European Protest and Coercion

European Protest and Coercion 1980-1995

Kristen Anderson

Database Background Information

Criteria: Includes all protest and state repressive events with no size minimums or maximums. Only included events with an identifiable date and location. Also included economic conflicts.

Examples: strikes, occupations, hunger strikes, vigils

What’s not included: plans for future protests and strikes, or bombing threats.

Note: Many of these countries were communist during this time period, and experienced regime and government system changes.

Frequency of Protest Events Per Country from 1980-1995

Number of protest/coercive events

European country

Austria

Albania

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cyprus

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finlan

d

France

Federal

Republic of G

erman

y

German

Democratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Irelan

d0

2000400060008000

10000120001400016000

Mean and Range

Mean: 3,107 events per country

Range: (France— Cyprus) 14,119 events

Overall, the frequencies of protest/coercive events rose in every country from 1980-1990.

Pattern: General spike upwards around the year 1990.

Most Typical Case - Greece

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Number of Protest/C

oercive Events

Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995

Year

Outlier - FranceFrequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995

Number of Protest/C

oercive Events

Year

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Outlier - Cyprus

Number of Protest/C

oercive Events

Year (in 3 year increments)

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

10

20

30

40

50

60Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995

Violence Matrix Placement –Whole Database

State

Challenger

Violence Matrix Placement –Types of protest and repression, and government response

Challenger

State

Strike

Torture

Gunfight

Deployment

Boycott

Exit

Assassination

PetitionMobilization

Seizure

Convict

Hostage

Regime Transition

Protest and repression actions defined and coded:

accede: state, company or authority accommodates dissident demandadaptation: dissident change in tactic that precludes a state actionagreement: dissidents agree to state offer or compromiseappeal: dissident objects to ruling and goes to court or higher courtarrest: arrests and detainment related to protest (see also preempt)arson: deliberate burning of a building for political reasonsassassination: political murder of state, corporate or group leadersassault: group beating or assaultattack: direct military-style or violent group attack on symbols of the state, or of police against dissidentsbeating: physical assault by police, between dissident groups or by a protest groupblockade: state seals off dissidentsbomb: report of the presence of an explosive device, whether detonated or notboycott: politically based refusal to act, buy, or cooperatebreak in: entering a building, base or compound for protest or repression purposes

Continuedcancel: dissident group calls off eventcensor: state precludes or revises publications/speech of dissidentsclosure: dissidents or firms close office due to state or other dissident demandsconvict: try and convict dissident in courtcurfew: limit of citizens’ time to be on the streetscivil disobedience: non-violent purposeful violation of state lawscommitment: state decision to commit dissidents into insane asylums.confiscate: state takes property from dissidentsconfrontation: direct faceoff between two opposing groupsconvoy: a line of vehicles of the state or dissidents for conflictcoup: a coup d’état, takeover (or attempted takeover) of the government by elites, usually the military declare: public oral protest statementsdemonstration: protest gathering that generally moves short distances or focuses on a specific targetdeployment: allocation of state forces in location to prevent or resist protestdeport: state expels dissident from the countrydestroy: to destroy or ruin property for political reasonsdisband: a dissident organization dissolves

dismiss: to release an employee because of dissentdisrupt: to disturb or stop a rally, meeting, or a state eventescape: dissidents escape from state custodyexit: emigration or escapeexclusion: barring certain types of people from an organizationexpulsion: state forces dissidents outside an institution or the countryextort: make demand on threat of punishment if the demand is not acceptedextradite: to arrest and send a dissident to another countryfight: active conflict between state and dissidents or among dissidentsfine: to assess a financial penalty for dissentforce: state exerts force in opposition to dissentgeneral strike: strike across a city, region, industry or countrygunfight: battle between dissidents and state or dissident groups using gunsharass: low-level repression; constant surveillance, interference in living or dissident actionhide: dissident goes underground to avoid arrest and/or repressionhijack: illegally taking over a vehiclehostage: the taking of one or more hostageshunger strike: refusal to accept food for political reasons; forced state feeding is reportedimpeachment: legal removal of state official that was demanded by dissidents

march: group movement from one point to another for a political reasonmartial law: state suspension of civil liberties and dictatorship control of the countrymobilization: activity designed to increase support of a movementmotorcade: protest on vehiclesmurder: killing for political reasons other than assassination or bombingNegotiation: bargaining between state and dissidents or between conflictual groupsobstruction: blocking space, e.g., roadblocksoccupation: occupying state buildings or workplacesoffer: a low-level compromise communication from the state to dissidents or dissidents to the stateouster: police intervene in an occupation and remove dissidentspetition: formal petitions, letters and written statements of protestpreclude: state refusal to allow dissident free actionspreempt: state action that attempts to prevent protest, e.g., mass arrests before a demonstrationpress conference: dissidents call in the press to make their caseproscribe: forbid the existence of a dissident groupraid: police attack on dissident dwellings or group buildingrally: stationary protest gatheringrefuse: dissidents resist state orders or commands

