalisation and the Democratisation of Fashion 620

24.4.2 Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles: 'Green' Issues 624

24.4.3 Ethical Fashion 626

24.5 Summary Points 629

24.6 Project Ideas 630

xxiv Contents

24.7 Revision Questions 630

24.8 Further Reading 631

References 632

Electronic Sources 633

CHAPTER 25 Fashion and the Fashion Industry 635

Learning Objectives 635

25.1 Introduction 635

25.2 Emergence, Development and Change in Fashion 636

25.2.1 Fashion Is Evolutionary 636

25.2.2 What Is Fashion Style? 637

25.2.3 Fashion Moves in Cycles 637

25.3 The Standard Fashion-Trend Cycle 638

25.3.1 Style Regeneration 638

25.3.2 The Classic 639

25.3.3 The Fad 639

25.4 Why Fashion Changes? 639

25.4.1 Topman Case Study 639

25.4.2 Topman Case Study: Project Ideas 642

25.4.3 Asos Case Study 642

25.4.4 Asos Case Study: Project Ideas 644

25.5 Revision Questions 645

25.6 Summary Points 645

Magazines/Periodicals 645

References and Further Reading 646

Websites 647

CHAPTER 26 Visual Design Techniques for Fashion 649

Learning Objectives 649

26.1 Introduction 649

26.1.1 Research for Design 649

26.1.2 Planning the Collection 650

26.1.3 Developing the Samples 651

26.2 Why Consumers Buy New Designs 651

26.3 Market Research Methods for Identifying Emerging Consumer

Needs 652

26.4 Finding Inspiration 653

26.4.1 Trade Shows 654

26.4.2 Fashion Forecasting 654

26.4.3 Copyright 654

26.4.4 Creative Thinking Techniques 654

Contents xxv

26.5 Aesthetic Qualities in a Good Design 655

26.5.1 Shape and Silhouette 656

26.5.2 Proportion 656

26.5.3 Colour 656

26.5.4 Fabrics and Trimmings 656

26.5.5 Prints and Motifs 656

26.5.6 Details and Embellishments 657

26.5.7 Styling and Accessories 657

26.6 Design Tools 657

26.7 Moving from Sample to Production 658

26.8 Future Trends: Impact of New Technologies/Processes 658

26.9 Case Study: The Development of a Garment 659

26.10 Summary 666

26.11 Project Ideas 667

26.11.1 Analysing a Collection 667

26.11.2 Finding Trend Information 667

26.11.3 Analysing a Garment 667

26.12 Revision Questions 667

26.13 Sources of Further Information and Advice 668

References 668

Further Reading 668

CHAPTER 27 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-AidedManufacturing (CAM) of Apparel and Other TextileProducts 671

