Women and Careers

Women and CareersKate, Mansi, Sunny & RockyWomen & Careers Overview of PresentationKey termsContext of presentation scope & limitationsCareers in time and spaceLiterature reviewStatistical overviewChanges to the construct & practice of womens careers in the 20th & early 21st centuries2Welcome

The focus of todays session is Women and Careers.

In the course of our presentation we will be sharing information on women and careers across 3 broad themes.

Our introduction and overview will serve to give context to the subject of Women and Careers, and what were going to focus on today. This is a huge field so we have been fairly specific in the selection of material.

I will present our introduction and provide an overview of what the career theory literature has to say about Women and Careers.

My colleagues XXXXX will then present statistical information about women and careers, focusing on 5 areas. Industry participation by womenOccupational participation by womenEntry and exit as well as periods away from the labour marketLabour force participation part time vs full time, andThe gender pay gap.Given the bi-cultural composition of our group, we have elected to present these statistics as evident in both New Zealand, and India.

We will also present the changing experiences of women in their careers by sharing with you the career experiences of three generations of New Zealand women, and Indian women. These are ourselves, our mothers and our grandmothers.

Women & Careers key termsCareerthe evolving sequence of a persons work experience over time (Arthur, Hall & Lawrence, 1989, p8)A reflection of the relationships between people and the providers of official position[s], namely, institutions or organizations, and how these relationships fluctuate over time (Arthur, Hall & Lawrence, 1989, p8)

3Arthur, Hall & Lawrence define career as the evolving sequence of a persons work experience over time and further state that a career is a reflection of the relationships between people and the providers of official position[s], namely, institutions or organizations, and how these relationships fluctuate over time Women & Careers key termsWorkPaid employment, largely undertaken outside the homeGeneralisationsWomen, Indian Women, New Zealand Women, Western and Non-western: phrases used that imply homogeneity

We will refer to the concept of work throughout the presentation with this context we are defining work as paid employment, largely undertaken outside the hoome.4Women & Careers contextWomens careers in time and spaceTimeframes 20th & early 21st centuriesSpace cultural contextsWestern womens experience of career using New Zealand as a modelNon-western womens experience of career using India as a model

5Given that the field of careers is so wide, and the career as an evolving sequence of a persons work experience over time is an age old phenomenon we have selected to focus on events and change of the 20th and early 21st centuries.

We have also taken an international approach to our research, presenting concepts of careers as applicable to the Western experience, using NZ as a case study, and a non-western experience using India as a case study.Women & Careers literature review Career theoryMultidisciplinary drawing primarily on Psychology and Sociology, and Economics

6Career Theory as an academic set of ideas is a relatively recent phenomenon developing from the 1950s.

Career Theory is multidisciplinary, in that it draws on material across the fields of Psychology, Sociology, Human Resources Management and Economics and has wide ranging applications in these and other fields.Women & Careers literature reviewSonnenfeld & Kotter (1982) identify four types of career theorySociologicalPsychological Sociological and PsychologicalPsychological Women & Careers literature reviewSociologicalConcerned with social class determinants of career outcomesExamples:Blau & Duncan (1967)Chinoy (1955)

Women & Careers literature review2.PsychologicalConcerned with static dispositional differences and their occupational implications Examples: Holland (1973)Strong (1943)

9John Hollands Theory of Career Choice (RIASEC) maintains that in choosing a career, people prefer jobs where they can be around others who are like them. They search for environments that will let them use their skills and abilities, and express their attitudes and values, while taking on enjoyable problems and roles. Behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. Hollands theory is centred on the notion that most people fit into one of six personality types:RealisticInvestigativeArtisticSocialEnterprisingConventional.

Women & Careers literature reviewMore recent combination of psychological and sociologicalFocusing on career stages surrounding occupational choice and developmentExamples:Crites (1981)Dalton & Thompson (1986)Super (1957)

10Super (1957)Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an individuals life situations, all change with time and experience. Super developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each of these 5 stages when they go through career transitions. The stages are:Growth - Development of self-concept, attitudes, needs and general world of work Exploration Trying out" through classes, work hobbies.Tentative choice and skill development Establishment - Entry-level skill building and stabilisation through work experienceMaintenance - Continual adjustment process to improve position, and Decline - Reduced output, prepare for retirement Super states that in making a vocational choice individuals are expressing their self-concept, or understanding of self, which evolves over time. People seek career satisfaction through work roles in which they can express themselves and further implement and develop their self-concept. Women & Careers literature reviewPsychologicalPrincipally based in psychology focusing on broader ideas of adult life course and the relationship of the career to other major life activitiesExamples:Levinson (1978)Vaillant (1977)

