Wisdom and Protest

8/8/2019 Wisdom and Protest

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Wisdom and Protest

Abstract

I will argue that the wisdom books of the Bible are unified in purpose and theology, advocating the fear of the

Lord as the beginning of wisdom for both Israel and her Ancient Near Eastern neighbours. Overlaps between

Israels wisdom literature and the wisdom of neighbours in the Ancient Near East means any protest

against the so-called retributive acts-consequences nexus is more likely to be directed at theological ideasimported from the nations than internal.

I will suggest that key for understanding this purpose is contained in the reign of Solomon and his ministry of

wisdom to the nations, reuniting and relocating the wisdom books within the salvation history of Israel.


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Where wisdom fits

The wisdom literature has been described as the embarrassing step-child of Old Testament theology,1

because of both the clear influence of other Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) wisdom, and because there was no

obvious synergy with redemptive history frameworks.2

Some consider the wisdom corpus as natural

theology due to an absence of direct redemptive action from God, rather than direct revelation.3

Difficult waters were muddied further by suggestions that Job and Ecclesiastes were so theologicallydivergent from the Old Testament, they must be considered protest literature, 4 produced to directly refute

the so called acts-consequences nexus supposedly identified in Proverbs.5This system of retribution was a

common ANE belief,6 and it has been demonstrated that elements of Israels community had adopted such a

position.7 Such a reading of Job and Ecclesiastes is possible. But I suggest such retributive theology was a

syncretism with foreign beliefs, that Proverbs itself sought to redress, and more broadly that biblical wisdom

is partly a theological corrective of ANE wisdom, which was inherently religious.8

1 Brueggemann, W, Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy, (Fortress Press:

Minneapolis), 1997, p 334, or errant child Clement, R. E, Wisdom and Old Testament Theology, Wisdom in

Ancient Israel, ed Day, J, Gordon, R.P & Williamson, H.G.M, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), 1995, p

2712 Brueggemann, W, Theology of the Old Testament, p 334, a summary of the redemptive history

understanding and its synchronisation with the wisdom literature can be found in Hubbard, D.A, The Wisdom

Movement and Israels Covenant Faith, Tyndale Bulletin 17 (1966) pp 3-33, on wisdoms international origins

and lack of covenantal features being interpretively problematic see Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology,

(Carlisle: Pa ternoster, 1992), 2002 Edition, pp 20-223 Burdett, D, Wisdom Literature and the Promise Doctrine, Trinity Journal 3 (Spring 1974) p 24

Dell, K.J, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature, (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 1991), Morrow, W.S, Protest

Against God: The Eclipse of a Biblical Tradition, (Sheffield: Phoenix Press, 2007), pp 129-1465

Essentially the idea that righteousness automatically produced material reward, and wickedness produced

punishment, for a discussion regarding how appropriate it is to find such a nexus in Proverbs see Waltke, B,

Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, Andrews University Seminary Studies, Autumn 1996, Vol. 34, No.2, pp

333-334 and Lucas, E, Proverbs: The Act-Consequence Nexus, forthcoming6

Beaulieu, P-A, The Social and Intellectual Setting of Babylonian Wisdom Literature, Wisdom Literature in

Mesopotamia and Israel, ed Clifford, R.J, Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series No 36, SBL: Atlanta,

2006, p 7 suggests that every important Mesopotamian text presupposes that individual misfortune flows

from failure to meet the prescribed actions of the gods, Whybray, N, Two Jewish Theologies: Job and

Ecclesiastes. Wisdom: The Collected Works of Norman Whybray, ed. Whybray, R.N, Dell, K.J, Barker, M, () p 180

suggests the Old Testament shares the nave assumption that virtue brings its own reward with the ANE

world. Fox, M.V, World Order and Maat: a crooked parallel, JANES 23, 1995 pp 37-48 urges caution with

applying the Egyptian concept of Maat to this notion or a retributive order.7 Some argue that Israel developed a calcified reading of Proverbs and a notion of Deuteronomic blessings

and curses being applied to the individual. Many have suggested that this is the underlying philosophy of Jobs

three friends as they seek to explain his suffering. Their assumption that he is suffering as the result of thisretributive theology leads them to place the blame for his circumstances wrongly on his head see Zimmerli,

Walther, Expressions of Hope in Proverbs and The Book of Job, Man and His Hope in the Old Testament,

Studies in Biblical Theology, SCM Press, London, 1971, pp 16-19, Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom: A reappraisal

of the historical and canonical function of Ecclesiastes, (Eisenbrauns, 2006), p 158 Beaulieu, P-A, The Social and Intellectual Setting of Babylonian Wisdom Literature, pp 6-7 a survey of

Mesopotamian wisdom literature summarised the concerns of the traditionally defined wisdom books as

the rejection of hubris, the acceptance of human mortality, and ultimately on the submission to fate and to

the order created by the gods.


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The pursuit of wisdom, and the production of wisdom literature, was an important intellectual and theological

pursuit in the ANE,9

it crossed international borders.10

Examinations of the relationship between the biblical

wisdom corpus and the wisdom of surrounding nations have arrived at varying conclusions, though all

acknowledge cross-pollination of wisdom ideas. Many have rightly rejected the notion that Israel imported

ideas from surrounding nations to develop their own cult,11

but few have suggested that Israel deliberately

interacted with these foreign ideas in order to push people towards a life appropriately geared to the Fear ofYahweh.

The foreign influence in the wisdom literature is apparent on the surface, Proverbs lists two foreign kings as

authors, and none of the characters in Job are presented as Hebrew,12

below the surface the wisdom corpus

reveals a deep familiarity with contemporary ANE wisdom.13

This piece synergises the international influence, and the theological protest undergirding the text, by

adopting an interpretive rubric that places the wisdom literature within Israels redemptive narrative. The

wisdom corpus provides a Yahweh-centric approach to the same eternal questions as ANE wisdom, with the

fear of the Lord offered as a theological corrective. 14

Scholarly consensus is that wisdom literature describes Yahweh as the guarantor of order that makes life in

the world possible,15

most ANE wisdom concerned itself with understanding that order,16

Egyptian wisdom

9 Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology, (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1992), 2002 Edition, p 1 7, Ruffle, op. cit, p 36,

Clifford, R.J, The Wisdom Literature, (Nashville, Abington Press), 1998, p 40 Biblical wisdom literature is thus

truly international, being found in the great empires that dominated Israels world as well as in the

geographically closer cities of the Levant.10 See, for example, Whybray, N, Wisdom In Proverbs:The Concept of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9, (London: SCM

Press, 1965), pp 15-16 on the international conversation taking place between scribes and sages across

international borders.11 For example, Fox, M.V, World Order and Maat, p 4812 On the link this implies with ANE wisdom see Day, J, Foreign Semitic Influence on the wisdom of Israel and

its appropriation in the book of Proverbs, Wisdom in Ancient Israel, ed Day, J, Gordon, R.P & Williamson, H.G.M,

