1

Deliverable of the research project:

LANDSCAPE CAPACITY AND SOCIAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS WIND ENERGY PROJECTS IN BELGIUM

2006-2009

Belgian Science Policy – Science for a sustainable development Contract Number: SD/EN/01A

STATE OF THE ART OF WIND ENERGY IN BELGIUM AND EURO PE

Promoters:

Prof. A. Van Rompaey1 (coordinator) Prof S. Schmitz2

Prof. C. Kesteloot3

Scientific collaborators:

Karolien Peeters1, Bruno Moens1, Hendrik Van Hemelrijck1, Vincent Vanderheyden2, Maarten Loopmans3 and Steven Vanden Broucke3

1 Physical and Regional Geography Research Group – K.U.leuven

2 Social and Economic Geography Research Group – Université de Liège 3 Social and Economic Geography Research Group – K.U.Leuven

Project Website:

geo.kuleuven.be/geography/projects/lacsawep

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Table of contents

Table of contents I

List of figures III

List of tables IV

Introduction p. 1

1 Wind energy in Belgium and Europe p. 2

1.1 Wind power capacity in the European Union and Belgium p. 2

1.2 Wind power developments in Belgium p. 7

1.3 Scenarios for the evolution of wind power in Belgium p. 10

2 Wind power outcomes in Belgium and neighbouring countries: 4 key p. 18

institutional explanations

2.1 Level and procedures of planning systems and decision making p. 18

2.1.1 The initiative p. 18

2.1.2 Actors involved in planning and decision-making p. 19

2.2 Attitudes towards the protection of landscape and nature p. 25

2.3 Financial support systems p. 28

2.3.1 Type p. 29

2.3.2 Stability and consistency of incentive regime p. 30

2.4 Patterns of ownership and involvement p. 32

3 Wind maps in Belgium, the Netherlands and the UK p. 38

3.1 Windplan Vlaanderen p. 38

3.2 Inpasbaarheidskaart windturbines West-Vlaanderen p. 39

3.3 Carte des contraintes paysagères et environnementales pour p. 40

l’implantation des éoliennes en région Wallonne

3.4 Suitable locations for wind turbine parks in the Netherlands in “Frisse p. 41

Wind door Nederland”

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3.5 Sensitivity assessment of landscape character areas in Cornwall and p. 42

England and the vulnerability of these areas to the introduction of wind

turbines

Conclusion p. 45

References p. 47

Annex p. 51

Map 1 Windplan Vlaanderen Spatial map of Leuven (nr. 53) p. 51

Map 2 Inpasbaarheidskaart windturbines West-Vlaanderen p. 53

Map 3 Carte des contraintes paysagères et environnementales pour p. 54

l’implantation des éoliennes en region Wallonne

3a Overview of sensitivity to wind power developments p. 54

according to landscape/visual indicators

3b Overview of sensitivity to wind power developments p. 55

according to landscape/visual and environmental indicators

Map 4 Frisse Wind door Nederland p. 56

4 a Wind map Zuid-Holland p. 56

4 b Wind map the Netherlands p. 57

Map 5 Sensitivity assessment of landscape character areas in p. 58

Cornwall to wind power developments and the capacity of

these areas for wind turbine projects

5 a Sensitivity of landscape character areas to wind power p. 58

developments

5 b Areas with greatest potential for turbine development in p. 59

relation to landscape character

5 c Potentially suitable scales of windfarm developments in p. 60

relation to landform scale and landscape pattern in areas

with wind power potential

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List of figures

Figure 1.1 Wind power capacity installed in the EU in 2006 in MW p. 3

Figure 1.2 Wind power capacity in kW per 1000 inhabitants in the EU p. 4

in 2006

Figure 1.3 Spatial penetration of wind power in the UK, the Netherlands, p. 5

Germany and Belgium in wind turbines per km²

Figure 1.4 Share of renewable energies in gross electrical p. 6

consumption in European Union countries in 2005 (in %)

Figure 1.5 Evolution of annual wind power capacity in MW in Belgium p. 7

Figure 1.6 Total wind power capacity in Belgium in MW per municipality p. 8

Figure 1.7 Total number of wind turbines in Belgium per municipality p. 9

Figure 1.8 Predicted growth of wind power capacity and wind power p. 14

electricity production onshore in Flanders according to 2

scenario’s (BAU and PRO)