Learning Objectives 671

27.1 Introduction 671

27.2 Fashion and Textile Software Programs 673

27.3 Using CAD to Design Fashion Products 674

27.3.1 Flats/Working Drawings 675

27.3.2 Specification Sheets (Specs) 675

27.3.3 Style Sheets 678

27.4 Other Uses of CAD in Fashion Design 678

27.4.1 Digital Design Library 678

27.4.2 Design Presentations 682

27.4.3 Digital Design Portfolio 682

27.4.4 The Place of the App 685

27.5 CAM in Fashion and Textiles 686

27.5.1 3D Digital and Virtual Fabrication in Textiles and

Fashion 686

27.5.2 New 3D Printing and Fabrication in Textiles and Fashion 688

xxvi Contents

27.6 Case Studies: Fashion Designers Interviewed by Sandra Burke 691

27.6.1 Laura Krusemark 691

27.6.2 Alissa Stytsenko 693

27.7 Summary Points and Project Ideas 700

27.8 Revision Questions 700

27.9 Sources of Further Information and Advice 700

27.9.1 Books 700

27.9.2 Websites 701

27.9.3 Web Resources 702

27.9.4 Open Source Software 702

References and Further Reading 703

CHAPTER 28 Adding Functionality to Garments 705

Learning Objectives 705

28.1 Introduction 705

28.2 Factors Affecting Garment Function 706

28.3 Improving Fabric Handle and Tailorability 706

28.3.1 Fibre Properties 707

28.3.2 Yarn Properties 710

28.3.3 Fabric Properties 710

28.3.4 Dyeing and Finishing 710

28.3.5 Measurement of Fabric Handle and Making-Up 711

28.4 Reducing Wrinkling 712

28.4.1 Factors Affecting Wrinkling and Wrinkle Recovery During Wear 713

28.4.2 Fibre Properties 715

28.4.3 Yarn and Fabric Parameters 716

28.4.4 Mechanical and Chemical Finishing to Reduce Wrinkling 717

28.4.5 Measurement of Wrinkle and Crease Recovery 717

28.5 Reducing Pilling 719

28.5.1 How Pills Are Formed 720

28.5.2 Fibre Properties 720

28.5.3 Yarn Properties 722

28.5.4 Fabric Properties 722

28.5.5 Dyeing and Finishing 722

28.5.6 Measurement of Pilling 722

28.6 Reducing Bagging 724

28.6.1 Fibre Properties 724

28.6.2 Yarn Properties 725

28.6.3 Fabric Properties 725

28.6.4 Garment Construction 725

28.6.5 Finishing 725

28.6.6 Measurement of Bagging 725

Contents xxvii

28.7 Improving Fabric and Garment Drape 726

28.7.1 Fibre Properties 727

28.7.2 Yarn Properties 728

28.7.3 Fabric Properties 728

28.7.4 Dyeing and Finishing 729

28.7.5 Garment Construction 729

28.7.6 Measurement of Drape 729

28.8 Improving Fabric and Garment Durability 730

28.8.1 Fibre Properties 730

28.8.2 Yarn Properties 731

28.8.3 Fabric Properties 731

28.8.4 Garment Design and Fit 732

28.8.5 Dyeing and Finishing 732

28.8.6 Measurement of Fabric Durability 732

28.9 Research and Future Trends 735

28.10 Summary 735

28.11 Project Ideas 736

28.12 Revision Questions 736

References 736

CHAPTER 29 Improving the Comfort of Garments 739Learning Objectives 739

29.1 Introduction 739

29.2 Tactile Comfort 740

29.3 Thermo-Physiological (Thermal) Comfort 742

29.3.1 Factors Affecting the Thermal Insulation of Fabrics and

Clothing 742

29.3.2 Factors Affecting the Moisture (Vapour) Transmission

Properties of Fabric and Clothing 743

29.3.3 Factors Affecting Liquid Water Transport Properties of Fabrics and

Clothing 744

29.3.4 Factors Affecting Garment Fit and Ease of BodyMovement 745

29.4 Measuring Physiological Comfort 746

29.4.1 Tactile Comfort 746

29.4.2 Thermal Contact 746

29.4.3 Thermal Insulation 746

29.4.4 Water Vapour Permeability 747

29.4.5 Liquid Water Transport Properties 749

29.4.6 Garment Fit and Ease of Body Movement 750

29.4.7 Pressure Comfort 750

29.4.8 Formaldehyde Content 750

xxviii Contents

29.5 Psychological Comfort 751

29.5.1 Factors Affecting Psychological Comfort 751

29.5.2 Assessing Psychological Comfort 753

29.6 Improving Waterproofing and Breathability 753

29.6.1 Factors Affecting Fabric and Garment Breathability 755

29.6.2 Measuring Waterproofing and Breathability 757

29.7 Research and Future Trends 758

29.8 Summary 759

29.9 Case Study 759

29.10 Project Ideas 760

29.11 Revision Questions 760

References 760

CHAPTER 30 The Marketing of Fashion 763

Learning Objectives 763

30.1 Introduction 763

30.2 What is Marketing? 763

30.2.1 The Four P's: Product, Price, Place and Promotion 764

30.2.2 The Four C's: Consumer, Cost, Convenience and Communication 764

30.3 The Marketing of Fashion 764

30.3.1 Product Development 766

30.3.2 Retailing Space 766

30.3.3 Communication of the Product 766

30.3.4 Public Relations 766

30.4 Targeting a Market 767

30.4.1 Customer Profiles 768

30.4.2 Seasonal and Occasion Markets 768

30.5 Branding 768

30.5.1 Branding Case Study: Apple Inc 768

30.6 The Traditional Media Channels 769

30.7 New Technologies as Media Channels 770

30.7.1 Web 2.0 and Other Technological Developments 770

30.7.2 Case Study: Wickedweb Digital Marketing Agency 77330.8 The Marketing Plan 774

30.8.1 Case Study 1: 'Evolution' by Katie Lay 774

30.8.2 Case Study 2: 'Stratagem' by Luke Anthony Richardson 78230.8.3 Case Study 3: Commercial Case Study - All Saints of Spitalfields 790

30.9 Future Trends 791

30.9.1 Fashion Forecasting 79130.9.2 New Technologies and Processes 792

30.10 Summary Points 794

Contents xxix

30.11 Project Ideas and Revision Questions 795

30.12 Sources of Further Information 795

30.12.1 Books 795

30.12.2 Trend Forecasting Companies 795

30.12.3 Fashion Forecasting Companies 796

30.12.4 Magazines 796

30.12.5 Websites 796

References 797

CHAPTER 31 The Care of Apparel Products 799

Learning Objectives 799

Abbreviations 799

31.1 Introduction 800

31.2 Wear of Garments 801

31.2.1 Pilling 801

31.2.2 Abrasion 802

31.2.3 Colour Fading 803

31.2.4 Breaking ofYarns and Fabrics 803

31.2.5 Snagging 805

31.2.6 Seam Failure 805

31.2.7 Dimensional Change 806

31.2.8 Other Problems 807

31.3 Stains 808

31.4 Laundering 809

31.4.1 Laundering Chemicals 809

31.4.2 Laundering Aids 811

31.4.3 Laundering Equipment 812

31.5 Care Labelling 813

31.5.1 Care Label Requirements 814

31.5.2 Care Labelling Systems 815

31.6 Clothing Storage 818

31.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 818

31.8 Sources of Further Information 819

31.9 Summary Points 819

31.10 Project Ideas819

31.11 Revision Questions 819

References 820

Glossary823

Index833