(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), 1995, pp 55-56, Day suggests this international flavour means

Israels wise men were more internationally minded than others within Israel.13

Wisdom that Von Rad points out is under the subject of divine judgment (Wisdom that is the subject of divine

judgment (Isaiah 19:11; 44:25; Ezekiel 28:12ff; and Obadiah 1:8), Von Rad, G, Wisdom in Israel, p 31914 Williams, J.G, Those Who Ponder Proverbs (Sheffield: Almond, 1981), p 53, as an analogous point scholars

have long considered the Genesis account of creation as a corrective of creation narratives from

surrounding cultures including the Enuma Elish a view that has reached broad acceptance with varying

nuance. Enns, P, Inspiration and Incarnation: Evangelicals and the problem of the Old Testament, (Grand

Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), pp 26-27 notes the comparisons with the Enuma Elish and suggests the

contrast in theology was a deliberate contrast with the reigning Babylonian authority.15

Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p 33616

This search for order has oft been conflated with the Egyptian concept of Maat, which has been

traditionally understood as the personification of the truth or order underpinning creation even the gods

were subject to this order. Many have commented on its link with the presuppositions of Biblical wisdom

see Zimmerli, Walther, Expressions of Hope in Proverbs and The Book of Job, Man and His Hope in the Old

Testament, Studies in Biblical Theology, SCM Press, London, 1971, p 15, however Fox, M.V, World Order and

Maat: a crooked parallel, JANES 23, 1995 pp 37-48, at p 38 suggests the scholarly depiction of Maat as

relating to order is wrong and that it almost exclusively means truth and justice, he suggests that the


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placed the order in the hands of the king, who controlled Maat, while Israels king sought to place the control

rightly in the hands of Yahweh.17

A Solomonic Rubric

Solomon is indelibly linked to Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon. Whether or not he was the actual

author,18

or this is simply a royal fiction,19

this is an interpretive key,20

placing the books alongside the Biblical

account of his reign (1 Kings 3-11). In the broader ANE world, especially Egypt, wisdom and royalty went handin hand.21

Solomonic Dating

It is plausible that a deliberate pursuit of wisdom, and collation of wisdom literature, began during Solomons

reign (1 Kings 4:32),22 and possibly that it served an educational purpose.23Those arguing for a late dating of

Proverbs assume that Jewish wisdom evolved from short and incoherent to long and integrated,24

a study of

the structure of comparable wisdom literature from the ANE in around 1,000 BC established similarities, in

concept of a fundamental order of creation was foreign to both Israel and Egypt (p 41) and that Maat, like

Yahweh, was understood as the creator of order. Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology, pp 45-46 suggest

wisdom attempted to grasp the natural order of society, creation and the realm of human conduct.17 Fox, World Order and Maat, p 4118 Kaiser, W.C, True Marital Love in Proverbs 5:15-23, The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K Waltke,

ed J.I Packer and S. K Soderlund, Zondervan Publishing House: Grand Rapids, 2000, p 111, and Kaiser, W,

Ecclesiastes: Total Life, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1979), pp 25-29 advocates for Solomonic authorship of

Ecclesiastes a very minority position.19 Kaiser, O, Qoheleth, Wisdom in Ancient Israel, ed Day, J, Gordon, R.P & Williamson, H.G.M, (Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press), 1995, p 83, Whybray, N, The Social World of the Wisdom Writers, Wisdom: The

Collected Works of Norman Whybray, ed. Whybray, R.N, Dell, K.J, Barker, M, (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing,

2005) p 238 puts Ecclesiastes in the Hellenistic Age, Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology, p 1920

The final form of Proverbs even pays homage to Solomon with a numeric link it contains 375 lines, the

numeric value of his name. Dumbrell, W.J, The Faith of Israel, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 2nd

Edition, p 26321 Burdett, D, Wisdom Literature and the Promise Doctrine, Trinity Journal 3 (Spring 1974) p 3, Clements, R.E,

Wisdom in Theology, pp 104-109 on the royal nature of wisdom in Israel and the ANE, Brueggemann, W,

Solomon: Israels ironic icon of human achievement, (Columbia: University of Southern Carolina Press, 2005),

pp 116-117 follows Von Rad in describ ing a Solomonic enlightenment, though where Von Rad thought it was

actual, Brueggemann sees fiction, Wilson, L, The Place of Wisdom in Old Testament Theology, The Reformed

Theological Review, vol 49, 1990, pp 60-69, at p 6222

Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology, p 18, Ruffle, J, The Teaching of Amenemope and Its Connection With the

Book of Proverbs, Tyndale Bulletin 28, (1977), p 35, Ruffle dates Proverbs in the reign of Solomon,suggesting the scribes and counselors mentioned throughout Samuel and Kings (2 Sa. 8:17; 15:37 20:25 ; 1 Ki.

4:3; 2 Ki. 22:8-10) were more than capable of producing the work, Whybray, N, Wisdom In Proverbs, p 20

suggest the wisdom movement may have originated under Solomon even if the claims of 1 Kings are

hyperbolic.23 See Whybray, N, Wisdom In Proverbs, pp 19-2 124 Steinmann, A.E, op. cit, at p 660, Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p 334, Clements, R.E,

Wisdom in Theology, p 24 describes the process of evolution with Ecclesiastes posited as a third century BC

product, and a post-exilic date for Job and Proverbs 1-9.


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length and form, to Proverbs 1-9,25 further examinations established stylistic and linguistic parallels with

Canaanite and Ugaritic literature,26

chapters 10-29 were also found to be of the same ANE vintage as the rest

of the book,27

and a lexical study suggests a common author of the passages in Proverbs attributed to

Solomon.28

Ecclesiastes is often dated late because it is said to contain Persian loan words, Kitchen (1977)

demonstrates that these loan words had their roots in ancient Semitic languages that pre-existed Hebrew. 29

Job can also plausibly be dated in this time.30

A pre-exilic dating is not necessary in order for the books to be engaging with ANE wisdom, or for a

Solomonic rubric to be valid. The question of Solomons actual involvement with these works is ultimately

interpretively irrelevant. They are, whether actually, or fictively (or both), tied to the account of his reign (1

Kings 3-11, and especially 1 Kings 4:29-34).31

Waltke (1979) suggests the comparison between Solomons wisdom and that of surrounding nations (1 Kings

4:30-31) implies that his proverbs were a part of an international, pan-oriental, wisdom literature. 32

Wright (2006) suggests any wisdom that is associated with Solomon must be connected with the Solomonic

tradition that God should bless the nations in their interaction with Israel. 33

Solomon participates in an international wisdom dialogue with foreign leaders, judges justly, and blesses the

ANE world in fulfillment of the Abrahamic promise (Genesis 12:3), in the manner envisaged by the Psalm 72.