Figure 1.9 Prediction of production of electricity from renewable energy p. 15

sources till 2020 according to BAU-scenario with low

growth of electricity demand

Figure 1.10 Prediction of production of electricity from renewable energy p. 16

sources till 2020 according to PRO-scenario with low

growth of electricity demand

Figure 3.1 Evaluation of landscape capacities for wind turbine p. 43

developments in England

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List of tables

Table 1.1 Technical onshore wind power potential of European p. 11

OECD-countries

Table 1.2 Overview of existing and possible future (2010) wind power p. 13

projects in Flanders per province and per sector

Table 2.1 Policy shifts in the implementation of new renewable technologies p. 20

Table 2.2 Overview of planning regimes and decision-making in Belgium p. 24

Table 2.3 Suitability of locations for wind power developments in Flanders p. 26

Table 2.4 Overview of attitudes towards the protection of landscape and p. 28

nature in Belgium and neighbouring countries

Table 2.5 Overview of financial support systems in Belgium and other p. 32

countries

Table 2.6 Types of ownership and their share in the total wind power p. 35

capacity in Belgium and neighbouring countries

Table 2.7 Overview of types of ownership in Belgium and neighbouring p. 36

countries

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Introduction

In this first report an overview will be given of the current status of the development of

wind power in Belgium.

In the first chapter we will examine the evolution of the development of wind power in

Belgium and compare this evolution to the situation in our neighbouring countries.

We will also look at the spatial implications of these different wind power evolutions in

Belgium and our neighbouring countries.

Further, we will give an overview of the current wind power capacity and the

achievements in Flanders and the Walloon Region. The evolution of this wind power

capacity and the future wind power projects which are to be realized in the nearby

future will also be discussed.

To conclude this chapter, we will also look at the prospects for wind power in Belgium

by means of different technical and spatial scenarios.

In the second chapter we will indicate the main institutional factors determining the

rate of development of wind power in Belgium and our neighbouring countries by

means of cross-country analyses. This chapter will help us during the second part of

the LACSAWEP-project where a qualitative analysis of the attitudes towards wind

power projects will be carried out.

In the third chapter we will discuss existing scientific projects which have been

developed in our country, the UK and the Netherlands, and which try to map the

possibilities for wind power developments exclusively by means of spatial, physical

and perceptual criteria. This chapter will introduce us to the first part of the

LACSAWEP-project where we will examine these relationships between physical and

perceptual criteria with regards to wind power projects in Belgium.

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1 Wind energy in Belgium and in Europe

In this chapter the current situation of wind power in Belgium and the neighbouring

countries will be discussed.

First we will give an overview of wind power in Europe. We will look at the large wind

power countries, the evolution in this wind power capacity and the place of Belgium

among these European countries. The spatial implications of these different

evolutions will be mapped for Belgium and the neighbouring countries.

This will be followed by a closer look at the wind power developments in Belgium.

What is the current wind power capacity in Belgium and how has this evolved during

the last years? Where can we find wind turbines in Belgium, how large are they in

terms of capacity and number of wind turbines and what wind power projects are to

be realized in the nearby future.

Finally, we will look at the future of wind power in Belgium. By means of technical and

spatial prospects we will look at the different scenarios developed to predict the

evolution of wind power.

1.1 Wind power capacity in the European Union and B elgium

The European Union is still the main region of the world for wind power

developments with a wind power share of 66,8 % in 2006, followed by North America

with 18 % and Asia with 12,7 %.

In 2006 the total cumulated installed wind power capacity in the countries of the EU

was 48 042,3 MW, with an annual installed wind power capacity of 7 613,3 MW or an

increase of 19 % compared to 2005 (EurObserv’ER, 2007) (Figure 1.1). This wind

power capacity produced 81,4 TWh of electricity in 2007. This is approximately 3 %

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of the EU electricity production or almost the entire Belgian electricity consumption in

2004 (89,37 TWh).

Figure 1.1 Wind power capacity installed in the EU in 2006 in MW

Source: EurObserv’ER (2007). Wind energy barometer. EurObserv’ER, 02-2007,

Available on http://www.energies-

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renouvelables.org/observer/stat_baro/observ/baro177.pdf [date of search: 01-03-

2007] [date of search: 01-03-2007]

If we look at the different countries of the EU, Germany is still the (global) leading

wind power country with a total installed capacity of 20 621,9 MW in 2006, followed

by Spain with 11 651,1 MW of wind power capacity, the wind power pioneer country

Denmark with 3 136,6 MW, Italy (2 123,4 MW), the UK (1 962,2 MW), Portugal (1

716,4 MW), France (1 635 MW) and the Netherlands (1 560 MW).