11Similar to Women & Careers Career theory, a feminist critiquecareer theory based on normative experiences of Mensuccess equals linear hierarchical promotion to senior positionsDoes career theory incorporate the voice of women?Women & Careers a critical approach to Career theoryGroup Discussiondo you think that a separate body of theory is required to examine and explain the career experiences of women?Women & Careers Feminist approaches to Career theoryKaleidoscope theorySocial cognitive career theory (Emily et al., 2010)Women & Careers New Zealand overviewCensus data readily available conducted every 5 yearsPopulation of 4 MillionFemales comprise 50% of this population(Statistics New Zealand, 2006)Women & Careers Statistical overviewNew Zealand where are the Women?Labour market participation

(Department of Labour, 2010)

Women & Careers Statistical overviewNew Zealand where are the Women- Industry

(Statistics New Zealand, 2010)17Women & Careers Statistical overviewNew Zealand where are the Women - Occupation

(Statistics New Zealand, 2010)18Women & Careers Statistical overviewPercentage of women in managerial position globally

(Toray, 2010)19Women & Careers Statistical overviewPercentage of women in managerial position according to country

(Grant Thornton international business report, 2007)Women & Careers Statistical overviewThe pay gap-where are the Women?

(Radford, 2010)21Women & Careers Statistical overviewNew Zealand- The pay gap

(Statistics New Zealand, 2010)Women & Careers Statistical overviewReasons for Pay GapDiscriminationEducation and Work ExperienceOccupation and IndustryMarriage, motherhood and part time work.Employee rates

(Dwyer, 2006)23Women & Careers Statistical overview

(Statistics New Zealand, 2010)Women & Careers Statistical overview

(Statistics New Zealand, 2010)Women & Careers Statistical overviewDiscussion:Is part time work a solution or trap?Women & Careers Indian contextData source - Census 2001 (conducted every 10 years)Total female population (all ages) 512 million which constitute 48.26% of overall populationOf the 512 million females, 369 million live in rural areas - approximately 73%Among the female population, 35.07 % are girl children (= 60 years)Source-http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdf

Women & Careers Indian context As per Census 2001, among the female population, 35.07 % are girl children (= 60 years) Source- http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdf

Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Labour force participationFemale labour force participation rate 25.7 % whereas that of males is 51.9 %.As per Census 2001, Indian female population consists of 14.68% main workers, 10.95% marginal workers and the remaining 74.37% non workers.Participation of women in the workforce is only-13.9% in the urban sector and29.9% in the rural sector

Source - http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9802.pdf

Can you please explain main, marginal and non-workers29Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?IndustryAgriculture0,48 (millions)32.7 (%)

Mining0,087.1Manufacturing0,9416.7Utilities0,055.8Construction0,077.0Transport, Storage, Communication0,196.8Wholesale And Retail0,058.9Finance, Real Estate, BusinessServices0,3015.6Community, Social, PersonalServices2,8525.8Source- www.wageindicator.orgIndustryFemale share of non-agricultural wage employment is only -17%Participation of women in the workforce is only-13.9% in the urban sector and29.9% in the rural sector

30Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?OccupationMajority are unskilled agricultural workersWomen occupy only 9% of parliamentary seatsless than 4% seats in High Courts and Supreme Courtless than 3% administrators and managers are womenSource- http://www.swayam.info/swayam_gi_leaflet_31mar.pdf

Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Entry, exit and periods out of the workforce

Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Are women just cheap men? The gender pay gap.Womens wages are, on average only 75% the wage paid to men for equivalent work.In no Indian State do women and men earn equal wages in agricultureWomens wages constitute only 25% of the family incomeSource- http://www.swayam.info/swayam_gi_leaflet_31mar.pdf

Women in IndiaVast majority of women work in agricultureFemale workers are relatively youngMost of economic activity is not reflected in the statistics (Due to the huge population)Informal sector- important source of work for womenTechnology does not always improve womens employment Women face wage discriminationSource-http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9802.pdf

STATISTICS- INDIAAs per Census 2001, the work participation rate for females is 25.7 % whereas that of males is 51.9 %.As per Census 2001, Indian female population consists of 14.68% main workers, 10.95% marginal workersand the remaining 74.37% non workers.As per the fifth Economic Census 2005, at all India level, percentage of total adult female workers-In the total persons employed is 19.3 %.(2004-05), at all India level, the share of women in wage employment in non agricultural sectoris 20.23 % in 2004-05 vis-a- vis 16 % in 1999-2000Source-http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdf

Women & Careers Statistical overviewNew Zealand- The pay gap

(Department of Labour, 2010)Women & Careers changes through generationsMani Parmar (1935 )No formal educationMarried at 13, 4 children (3 female children), widowed at 21Took husbands position in mill as hand loom operatorSupported 4 children through this workContinued to work until approx 65 yearsWomen & Careers changes through generationsGauri Bhogle- (1957 - )Attended school from 5 to 24 years of age, got her Masters in Literature and worked as a teacherGot married in 1984 had a child in 1985Planned to study further and got another Masters in Education in 1999Continued to work as a teacher (paid employment)Withdrew from employment and switched to poetry and social work in 2003Released her first book in 2007 working on the release of the second, due in 2011Currently doing a Masters in classical music Source- http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdf

Women & Careers changes through generationsMansi Bhogle (1985 - )Formal education primary/secondary undertaken in Africa, tertiary (India & NZ)Both parents tertiary educatedOnly childEmployed in University as Student CounsellorTravelled widelyEducation level of female population aged 15-49 yearsSource- http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdfLiberalist feminist theory states that women can and will only gain equality with men when included in the academy and the marketplace, in a population in which 45.8% of females are illiterate or receive no formal education, what hope can women have for equality?

40NZ & India comparisonsNew ZealandBritish colonyCurrent members of CommonwealthPopulation:Gender split:52/48 female dominantIndiaBritish colonyCurrent members of CommonwealthPopulation:Gender split: 52/48 male dominantWomen & Careers issues arising Discussion topics?Women and motherhood why is having children more of a burden on women?Work-life balance supportive policies help or hindrance to female career development?Barriers to women achieving career success the glass ceiling Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Entry, exit and periods out of the workforce

Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Labour force participation part time vs full time

Women & Careers Statistical overviewIndia where are the Women?Are women just cheap men? The gender pay gap.

Women & Careers changes through generationsMargaret Moir (1898 - )Born in ScotlandMet and married husband in ScotlandEmmigrated to New Zealand xxxxHad 4 children over xx yearsNever worked outside of the homeUnpaid domestic duties and farm work on the family property

Women & Careers changes through generationsEnid Gates (1924 2005)Attended school from 6 15 years achieving six standard suffiency year 8Worked in the home caring for youngers siblings (3)Left home to work in small milk bar away from home at 16yrsManpowered into Nursing during WW2, becoming a senior MatronMarried in 1966, ceased paid employment in 1970 when husband/father in law discovered she earned more than her husband never returned to paid employmentBecame a parent in 1972Gained financial independence again in 1984 when she qualified for a New Zealand SuperannuationWomen & Careers changes through generationsKate Hamilton (1972 - )Attended school from 5 15 yearsForced by parents to leave school and enter the workforce, no value seen by parents in continued educationLeft home to pursue further education and worked in unskilled jobs to support selfBecame a sole parent at 19 yearsReturned to secondary education at 20 yearsMet and married husbandEntered tertiary at 21, worked part time throughout tertiary study until leaving in 1999.Commenced work in a large Government department in 1999Still with this department, but have had 5 substantive roles within 10 years with same employerWomen & Careers issues arising Discussion topics?Women and motherhood why is having children more of a burden on women?Work-life balance supportive policies help or hindrance?Barriers to women achieving career success the glass ceiling ReferencesDepartment of Labour. (2010). The pay gap. Retrieved from http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/lmr/quick-facts/female-fig05.aspStatistics New Zealand. (2010). Total annual personal income by sex. Retrieved from http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2006CensusHomePage/QuickStats/quickstats-about-a-subject/incomes/personal-income-by-sex.aspx Dwyer, M. (2006). The economic rationales for narrowing the gender gap (pp. 3-11). Auckland: The National Advisory Council.Radford (2010). Formula to determine comparable pay worth. Retrieved from http://gstudies.asp.radford.edu/sources/nz/keyecon.htm

ReferencesToray. (2010). Percentage of women in managerial position globally. Retrieved from http://www.toray.com/guideline/foremployee/personnel/per_004.html(Grant Thornton international business report). (2007). Percentage of women in the managerial position according to country. Retrieved from http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_otfwl2zc6Qc/RgGFNjxHjTI/AAAAAAAAA6Q/3dRjzCmv91A/s1600-h/Women.jpg