His international focus is evident in his prayer dedicating the temple contains an international injunction (1

25 Kitchen, K.A, Proverbs and Wisdom Books of the Ancient Near East:The Factual History of a Literary Form,

Tyndale Bulletin, 28, 1977, pp 69-114, This study also found that wisdom literature from the period often

included an epilogue.26 Ruffle, The Teaching of Amenemope and Its Connection With the Book of Proverbs, Tyndale Bulletin 28,

(1977), p 35, citing Albright, W. F. Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient Near East, Leiden (V. T. Stipp. 3)

(1960), pp 1-15.27

Whybray, N, Thoughts on the Composition of Proverbs 10-29, The Collected Articles of Norman Whybray, p

7128

Steinmann, op cit. pp 662-67329 Kitchen, K.A, Proverbs and Wisdom Books of the Ancient Near East, pp 106-107, Dumbrell, W.J, The Faith of

Israel, p 284 argues for an early dating of Ecclesiastes on the absence of certain Hebrew constructions that

developed later.30 Kidner, D, The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job & Ecclesias tes, (Leicester: IVP-Academic, 1985) pp 74-7531Again, for the purpose of theological interpretation whether or not that account is historiographic

propaganda or accurate history is largely irrelevant, Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom: A reappraisal of the

historical and canonical function of Ecclesiastes, (Winona Lake: E isenbrauns, 2006), pp 24-25 suggests thatthe allusions to Solomon can not be used for dating the work in a pre-exilic setting, but served to legitimise

the works, at pp 26-27 he argues for such a dating on the basis of Qoheleth providing advice on life in a royal

court.32 Waltke, B.K, The Book of Proverbs and Ancient Wisdom Literature, Bibliotheca Sacra 136 (July-Sept. 1979),

pp 211-238, see also Fox, M.V, World Order and Maat, p 37, Fox suggests Proverbs borrowing from

Amenemope proves communication was open for this most international of genres.33 Wright, C.J.H, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bibles Grand Narrative, Inter-Varsity Press: Nottingham,

2006, p 448


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Kings 8:41-43). It is also feasible to assume that the description of Solomons collection of wisdom crossed

national boundaries.34

The aspects of his reign that I would suggest have bearing on our interpretation of biblical wisdom are as

follows:

1. An interaction with the ideas of the nations and their rulers and wisdom, and thus with the religiousbeliefs of the nations (1 Kings 4:29-34, 1 Kings 10:23-24)

2. A theological focus, and corrective of international wisdom, based on the fear of the Lord (1 Kings8:43).

3. A desire to see the nations come before Yahweh, recognising his rightful position as creator of theworld and the basis of wisdom and righteousness (1 Kings 8:41-43, 59-61, 1 Kings 10:9, Psalm 72).

Each of these elements is present in Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes, and while each book has a distinct

wisdom theme, they are internally theologically consistent when viewed through this rubric.

An International Affair

The reference to Solomons wisdom surpassing that of Egypt and the wisdom of all the men of the east (1Kings 4:30) invites us to compare Israels wisdom with the nations,

35and it is therefore feasible to expect

similar interactions between wisdom literature linked to Solomon and the wisdom literature of the ANE.

Parallels have been established between the wisdom of Israel and the wisdom of Babylon, Egypt,36

and

Sumer,37 Canaan, 38 and the Akkadian empire.39

What about the language barrier?

Rumours of a language barrier seem greatly exaggerated. This oft-cited objection to comparisons, on the

basis of language,40 appears to have been turned over by the discovery of a multi-lingual library of wisdom

34 Ruffle, op. cit, p 6635 Longman III, T, How ToRead Proverbs, (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2002)p 62 agrees.36

Whybray, N, The Social World of the Wisdom Writers, p 242 suggests Israelite wisdom literature constantly

received influence from Egypt, and elsewhere in the ANE, and suggests Israel was nevertotally isolated from

the mainstream of ANE culture.37

Zimmerli, Walther, Expressions of Hope in Proverbs and The Book of Job, Man and His Hope in the Old

Testament, Stud ies in Biblical Theology, SCM Press, London, 1971, p13, We knowtoothatit[Old Testament

wisdom] stands in international relationshiptoequivalents in Egyptas well as in Babylonia, and before thatin

ancientSumer. formore on comparisons with Egyptian wisdom see Beaulieu, P-A, The Social and Intellectual

Setting of Babylonian Wisdom Literature, p8,38 Ruffle, The Teaching of Amenemope and Its Connection With the Book of Proverbs, Tyndale Bulletin 28,

(1977), p35, citing Albright, W. F. Wisdom in Israel and in the AncientNearEast, Le iden (V. T. Stipp. 3) (1960),

pp1-15.39

See, forexample, Beaulieu, P-A, The Social andIntellectual Setting of Babylonian Wisdom Literature, pp3-

19, Bruce, F.F, The Wisdom Literature of the Bible: Introduction, The B ible Studentns 22.1 (Jan. 1951), p7, on

the comparison with Babylonian wisdom see Hurowitz, V.A, The Wisdom of Supe-Ameli, Wisdom Literature in

Mesopotam ia andIsrael, edClifford, R.J, Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series No36, SBL: Atlanta,

2006, pp44-45, Ruffle, op. cit, 3640 Shields, M.A, The Endof Wisdom, p40, suggests the Hebrewliterature uses a vocabulary unparalleledin

similartexts in EgyptandMesopotam ia, buthe cedes thatthe parallels between the literature suggests some

common ground.


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literature at Ugarit. 41This discovery of documents from geographically disparate locations in a city close to

Israel, written in Akkadian, Sumerian, Hittite and Egyptian languages suggests this barrier may be an

overstated obstacle and that ANE scribes were internationally conversant.42

In any case the biblical picture of Israels struggle with foreign idols, and interactions with neighbours, does

not suggest this barrier posed significant communication problems.43

Israel was clearly conversant in

foreign theology, and only a brave argument from silence could suggest that this was not a two-wayconversation.44

The writers of biblical texts are well known to have used forms and genres common elsewhere in the ANE.45

Even the Solomonic historiography (1 Kings 3-11), which firmly establishes wisdom as a defining theme of

Solomons reign,46

is consistent with ANE royal propaganda.47

Same, Same, but Different

The Book of Pro verbs shares much in common, even some con tent, with the Eg yptian Instruction of

Amenemope,48 other similarities between the structure and rhetorical devices49 of Proverbs and other works

from the ANE have been noted,50 Ecclesiastes also embraces common ANE wisdom s tructures.51