Belgium is situated on the 13th place in the EU wind power-ranking with a total wind

power capacity of 193,1 MW at the end of 2006 and an annual installed wind capacity

in 2006 of 35,3 MW or an increase of 23 % compared to 2005.

If we compare this total wind power capacity per country to the population of each

country, Belgium is located on the 15th place with a wind capacity of 18,5 kW per

1 000 inhabitants (Figure 1.2).

Denmark has the highest wind capacity per 1 000 inhabitants with 577,9 kW, followed

by Spain (265,4 kW) and Germany (250,1 kW).

Figure 1.2 Wind power capacity in kW per 1000 inhabitants in the EU in 2006

Source: EurObserv’ER (2007). Wind energy barometer. EurObserv’ER, 02-2007,

Available on http://www.energies-

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renouvelables.org/observer/stat_baro/observ/baro177.pdf [date of search: 01-03-

2007]

If we look at the spatial implications of the different wind power evolutions in Belgium,

the UK, the Netherlands and Germany in terms of the number of wind turbines per

km², this spatial penetration is still very limited in Belgium and the UK with less than

0,01 turbines per km². For Belgium this means less than 1 wind turbine per 100 km².

In the Netherlands and Germany this wind turbine density is (much) higher with a

penetration of 0,01 to 0,05 turbines per km² in the Netherlands and 0,05 to 0,1

turbines per km² in Germany.

In the third section of this chapter we will look at some scenarios for the development

of wind power in Belgium which will examine these spatial implications more into

detail.

Figure 1.3 Spatial penetration of wind power in the UK, the Netherlands, Germany

and Belgium in wind turbines per km²

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One last number, the share of renewable energies in the gross electrical

consumption for Belgium in 2005 was 2,36 % or the 22nd place compared to the

European Union countries (Eurobserv’ER 2006) (Figure 1.4). The EU average share

of renewable energies in this electrical consumption was 13,97 %. Austria (64,21 %)

and Sweden (55.82%) are far ahead of the other countries, mainly due to their

geographical and political situation.

Figure 1.4 Share of renewable energies in gross electrical consumption in European

Union countries in 2005 (in %)

Source: Eurobserv’ER, 2006, State of renewable energy in Europe [on line].

EurObserv’ER, Available on: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/index_en.htm [Date of

search 01-03-2007]

If we look at the share of wind power in the total annual electricity production,

Denmark has the largest share with 20 % of the annual electricity produced by wind

turbines.

In our neighbouring countries, wind power produces 37 812 GWh annually in

Germany or 7 % of the total electricity production. In the Netherlands wind power

developments account for 3,4 % of the total electricity production with an annual

production of 3483 GWh.

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Belgium has a total electricity production by wind power of 378 GWh or 0,4 % of the

total annual electricity production.

In the next section we will look at this development of wind power in Belgium more

into detail.

1.2 Wind power developments in Belgium

If we first look at the evolution of the wind power capacity in Belgium, this has been

rather spectacular for the last four years.

In 2002, 35 MW of wind power capacity was installed in Belgium. This rose to 68 MW

in 2003, an increase by 95 %, and further to 165 MW in 2005 (increase by 73 %) and

to 193 MW in 2006 (increase by 17%) (Figure 1.5). This is an average annual wind

power capacity growth of 56 %, more than double the EU annual capacity growth of

22 % in the period 1995 to 2005.

Wind power capacity in Belgium

0

50

100

150

200

250

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

year

capa

city

in M

W

Figure 1.5 Evolution of annual wind power capacity in MW in Belgium

Currently, 244 MW of wind power capacity is installed in Belgium.

This installed wind power capacity has, until now, mainly been realised in Flanders

with 153 MW of wind power capacity but recently the Walloon Region (91.3 MW) is

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catching up with a number of large wind power projects to be realized in the nearby

future.

In the following figures an overview of these wind power projects in Belgium are

reproduced by means of two maps.