reject: dissidents spurn state or alternative dissident offerregime transition: the changeover from one regime-type to anotherrelease: to free a hostage or prisonerrepression: general action against dissidentsresign: withdrawal from a position as protestriot: generally used for violent prison protests, but also applies to purposeful violence against policerobbery: protest group steals goods or money to support itselfsabotage: larger-scale harm or destruction of property by dissidents; no direct harm to peoplesearch: state searches dissident’s body, property, or home or for a hostageseizure: state seizes dissident propertyshooting: state or dissidents using firearms, but one-sided shootingslowdown: work-by-rule as a political proteststatement: a group makes a public statementstrike: withholding labor for economic or political reasonssuicide: suicide or attempted suicide for political reasonsupport: citizen or business assistance to dissidentssuspend: temporarily release state forces from duty as a punishmentsymbolic: street theatre, protest against symbols (e.g., statues), and symbolic action (e.g., clothes)

terror: use of terror tactics for political reasonstorture: systematic harm to dissidents by police or state force under the state’s control or by a rival grouptrespass: illegally enter restricted areastrial: state trials of dissidents for political reasonsultimatum: threatening if an action is not done unraveling: the dissolution of political organizations into parts (see Paul Johnson, vandalism: low-scale property destruction by dissidents or Skinheads; involves no injury or deathvigil: constant dissident presence, as at a shrine or grave of a martyrwithdrawal: removal of state forceswithholding: refusal to provide funds

Albania

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

100

200

300

400

500

600



Year

Albania Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Majority of challenger events were occupations, demonstrations, and strikes, lasting for long durations of time. There were also some exits and a few bombs.

- 4 challengers were arrested out of 13,450 total.

- 2,303 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 3 state officials.- 136 challengers killed, as

compared to 10 state officials killed.

Austria

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

10

20

30

40

50

60

70



Year

AustriaViolence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- The most common events were demonstration, bomb, obstruction, and strikes. The time period between the frequency of these events was substantial.

- 1,258 protestors arrested out of 8,645,612 challengers total.

- 100 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 90 state officials. - 6 challengers were killed, as compared to 10 state officials.

Belgium

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200

250

300



Year

Belgium Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Most of the events were strikes and demonstrations, along with hostage, vigil, and a few bombs.

- 3,298 challengers were arrested out of 67,869,859 total.

- 760 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 188 state officials injured.

- 2 challengers and 2 state officials were killed.

Bulgaria

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450 Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995


Year

Bulgaria Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events varied and consisted of hunger strikes, exits, vigils, occupation, symbolic, boycott, and one assassination. - Of 5,528 challengersarrested out of 58,099,342 total.- 3,546 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 44 state officials injured.- 118 challengers were killed as compared to 2 government officials.

Cyprus

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

10

20

30

40

50



Year

Cyprus Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events were mainly demonstrations, rallies, vigils, and strikes. - 644 arrested out of 4,087,074 challengers total. - Additionally, 37 challengers were injured, as well as 26 state officials. - Of these, 3 challengers were killed as opposed to 1 state official.

Czech Republic (Czechoslovakia)

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200



Year

Czech Republic Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1992

State

Challenger

- Events were mainly arrest, petition, hunger strike, and demonstration.

- 3,674 challengers were arrested out of a total 25,489,188.

- 681 challengers injured compared to 20 government officials injured.

- 9 challengers killed. No government officials killed.

Denmark

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200

250



Year

Denmark Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events were overwhelmingly strikes, with some demonstrations and boycotts.

- 1,524 challengers arrested out of 9,389,262 total.

- 128 challengers injured as compared to 100 state officials injured.

- An equal number of challengers and state officials were killed, which was 1.

Finland

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180



Year

Finland Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events were overwhelmingly strikes.

- 216 challenger arrests out of 15,321,818 total.

- 1 challenger was injured, and 0 state officials.

- There were 0 deaths as a result of challenger events to either side.

France

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

500

1000

1500

2000



Year

France Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1992

State

Challenger

- Events varied widely and were most every day.

- 9,532 challenger arrests out of 21,820,726 total.

- 7,855 challengers injured, as compared to 1,433 state officials injured.