Ruffle (1977) suggests an Eg yptian scribe working in Solomons court may have reproduced the Amenemope

passages citing plenty of evidence for cultural contact between nations,52

and argues this view is

consistent both with the context and biblical account.53

41Fyall, R.S, Job and the Canaanite myth, NowMy Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book

of Job, NewStudies in Biblical Theology 12, (Downers Grove: IVP), pp 191-19442 Clifford, R.J, The Wisdom Literature, p 3843 Certainly not when it came to Israel adopting the gods, orwomen, of neighbouring nations.44 Rahabs testimony would be one notable example of a foreignercoming to Yahweh having heard stories of

his greatness.45 Clifford, R.J, The Wisdom Literature, p 2446

The vast majority of occurances of in the so called Deuteronomic History occur in this passage see

Lemaire, A, Wisdom in Solomonic Historiography, Wisdom in Ancient Israel, ed Day, J, Gordon, R.P &

Williamson, H.G.M, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), 1995, p 10747

Lemaire, A, Wisdom in Solomonic Historiography, p 113, Crenshaw, J.L, Old Testament Wisdom: An

Introduction, (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1981), 2010 Edition, pp 44- 4648Especially chapters 22 :17-24:22 which fall within a Solomonic section, Early academic discussion

surrounding the issue is summarised at length in Ruffle, J, The Teaching of Amenemope and Its Connection

With the Book of Proverbs, Tyndale Bulletin 28, (1977), pp 29-68, Crenshaw, J.L, Old Testament Wisdom: An

Introduction, pp 252-26049

The two rhetorical devices in the introduction (Proverbs 1-9) a father instructing his son, and the

personification of wisdom and folly, were common ANE frameworks for wisdom instruction, see Day, J,Foreign Semitic Influence on the wisdom of Israel and its appropriation in the book of Proverbs, On the

personification of wisdom as a Semitic, and Egyptian, tradition see pp 60-69, and on the instruction from a

father to son see the treatment of the Wisdom of Ahiqar, pp 65-66, on both see Sinnott, A, The Personification

of Wisdom,(Ashgate Publishing: Aldershot, 2005), pp 44-45, Longman III, T, How To Read Proverbs, p 70-7750 Ruffle, op. cit, 3651 Crenshaw, J.L, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary, (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987), pp 28-3152 Though he ultimately plays down the significance of similarities between Proverbs and Amenemope, Ruffle,

J, The Teaching of Amenemope and Its Connection With the Book of Proverbs, Tyndale Bulletin 28, (1977), pp


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It may be possible to demonstrate that wisdom borrowing was a two-way street, if Proverbs existed in some

form around the time of Solomon then it is possible that the Aramaic Wisdom of Ahiqar, dated between the 7th

and 5th

centuries BC,54

may have borrowed from Proverbs.55

Several Mesopotamian documents have been strongly linked to Job.56

The Baal sagas from the temple library

of Ugarit shed further light on ANE theology corrected in Job, where Yahweh is presented as being in controlof the chaos of creation.57

Hurowitz (2006), in a survey of the theological content of a Babylonian wisdom piece The Wisdom of Supe-

Ameli concluded that the critique of wisdom contained in Ecclesiastes criticises accepted and widely held

didactic wisdom from the ANE.58 Similar connections have been made between Ecclesiastes and the

Gilgamesh Epic,59

a specific example of dependency comes in the form of the cord of three strands motif

employed in Ecclesiastes (Ecc 4 :9-12) and Gilgamesh (lines 106-110) Two men will not die; the towed rope will

not sink, a towrope of three strands cannot be cut. You help me and I will help you, (and) what of ours can

anyone carry off?60 Other similarities have been noted with the Babylonian The Dialogue of Pess imism,61 and

65-66, the idea of Egyptian sages being employed in Israels court also surfaces in Hubbard, The WisdomMovement, p 653 Ruffle, op. cit, p 66, his evidence includes specific mentions of foreigners holding senior positions at the

Israelite court, and the suggestion that some of Solomon's officia ls have Eg yptian names54 Millard, A, In Praise of Ancient Scribes, Bible And Spade, 2 (Spring-Summer-Autumn 1982) pp 33-46 p 4055

Day, J, Foreign Semitic influence on the wisdom of Israel and its appropriation in the book of Proverbs,

Wisdom in Ancient Israel, ed Day, J, Gordon, R.P, & Williamson, H.G.M, (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1995), pp 55-71 Day establishes a comparison, and the presence of a direct quote in Proverbs 23:13-

14, but suggests Ahiqar has priority, arguing for a later than 1000BC composition of that passage in Proverbs,

Steinmann, A.E, Proverbs 1-9 as A Solomonic Composition, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society,

43/4 December 2000, pp 659-674 at p 666 suggests a dating around that time is feasible, however,

Whybray, N, Thoughts on the Composition of Proverbs 10-29, p 71 suggests Ahiqar was an Assyrian document

contemporary with the Israelite monarchy.56

Clifford, The Wisdom Literature, pp 70-72 identifies three Mesopotamian comparisons the Sumerian

Job A Man and His God, I will Praise the Lord of Wisdom or Ludlul bel nemeqi, and The Babylonian Theodicy

which Clifford argues directly influenced Job, Andersen, F.I, Job: An Introduction and Commentary,

(Leicester: IVP, 1974) pp 24-27, identifies a Ugaritic story called Keret, and an older Sumerian poem, as

grounds for comparison, Blenkinsopp, J, Wisdom and Law in the Old Testament:The Ordering of Life in Israel

and Early Judaism, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p 69, mentions those works and the Dialogue of

Pessimism as possible comparisons, K idner, D, The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job & Ecclesiastes, (Leicester: IVP-

Academic, 1985), pp 125-141 also mentions the aforementioned documents. Von Rad, G, Job 38 and Egyptian

Wisdom, The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays, (London: Oliver and Boyd, 1965), pp 281-291

suggests a comparison between Job and the Onomasticon of Amenemope, and the Papyrus Anastasi I,

suggesting structural similarities between the two, Perdue, L.G, Wisdom Literature: A Theological His tory,(Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2007), pp 85-8957

Fyall, R.S, Job and the Canaanite myth, Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the

Book of Job, New S tudies in Biblical Theology 12, (Downers Grove: IVP), pp 191-19458 Hurowitz, V.A, The Wisdom of Supe-Ameli, Wisdom Literature in Mesopotamia and Israel, ed Clifford, R.J,

Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series No 36, SBL: Atlanta, 2006, p 4559 Bruce, op. cit, p 8, Kaiser, W, Ecclesiastes:Total Life, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1979) pp 38-41 discusses ANE

parallels to Ecclesiastes60

For a more detailed comparison see Day, Foreign Semetic influence, pp 59-62


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several of the texts also compared to Job, and Egyptian texts The Songs of the Harper, The Dispute of a Man

with His Ba, and the Instruction of Ptah-hotep.62

Such comparisons often fall into the same trap experienced by the proverbial pair of hunters who encounter

a fresh pile of manure in the woods.63 Some deny any grounds for comparison,64 others note significant

similarities but see divergent theological views as evidence of little or no influence,65

and minimalists raise

questions about the nature of revelation,66 and see an opportunity for source criticism.67 All agree thatHebrewwisdom deliberately creates a monotheistic distinction from conventional ANE thought. 68 This

deliberate distinction, not the similarities, should provide the most fruit for understanding the relationship

between similar works.69

61 Greenstein, E.L, Sages With a Sense of Humor:The Babylonian Dialogue Between a Master and His Servant

and the Book of Qohelet, Wisdom Literature in Mesopotamia and Israel, ed Clifford, R.J, Society of Biblical

Literature Symposium Series No 36, (Atlanta, SBL, 2006), originally published in Beth Mikra, 44 (1999), pp97-

10662

Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom: A reappraisal of the historical and canonical function of Ecclesiastes,(Eisenbrauns, 2006), pp29-31 draws comparisons with the Babylonian Theology, Ludlul bel nemeqi, and the

Instructions of Ahiqar, also K idner, D, The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job & Ecclesias tes, (Leicester: IVP-Academic,

1985), pp138-139, also Crenshaw, J. L, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary, (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987),

pp51-5263

One says to the other, whats that? the other answers it looks like deer droppings, and leans down to

smell it,it smells like deer droppings, the other tastes it it tastes like deer droppings! Oh, they both say,

its a good thing we didnt stepin it.64 Andersen, F.I, Job: An Introduction and Commentary, (Leicester, IVP, 1974), p24 identifies, two extremes to

avoid when examining comparisons between Job and ANE literature. The first is to contend enthusiastically

for the uniqueness of revelation, the second is to suggest that Israel invented nothing themselves.65 Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom: A reappraisal of the historical and canonical function of Ecclesiastes,

(Eisenbrauns, 2006), p33, after a lengthy list of comparable documents Shields concludes that the

similarities are vague enough to rule out dependency, though they place the books in an ANE context.

Whybray, N, The Social World of the Wisdom Writers, p246 quotes McKane (1970) suggesting the theological

correctives (specifically mentions of Yahweh) in Proverbs 10-29 are embellishments of old wisdom that

was secular in nature, Ruffle, op. cit, pp63-66 suggests that the pursuit of wisdom was so common that such

similarities were inevitable.66 Enns, P, Inspiration and Incarnation: Evangelicals and the problem of the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids:

Baker Academic, 2005), p39 while not advocating the position, Enns suggests that foreign influence on

scripture raises questions about the nature of revelation.67 A question articulated by Ogden, G.S, Qoheleth, (Sheffield:Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2007), pp236-23768

Bruce, F.F, opcit, p8, These distinctive features belong to the unique revelatory character of Hebrew

religion, with its emphasis on the one living and true God Wright, The Mission of God, p446 Theyapproached the wisdom of other nations with the religious and moral disinfectant provided by Yahwistic

monotheism. Clements, R.E, Wisdom in Theology, pp152-153 describes the Yahweh-isation of ANE wisdom

ideas, Longman III, T, How To Read Proverbs, p77 calls it a process of adaptation of ideas into a broader

Jewish understanding of the world. Whybray, N, Wisdom In Proverbs, pp24-25 suggests that the presence of

Yahweh in Hebrew literature isnt enough to show that the wisdom teachings are religious in nature, but that

this is consistent with borrowing from ANE wisdom he calls references to Yahweh superficial.69 Enns, P, Inspiration and Incarnation, p39 makes a similar case criticising the assumption that the more a

biblical text looks like its ANE equivalents the less inspired it is.


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Wright suggests Israels wisdom thinkers and writers took part in an international dialogue with an openness

to discern the wisdom of God in cultures other than their own,70

and that such comparisons lead to the

conclusion that there was a lot of contact between Israels wisdom thinkers and writers and those of

surrounding nations.71

With what shall we fix it? How The Fear of the Lord fits as a corrective

The Fear of the Lord has been identified as a unifying theme in the wisdom corpus for varying reasons.72 It isa point of contrast with international wisdom, when the concept of fear is discussed in ANE literature it is to

be directed towards the king.73 Biblical wisdom, , focuses on fearing not one who controls created

order, but the one who created and controls the order.74

The fear of Yahweh is a touch point of Jewish orthodoxy synonymous with faithful obedience (Deuteronomy

4:10; 5:29; 6:2, 13, 24; 10:12, 20).

The phrase occurs throughout Proverbs (Proverbs 1:7, 2:5, 9:10, 10:27, 14:27, 15:16, 15:33, 16:6, 19:23; 22 :4;

23:17, 3 1:30, and an injunction to fear the Lord occurs in Proverbs 1:29; 3:7; 8:13; and 24:21), it occurs almost

exclusively in the passages tied to Solomon (Chapters 1-24), and does not appear in those collected under

Hezekiah.75

The passages linked to Amenemope and Ahiqar fall in passages attributed to Solomon. Those passages are

either directly proceeded by, or followed by, a reference to fearing Yahweh (Proverbs 22:4, Proverbs 24:21,

and Proverbs 23:17).

The phrase is also used to contrast with the teaching of wise (Proverbs 13:14) and the fear of Yahweh

(Proverbs 14:27), with both considered as the fountain of life. 76

The Fear of the Lord in Job

70 Wright, C, The MissionofGod, p 44171

Wright, C, ibid, p 444, Hubbard, The Wisdom Movement, p 6 alsocomments ona dialogue betweenIsrael

andEgypt as part ofaninternational wisdom movement.72

Kidner, D, Wisdom toLive By (Leicester: IVP, 1985) p 17 sees it as salvaging the wisdom corpus from self-

interest, mutiny anddespair, Kaiser, W.C, TowardanOldTestament Theology (GrandRapids: Zondervan, 1978)

p 170 suggests that it is the organising theological principle ofthe OT wisdom, Wilson, L, The Book ofJob

andthe Fear ofGod, Tyndale Bulletin46.1 (1995) 59-79 provides anoverview ofits use inProverbs, Joband

Ecclesiastes, Dumbrell, W.J, The Faith ofIsrael, p 264 identifies it as the theme ofProverbs, andEcclesiastes

p 285, Clements, R.E, Wisdom inTheology, pp 60-62, holds a post-exilic compilationofProverbs, andthus a

different purpose, suggests that the Fear ofThe Lordis tohelp post-exilic Jews realigntheir faith after the

loss oflandandtemple.