The first map gives an overview of these wind power projects by means of their total

wind power capacity in MW per municipality (figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Total wind power capacity in Belgium in MW per municipality

The second map represents the numbers of wind turbines that are already installed

or are going to be installed in the different Belgian municipalities (figure 1.7).

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Figure 1.7 Total number of wind turbines in Belgium per municipality

Until 02/05/2007 91,3 MW of wind power capacity has been installed in the Walloon

Region with 58 wind turbines on 17 sites and an annual electricity production of

195,650 GWh equivalent to 55 900 households (Apère, 2007).

In the nearby future 17 projects can be realized with a total wind power capacity of

278,7 MW and 104 wind turbines.

The largest projects are situated in the provinces of Hainaut and Namur with 66 MW

in Estinnes, 39 MW in Thuin, 25 MW in Froidchapelle and 24 MW in Pont-à-Celles.

These projects are set up by large utilities such as Electrabel and SPE and private

corporations such as Windvision, Green Wind and Air Energy.

Summed up this means a total wind power capacity in the Walloon Region of 370

MW, or 162 wind turbines which produce 807.250 MWh of electricity annually,

equivalent to 230 000 households.

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In Flanders 153 MW of wind power capacity has been installed with 117 wind

turbines on 23 sites. These produced 238 GWh of electricity or an equivalent of 120

000 households (Energiesparen, 2007).

Most of the future wind power projects in Flanders are located in the western part of

Flanders with the largest in Nieuwpoort with 15 MW, Oostkamp with 7,2 MW, Ieper

with 18 MW and Poperinge with 4 MW. The capacity of the already existing wind

turbine parks of Brugge, Gent and especially Antwerpen is planned to be enlarged

with additional wind turbines, with up to 200 MW of extra wind power capacity in

Antwerp.

In the nearby future a cumulative number of 200 MW of wind power capacity can be

installed onshore in Flanders with an annual average electricity production of 440

GWh equivalent to 110 000 households.

Summed up this means a total wind power capacity of 350 MW or a total annual

electricity production of 700 GWh equivalent to 175 000 households.

The total wind power capacity in Belgium has known a rapid growth during the last

five years. In the next section we will examine some technical and spatial scenarios

that predict the future of wind power in Belgium.

1.3 Scenarios for the evolution of wind power in Be lgium

A first prediction of the wind power technical potential for Belgium can be found in the

European-wide estimation of the onshore wind potent ial by Van Wijk and

Coelingh (EWEA, 2005).

In this study the technical wind potential of the OECD-countries of Europe is

predicted using meteorological (minimum average wind speed of 5.1 m/s on site) and

spatial criteria (maximum 4 % of the area suitable for wind power projects, with a

maximum wind power capacity per km² of 8 MW) (Table 1.1).

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Table 1.1 Technical onshore wind power potential of European OECD-countries

Source: European WindEnergy Association (2005), Windenergy: the facts. EWEA,

Available on http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/

publications/WETF/WETF.pdf [date of search: 15-04-2007]

According to this study, the technical onshore wind power potential of Belgium is 5

TWh of electricity, or approximately 1000 wind turbines of 2 MW each. This is

equivalent to 6 % of the total annual electricity consumption. The annual electricity

produced from wind power in 2002 was 0.088 TWh in Belgium, or 2 % of this

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technical potential. Currently, this is approximately 0.4 TWh or 8 % of the technical

potential.

According to this study, Germany has been able to use most of the present technical

onshore wind power potential with 77 %.

The UK, France and Spain still have a large technical potential which hasn’t been

used yet by the first two countries (EWEA, 2004).

These technical onshore wind power potentials have already been increased for the

European countries because of further technological developments.

A second prediction of the future of wind power in Flanders is the recent study of the

VITO, Flemish Institute of Technological Development, and 3 E: Prognoses for

renewable energy till 2020 (VITO, 2005).

In this study several mid- and long-term scenarios for the development of wind power

in Flanders have been developed based on different political, economical, technical

and spatial assumptions.

Till 2010 the study describes one scenario for onshore wind power in Flanders.

For each province and each type of area (areas where wind turbines have a limited

visual impact such as harbours and areas where this impact is expected to be higher)

an overview is given based on already planned projects and projects which have

been evaluated as realistically. These precise numbers can be found in table 1.1.