- 53 challengers were killed, a compared to 41 state officials killed.

Federal Republic of Germany

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

200

400

600

800

1000

1200


Year


Federal Republic of Germany Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events mostly included demonstrations, rallies, strikes, and obstruction.

- 66,674 challengers arrested out of 74,084,911.

- 3,613 challengers injured, as compared to 2,300 state officials injured.

- 25 challengers killed as compared to 34 state officials.

- (NOTE: THERE IS A LIKELY DISCREPANCY IN THE DATA. IN FRG years 87-89, there is an event listed as killing 5,000,000 state officials on July 13, 1988. PROBABLY A TYPO. This discrepancy was not taken into account for data gathering purposes.)

German Democratic Republic

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 19920

100

200

300

400

500

600


Year


German Democratic Republic Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events mainly included demonstrations, hunger strikes, and obstruction.

- 8,358 challengers arrested out of 12,473,497 total.


- 3 challengers were killed, as compared to 1 state official.

Greece

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450


Year


Greece Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events mostly included strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts.

- 3,560 challengers arrested out of 67,806,154.


- 14 challengers killed as compared to 25 state officials.

Hungary

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80


Year


Hungary Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events mainly included hunger strikes, demonstrations, and petitions.- 472 challengers arrested out of

5,053,908 total.- 10 challengers were injured as

compared to 1 state official.- 1 challenger was killed and 0 state

officials were killed.

Ireland

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 19960

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800


Year


Ireland Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995

State

Challenger

- Events mainly include strikes, demonstrations, and occupations.

- 1,356 challenger arrests out of 48,574,496 total.

- 1,478 challengers had injuries, as compared to 781 state officials injured.

- 4 challengers were killed, as compared to 10 state officials.

European Countries Number of Challengers Arrested, 1980-195

Number of Challengers Arrested

Austria

Albania

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cypru

s

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finland

France

Federa

l Republic

of Germ

any

Germany D

emocratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

European Country

Number of Challengers Arrested

European Countries Number of Challenger Injuries, 1980-1995

Albania

Austia

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cypru

s

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finland

France

Federa

l Republic

of Germ

any

Germany D

emocratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

0100020003000400050006000700080009000

European Country

Number of Challengers Injured

European Countries Number of State Officials Injured, 1980-1995

Albania

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cypru

s

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finland

France

Federa

l Republic

of Germ

any

Germany D

emocratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

European Country

Number of State Officials Injured

European Country Number of Challenger Deaths, 1980-1995

Albania

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cypru

s

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finland

France

Federa

l Republic

of Germ

any

Germany D

emocratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

020406080

100120140160

European Country

Number of Challenger Deaths

European Country Number of State Official Deaths, 1980-1995

Albania

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cypru

s

Czech

Republic

Denmark

Finland

France

Federa

l Republic

of Germ

any

Germany D

emocratic R

epublic

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

0

10

20

30

40

European Country

Number of State Official Deaths

Data Results

Highest frequency of dissent events: France

Lowest frequency of dissent events: Cyprus

Highest number of total challengers: Federal Republic of Germany (74,084,911)

Lowest number of total challengers: Cyprus (4,087,074)

Highest number of challengers arrested: Federal Republic of Germany (66,674)

Lowest number of challengers arrested: Austria (4)

Data Results Cont’d.

Highest number of challengers injured: France (7,855)

Highest number of state officials injured: Federal Republic of Germany (2,300)

Lowest number of challengers injured: Finland (1)

Lowest number of state officials injured: Finland (0)

Data Results Cont’d.

Highest number of challengers killed: Albania (136)

Highest number of state officials killed: France (41)

Lowest number of challengers killed: Finland (0)

Lowest number of state officials killed: Hungary (0), Finland (0), Czech Republic (0)

Concluding Thoughts and Patterns

States are more likely than challengers to be lethal. The majority of the time, during events, more challengers were killed than state officials (with the exception of Greece and Austria).

However, only a very small percentage of protestors are ever arrested, when compared to the total amount of people participating.

This leads me to believe that since the state lacks the resources to arrest challengers in order to discourage dissent, they resort to a higher escalation of methods, like injury and killing, to get their message across. In other words, physical infliction to challengers may indicate an inherent weakness of a state.

3 countries had 0 state officials killed, but only 1 country had 0 challenger deaths.

Just because a country had a lower frequency of events did not mean that physical infliction was less prominent. Countries of low frequency sometimes took higher positions in the Violence Matrix (for example, Cyprus).

Documents

European Protest and Coercion