73 Wilson, L, The Book ofJobandthe Fear ofGod, at p 62, cites Derousseaux, La crainte de Dieu, 21-66 whostudiedthe occurance offear inEgyptian, Akkadian, Aramaic andUgaritic texts. Interestingly the king, in

Egypt andMesopotamia, mediatedbetweenthe gods andsociety maintaining the social order inharmony

with nature andthe divine see Wright, G.E, The OldTestament Against Its Environment, Studies inBiblical

Theology, (London: SCM Press, 1950), p 6374 Onits uniqueness inWisdom literature see Ruffle, op. cit, p37,75 Steinmann, A.E, Proverbs 1-9 as A Solomonic Composition, Journal ofthe Evangelical Theological Society,

43/4 December 2000, pp 659-674 at p 66676

Stay tunedfor the bit below where life inProverbs andEgyptianwisdom get mindblowingly explored


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Job does not use the same Hebrew construction as Proverbs (preferring alternatives like to

).77

A thematic link between fear, God, and wisdom is drawn several times (Job 1:1, 8, 9; 2:3; 4:6; 6:14;

15:4; 22:4; 28:28; 37:24).

Job 28s wisdom poem is an important thematic point. Some see it paying homage to traditional retributive

proverbial wisdom, which is then rebutted in the concluding chapters,78

the view concludes that the fear of

the Lord is not the complete answer to Jobs dilemma. 79 It seems more likely that this chapter is directed at

foreign concepts of wisdom.

Greenstein (2003) argues that Job 28 contains deliberate correctives against ideas of godly wisdom from

Mesopotamian, Babylonian, Canaanite, Akkadian, Ugaratic, Sumerian and S yrian poetic expressions of

wisdom.80 Job 28s view of wisdom corrects two common ANE misconceptions of the source of wisdom,

where wisdom was understood as originating from a distant God located either in the heights or depths of

creation.81

Job 28 locates wisdom not in the deep or the sea (28 :1-22, especially 14), but in the fear of the

Lord (28:28) because he knows where wisdom dwells (28:23), tests it (28:27). Chapters 38-42 establish

Yahwehs case for being feared. He is the creator of all things, and he holds them under his sway.

The Fear of the Lord in EcclesiastesThe fear of the Lord is present in Qoheleths exploration of wisdom (Ecc 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13) and most

importantly guides the interpretation of his work in the epilogue (12 :13).

The epilogist sees the fear of the Lord as a fitting summary of Qoheleths quest. While some dismiss this

insertion as a late intrusion that radically alters the message of Ecclesiastes, 82 Shead (1997) used a semantic

comparison with the rest of the book to argue for a common author, and thus for the epilogues centrality in

interpreting the text,83 Shields (1999) concurs on the centrality of the epilogue,84 specifically the centrality of

Fear God and keep his commandments (Ecc 12 :13),85

but he rejects Sheads structuralist approach.86

Shields sees Qoheleth protesting against the wisdom movement a group of professional sages operating in

77 Wilson, L, The Book of Job and the Fear of God, pp 66-67 suggests this is consistent with the Fear of

Yahweh employed elsewhere.78

Wilson, L, The Book of Job and the Fear of God, pp 69-7379 Wilson, L, The Book of Job and the Fear of God, p 7380

Greenstein, E.L, The Poem on Wisdom in Job 28 in its conceptual and literary contexts, Job 28: Cognition in

Context, ed. Van Wolde, E.J, Leiden:Brill, 2003, pp 253-28181 According to the second model, wisdom is hidden from human view and is hidden in the depths of the earth.

According to the first model, a solar-like divine power can bring the hidden to light and illuminate its details.

Both models underlie the poem on wisdom in Job 28. Greenstein, E.L, The Poem on Wisdom in Job 28 in its

conceptual and literary contexts, Job 28: Cognition in Context, ed. Van Wolde, E.J, (Leiden:Brill, 2003), p 263,

he later identifies a favourable comparison between Yahweh and a Babylonian Sun God, because Yahweh, in

Job 28 sees and penetrates into all that is hidden, can see to the bottom of the earth as well, and it istherefore he alone who knows where wisdom is located.

81

82I am much more interested in dealing with the final form of the text than engaging in source criticism -

Wilson, L, The Book of Job and the Fear of God, p 63 agrees - suggesting that the epilogue both affirms the

questioning nature of the book and provides a foundational principle for daily living.83 Shead, A. G, Reading Ecclesiastes Epilogically Tyndale Bulletin 48.1 (1997) 67-91.84 Shields, M.A, Ecclesiastes And The End Of Wisdom, Tyndale Bulletin 50.1 (1999), p 121,85 Shields, Ecclesiastes And The End Of Wisdom, p 12486

Shields, Ecclesiastes And The End Of Wisdom, pp 121-124


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Israel, and indeed throughout the ANE.87 A position best summed up in the teachers own words No one can

comprehend what goes on under the sun E ven ifa wise man claims he knows, he cannot really comprehend

it. (Ecc 8:16-17).88

The Fear of the Lord and the nations

Israels covenantal blessing ofthe nations (Gen 12 :3) is widely understood to have functioned centripetally.89

This model ofunderstanding the wisdom literature may call such an understanding into question. Israelsobedience to Yahweh was to be a demonstration to the nations, who were to respond Surely this great

nation is a wise and understanding people (Deuteronomy 4 :6). Wisdom had a role to play. Presenting a

critique ofwisdom ofsurrounding nations, and proffering a plausible alternative, may have been the impetus

for the type ofcentripetal movement depicted in Micah 4:2.

Solomons dedication ofthe temple (1 Kings 8 :41-43) desires that the people ofthe nations might fear the

Lord. Psalm 96 has been described as a missionary Psalm,90 it calls for declarations ofhis glory and

authority among the nations (verses 3, and 10), calling them to fear him above all gods (verse 4). Kaiser

(2000) suggests this is evidence ofa centrifugal outreach in Israel.91The presence ofthis international

interaction and the thematic importance ofthe fear ofthe Lord may provide some support for this view.

Case Study: the Acts-Consequences Nexus and the nations

The so called acts-consequences nexus is central to theories ofprotest within the wisdom corpus. The

premise that Proverbs asserts such a worldview, or perhaps that a calcified misinterpretation ofProverbs

gave birth to a retributive theology in Israel, while Job and Ecclesiastes protest against it, has found

significant scholarly support. 92 However, this retributive view ofthe world was not limited to Israel, it was a

fundamental assumption underpinning the beliefs ofmany ANE nations, and a motivation in the pursuit of

wisdom.93

Internal Protest

Von Rad (1972) suggests Jewish wisdom presupposed Yahweh as the order underpinning creation who would

only act at last resort. 94 In order to reach this view he inexplicably dismisses Proverbs that call for trust in

the Lord (Proverbs 3:5; 14:26; 16:3, 20; 18:10; 19:23; 28:25; 29:25; 30:1-14). The extreme version ofthis view

87Shields, Ecclesiastes And The End Of Wisdom, pp 125-129 regarding the presence of similar ideas in the

Ancient Near East: Qoheleths words have always (so far as we can determine) troubled those who have

read them and tried to understand them against the background of the faith of Israel. They do not fit easily

with the wisdom of other sages as recorded in Proverbs (or, for that matter, from other sources in the

Ancient Near East), and the wisdom of Qoheleths contemporaries could probably also be included.