In the nearby future, mainly the harbours of Gent (20 turbines of 3 MW) Antwerpen

(43 turbines of 3 MW) and Zeebrugge (7 turbines of 2 MW) will be equipped with

additional wind turbine parks with a total extra wind power capacity of 196 MW.

The other non-harbour areas in the provinces of West-Vlaanderen, Oost-Vlaanderen,

Antwerpen and Limburg have suitable locations for an extra 97 wind turbines and a

total extra wind power capacity of 237,2 MW. 39 of these turbines will need new

spatial designation plans (RUP’s) to make their locations suitable for this

development.

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In 2010 a total number of 263 wind turbines with a total wind power capacity of

543,52 MW can be installed in Flanders.

Table 1.2 Overview of existing and possible future (2010) wind power projects in

Flanders per province and per sector

existing extra 2010

#turbines MW #turbines MW

West-Vlaanderen Harbour 25 8,6 7 14

Others 26 25,96 50 120,2

Oost-Vlaanderen Harbour 11 22 20 60

Others 12 20,6 18 49

Antwerpen Harbour 2 4 43 122

Others 10 17,16 15 34

Limburg Harbour 0 0 0 0

Others 7 9,2 14 34

Vlaams-Brabant Harbour 0 0 0 0

Others 4 2,8 0 0

TOTAL 96 110,32 167 433,2

Source: VITO-3 E Devriendt, Dooms, Liekens, Nijs, Pelkmans (2005).

Prognoses voor hernieuwbare energie en warmtekrachtkoppeling tot 2020,

Afdeling Natuurlijke Rijkdommen en Energie Vlaamse Administratie, Brussel

For 2020, two scenarios exist for the development of wind power in Flanders.

These two scenarios are based on the assumption that the density of wind turbines in

the landscape has to be limited to an “acceptable” level. This density is compared to

the density of other existing public structures such as water towers and high-voltage

electricity pylons towers.

In the first Business As Usual-scenario (BAU) no new wind power projects are

developed in the harbours.

In the other areas an additional 40 wind turbines of 3 MW wind power capacity each

can be located by means of extra spatial designation plans. The total number of wind

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turbines by 2020 will be 303 with a total wind power capacity of 663,52 MW and a

total annual electricity production of 1137 GWh, equivalent to 250 000 households.

The second PRO-active scenario (PRO) assumes a higher acceptable level of

density for wind turbines in non-harbour areas equal to the density of water towers

Though, the number of wind turbines will not be more than 240 in these areas or less

than half the number of water towers in Belgium (VITO-3E, 2005, p. 96-97).

In this PRO-active scenario additional wind turbines can be placed after 2010 in the

harbours of Gent (14 extra wind turbines, 45 in total), Antwerpen (+ 55, 100 in total)

and Zeebrugge (+ 18, 50 in total) with an average capacity of 3 MW each and an

extra total wind power capacity of 585 MW. In the other areas 80 wind turbines of 3

MW each can be located by doubling the predicted spatial designation plans.

According to this scenario the total number of wind turbines can rise till 430 with a

total capacity of 1063 MW and an annual electricity production of 1 790 GWh

equivalent to 450 000 households.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

2005 2010 2015 2020

jaar

geïn

stal

leer

d ve

rmog

en (

MW

)

0

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600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

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2000to

tale

pro

duct

ie (

GW

h)

BAU PRO Productie BAU Productie PRO Figure 1.8 Predicted growth of wind power capacity and wind power electricity

production onshore in Flanders according to 2 scenario’s (BAU and PRO)

Source: VITO-3 E Devriendt, Dooms, Liekens, Nijs, Pelkmans (2005). Prognoses

voor hernieuwbare energie en warmtekrachtkoppeling tot 2020, Afdeling Natuurlijke

Rijkdommen en Energie Vlaamse Administratie, Brussel

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If we look at the evolution of the total electricity production from renewable energy

sources till 2020, wind power has an important role to play.

In the BAU-scenario with low growth of electricity demand 5752 GWh of electricity

can be produced in 2020 from renewable energy sources. This is equivalent to 10 %

of the total electricity demand. Wind power can produce 1137 GWh of electricity

onshore and 1117 GWh of electricity offshore, in total 2254 GWh of electricity,

equivalent to 3 % of the total electricity demand (figure 1.9).