Consequently, it would be tempting to dismiss Qoheleths words and adhere to the more traditional

conclusions of the sages (which could perhaps best be described as pleasing words). The epilogist here

makes clear that the words of Qoheleth are true. Where other sages may have offered different advice, they

are the ones who should be considered to be incorrectnot Qoheleth.

88 Shead, op. cit89

Kaiser, W.C, Missions in the Old Testament: Israel as a Light to the Nations, (Grand Rapids : Baker Books,

2000), p 37, Scobie, C.H.H, The Ways of Our God: An integrated approach to Biblical Theology, (Grand Rapids,

Eerdmans, 2003) p 52090 Kaiser, W.C, Missions in the Old Testament, pp 34-36.91 Kaiser, W.C, Missions in the Old Testament, p 3592 Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom, pp 238-23993 See note 6.94

Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, p 191


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reduces God to a deistic first-cause with a hands-off approach to creation,95 and in this view the Yahweh of

Proverbs functions the same way as the gods of the ANE.96

A retributive reap-what-you-sow theology is bound to result in disappointment in a broken world. Seemingly

good people suffer, protest literature exploring this disappointment is common in the ANE.97 Whybray

suggests Israels protest literature was not unique, nor dependant on foreign works.98

This view of protest within the canon has become popular in modern wisdom scholarship,99 and some have

tried to identify retributive theology in the ethics of the prophets, suggesting it played an important role in

Jewish theology.100 Any concept of retributive theology legitimately found in the Old Testament is carefully

grounded in the will of Yahweh,101

and is usually the fruit of a promise.102

I would suggest this view actually

describes the purposes of the wisdom authors in addressing ANE conceptions of reality.

Ecclesiastes and Wisdom

If Ecclesiastes is understood as a protest against the mindless pursuit of wisdom characterised by the

wisdom movement typified by the statement in 8:16-17, then this has been interpreted as a critique of

Proverbs embracing of wisdom Wisdom is supreme, therefore get wisdom (Proverbs 4:7).103

However, it is possible that both statements reflect two sides of the same coin if they are read in the light of

the Fear of the Lord (Proverbs 1:6, Ecclesiastes 12 :13). Qoheleths objection to the wisdom movement must

then be understood as a rejection of the wisdom movement as it exists in the ANE.104

Job and Retribution

Job maintains his blamelessness in the face of his friends, who clearly advocate a doctrine of retribution (for

example Elihus words in Job 34 :4-9). 105 His words in 9 :22 speak out against such a doctrine, and his views on

95Waltke, B, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, Andrews University Seminary Studies, Autumn1996, Vol. 34,

No.2, pp 333-334 citing Huwiler, E.F, "Control of Reality inIsraelite Wisdom" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke

University, 1988), p 6496 Whybray, N, The Social Worldof the Wisdom Writers, p 246, Blenkinsopp, J, Wisdom andLawinthe Old

Testament, p 46 suggests the acts-consequence nexus is anunhelpful hangover from Israels adaptationof

oldwisdom.97 Dell, K.J, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature, (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 1991), p 3898

Whybray, N, Two Jewish Theologies, p 18199 See Morrow, W.S, Protest Against God, pp 129-146, Dell, K.J, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature, pp 35-

56, Shaking A Fist At God: Insights from the Book of Job (Ligouri:Triumph Books, 1995), pp 37-66, Enns, P,

InspirationandIncarnation, pp 74-82100 Hubbard, The Wisdom Movement, p 11 citing Gerstenberger, E. 'The Woe-Oracles of the Prophets', Journal

of Biblical Literature 81 (1962) 249-263101

Lucas, E, The Acts-Consequences Nexus, p 8 suggests any character-consequences nexus inProverbs is

not the result of animpersonal order, but rather the will of Yahweh.102

Israels occupationof the PromisedLandwas certainly linkedto their righteousness cf Deuteronomy 30.103

Enns, InspirationandIncarnation, p 78104 Crenshaw, J.L, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary, p 24 suggests Qoheleths rejectionof observing signs is a

rejectionof Mesopotamianwisdom, andp 26 suggests his embrace of life as opposedto suicide contrasts

with EgyptianandMesopotamianskepticism.105 Some have suggestedthat Jobs friends are representatives of the wisdom movement, or that all the

characters are sages, Perdue, L.G, Wisdom Literature: A Theological History, pp 90-91, Zimmerli, Walther,

Expressions of Hope inProverbs andThe Book of Job, ManandHis Hope inthe OldTestament, Studies in


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Yahwehs rule of the world, and his own righteousness, are vindicated when Yahweh rebukes the friends

because they have not spoken of me what is right (Job 42 :7,8), dismissing any possible inkling of an acts-

consequences nexus.

A major theological purpose of Job seems to be to overturn retributive theology, 106 theology that is

commonplace in the ANE,107

and not as clearly advocated in Proverbs as some suggest.108

The Problem with the proverbial Acts-Consequences Nexus

Waltke (1996) rejects what he perceives as three common aspects of the internal protest theory:

1. Solomon was a dullard who failed to understand reality2. Proverbs contains promises that are not true3. The aphorisms within Proverbs present probabilities not promises. 109

Treating the book as a cohesive unit, rather than treating its aphorisms as axioms, radically countermands all

three of these positions. This approach produces a balanced view of the world without an absolute law of

cause and effect.110 It is possible that Proverbs dealt with the ends of life rather than the means, and

further that it dealt with the eternal consequences of temporal decisions (Proverbs 12 :28).111

There are several proverbs (Proverbs 15:16-17; 16:8, 19; 17:1; 19:22b; 22 :1; 28:6) that explicitly link righteous

acts with poverty, and criminal acts with wealth, and others focus on failures of justice (Proverbs 10:2; 11:16;

13:23; 14:31; 15:25; 18:23; 21:6, 7,13; 19:10; 22 :8, 22; 23:17; 28:15-16, 27).112

These fly in the face of this acts-

consequences concept,113 most importantly, is the notion in Proverbs 15:16, that the Fear of the Lord can be

coupled with having little, and that this is better than wealth.

Suggestions of an acts-consequences nexus may result from an under-realised eschatology. Proverbs

suggests the consequences of righteous or wicked decisions may not come until the end of life (Proverbs

11:4,7, 18, 2 1, 23, 28; 12 :7, 12; 14:32; 15:25; 17:5; 19:17; 20:2, 2 1; 21:6-7, 22:8-9, 16; 23:17-18; 24:20). The

Biblical Theology, SCM Press, London, 1971, pp 16-19, When confronted with Jobs plight, Eliphaz calls on Job to

return to God, Bildad links righteousness and hope, and Zophar demands Job turn to righteousness. For

Zophar the question is straightforward, if Jobs fortunes are in tatters then his righteousness is in question

(Job 11), that the friends understanding of the underlying order of things, Dumbrell, W.J, The Faith of Israel, p

259 suggests the dialogues explores the limits of traditional wisdom before turning to an understanding of

the world centred around Yahwehs controlling interest.106 See Dell, K.J, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature, pp 35-56107 Dell, K.J, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature, p 39, Blenkinsopp, J, Wisdom and Law in the Old

Testament, p 48 suggests retribution was a common theological belief of the ANE.108 For example, Dell, K.J, Shaking A Fist At God, p 40, Dell suggests Jobs friends draw their theological

inspiration from Proverbs.

109 Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, pp 322-325110

Shields, M.A, The End of Wisdom: A reappraisal of the historical and canonical function of Ecclesiastes,

(Eisenbrauns, 2006), p 15111 Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, pp 323-32 7, Lucas, E, Proverbs:The Act-Consequence Nexus,

forthcoming, p 4112 Van Leeuwen, R.C, "Wealth and P overty: System and Contradiction in Proverbs," Hebrew Studies 33 (1992):

p 29, Lucas, E, Proverbs:The Act-Consequence Nexus, forthcoming, p 7 suggests these better than

Proverbs113

Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 326


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eschatological view point of Proverbs is best articulated in 24 :14-16,114 and 12 :28, which Waltke suggests

contains a promise of immortality.115

The absence of such an undertone in Ecclesiastes and Job is a result of

their more temporal concerns.116

This eschatological concern is uncommon in the Old Testament.117 But securing a place in the afterlife was a

primary concern of Egyptian wisdom. Egypts wisdom schools were called Schools of Life, for this reason.118

Egyptian wisdom presented the gods of Egypt as subjects to the established order, 119 and the afterlife as tiedto living life in accordance with maat. 120 Proverbs holds that Yahweh created, and controls this order, 121 and

mans hope is found in fearing him. 122

The evidence for protest against conventional wisdom is strong in Job and Ecclesiastes,123

but it is plausible

to suggest Proverbs was not the target.124

A simple reductionism of the works into a battle between optimism

and pessimism will no longer suffice.125

An international theological dialogue tying the wisdom literature to redemptive history

The people of Israel had a predilection for harnessing themselves to the international theological zeitgeist, a

propensity typified by their well-documented struggle with idolatry, and their geographical position as a

political football between Assyria and Egypt meant they experienced a socio-political identity crisis, so it islikely that the primary function of any critique of foreign theology was internal.

126

114Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 326

115 A position adopted by the NIV but not the ESV, Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much, pp 329 -330116 Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 327, notes they are concerned with events under the sun

and focus on the righteous man flattened on the mat for the count often; they do not focus on his rising,

though they do not rule that out.117 So much so that questions are raised as to whether Israel had any concept ofan afterlife. It is fair to say

that the notion ofa resurrection had developed by the time Paul used it to split the Pharisees and Sadducees

so it is not an idea completely foreign to Old Testament theology. A case could, perhaps, be made for Jobsapparent change ofheart regarding retribution (Job 27) to be attributed to an eternal viewofthe world

and judgment coming at death.118 Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 328 citing Crosser, W "The Meaning of'Life' (Hayyim) in

Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes," GlasgowUniversity Oriental S ociety Transactions, 15 (1955), pp 51-52119 Wright, G.E, The Old Testament Against Its Environment, S tudies in Biblical Theology, (London: SCM Press,

1950), p 44120 Sinnott, A, The Personification ofWisdom, p 41 Maat is important for personal immorality and the

entire basis for the Egyptian understanding ofthe world, however, Fox, M.V, World Order and Maat: a

crooked parallel, suggests Maat is not a cut and dried retributive system121

Waltke, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 333122

Zimmerli, Expressions ofHope in Proverbs and The Book ofJob, p 24123 Shields, M.A, The End ofWisdom, p 35 suggests that the apparent distinctive thoughts ofQoheleth have

common ground with Ancient Near East wisdom well before the exile.124 Shields, M.A, The End ofWisdom, p 16 suggests the wisdom movement is Jobs target, and that the story o f

Job demonstrates that God is not subject to the retributive system that had been established by the sage.125

Waltke, B, Does Proverbs Promise Too Much?, p 323, Nonevangelical academics, tend to pit the

optimism ofthe so-called older wisdom represented in the Book ofProverbs against the pessimism

ofthe so-called younger, reflective wisdom represented in the books ofJob and Ecclesiastes.126

Which is one ofthe great ironies ofa link to Solomon.


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I propose that the wisdom literature adopted and critiqued the wisdom conventions of surrounding nations in

the same way that Israels historians adopted and critiqued stories of creation and the flood from the ANE

and contrasted them with an account grounded in the actions of Yahweh.127

A true understanding of wisdom,

like a true understanding of history, is grounded in understanding Yahwehs involvement in the world, not in

its ANE equivalents. If the wisdom literature is an apologetic for Yahweh as the author of life, in a deliberate

comparison with other ANE gods,128

and if this apologetic occurs in the context of an international wisdom

conversation, then it was both didactic for the people of Yahweh, and a declaration to the nations.

Many have commented on the present day use of wisdom literature for apologetics and evangelism because

they present universal truths unrestricted by culture.129 But only some seem prepared to push this purpose

back into Old Testament times seeing biblical wisdom apologetically engaging with ANE culture.130

Clements (1995) suggests a lack of covenantal presuppositions enabled [the wisdom literature] to serve as

an internal apologetic to Jews and as a non-national basis for religiously motivated moral teaching of a high

order which in turn linked the fear of the Lord with the way of wisdom. 131

While this apologetic may not have been a direct pointer to the mechanism of salvation, it was a pointer to its

author, couched in the international language of the day.132

An apologetic critique of the best of contemporary philosophy is strikingly similar in approach to Pauls

criticism of Greek wisdom in Acts 17133

and as Qoheleth reminds us time and time again, there is nothing

new under the sun.

Bibliography

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Beaulieu, P-A, The Social and Intellectual Setting of Babylonian Wisdom Literature, Wisdom Literature in

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2006, pp 3-19,

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127 For a discussion of this process see Enns, Inspiration and Incarnation, pp 49-56.128 Wright, op. cit, p 444, suggests wisdom literature warns against foreign gods as seriously as the law and

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Hubbard, The Wisdom Movement, pp 30-31, Wright, op. cit, pp 442-455

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Documents

Wisdom and Protest