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020

GW

h

Windenergie offshore

Windenergie onshore

Overige biomassa/biogas

Coverbranding biomassa

Afvalverbranding (organische fractie)

Groene Wkk ORC

Groene Wkk stoomturbines

Groene Wkk motoren

Zon

Waterkracht

15% van bruto elektr verbruik

10% van bruto elektr verbruik

6% van bruto elektr verbruik

Doelstelling (Vlaamse certificaten)

Doelstelling (EU en regeerakkoord)

Figure 1.9 Prediction of production of electricity from renewable energy sources till

2020 according to BAU-scenario with low growth of electricity demand

Source: VITO-3 E Devriendt, Dooms, Liekens, Nijs, Pelkmans (2005). Prognoses

voor hernieuwbare energie en warmtekrachtkoppeling tot 2020, Afdeling Natuurlijke

Rijkdommen en Energie Vlaamse Administratie, Brussel

In the PRO-scenario with low growth of electricity demand 9851 GWh of electricity

can be produced in 2020 from renewable energy sources, or 16 % of the total

electricity demand. According to this scenario, wind power can produce 1790 GWh of

electricity onshore and 3256 GWh of electricity offshore, in total 5064 GWh or 8 % of

the total electricity demand (figure 1.10).

16

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020

GW

h

Windenergie offshore

Windenergie onshore

Overige biomassa/biogas

Coverbranding biomassa

Afvalverbranding (organische fractie)

Groene Wkk ORC

Groene Wkk stoomturbines

Groene Wkk motoren

Zon

Waterkracht

20% van bruto elektr verbruik

15% van bruto elektr verbruik

10% van bruto elektr verbruik

6% van bruto elektr verbruik

Doelstelling (Vlaamse certificaten)

Doelstelling (EU en regeerakkoord)

Figure 1.10 Prediction of production of electricity from renewable energy sources till

2020 according to PRO-scenario with low growth of electricity demand

Source: VITO-3E, 2005

Some smaller scenarios exist for wind power developments in the Walloon Region.

According to the ‘Plan 2003 pour la maîtrise durable de l’énergie à l’horizon 2010

en Wallonie’ from the Walloon ministry of energy 370 GWh of electricity could be

generated from wind power in 2010. This is equivalent to a wind power capacity of

200 MW or 100 wind turbines to be placed in wind turbine parks in industrial areas,

along existing linear infrastructures or in some agricultural zones (Ministère de la

Region Wallone Division de l’Energie Direction Générale des technologies, de la

Recherche et de l’Energie ,2003).

In the ‘Memorandum pour les energies renouvelables 2004-20 09’ from Apère

some more ambitious objectives are formulated for the development of renewable

energy sources in the nearby future, followed by measures necessary to achieve

these objectives (Apère, 2004).

17

For the development of wind power this means that 400 MW of wind power capacity

could be installed by 2009 by improving the planning regimes for wind turbines, by

reinforcing the power grid and by developing information campaigns to improve the

social acceptability of wind turbines.

A second objective for wind power in the Walloon Region states that by 2020 1500

MW of wind power could be installed onshore in accordance with the spatial

regulations. These could produce 3 000 GWh annually, or 12 % of the total electricity

production in 2000. This can be achieved if the power grid will be improved and the

reserved areas for air movements will be adapted (Apère, 2004).

In this chapter we have examined the actual wind power capacity in Belgium and

compared this to other European countries. Belgium is located on the 13th place in

the EU wind power capacity ranking with an actual installed capacity of 244 MW and

an annual capacity increase of 56 % over the last five years.

We also looked at the wind power projects that have already been realised in

Belgium and projects that are to be realized in the nearby future, especially in the

Walloon Region.

Finally, we discussed the prospects of wind power developments in Belgium by

means of one general scenario for the technical onshore potential for wind power in

Belgium followed by three scenarios for Flanders, one till 2010 and the BAU- and

PRO-scenario till 2020 and two scenarios for the Walloon Region.

In the next chapter, we will examine the different economical, political and social

institutional factors that determine these differences in wind power outcomes in

Belgium and the neighbouring countries. These factors were studied in several

international cross-country studies and are especially relevant when we will examine

the different attitudes and their evolution with regards to wind power projects in

Belgium in the second part of the LACSAWEP-project.

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2 Wind power outcomes in Belgium and neighbouring c ountries:

4 key institutional explanations

In the first chapter we described the current situation of wind power in Belgium and

the neighbouring countries.

In this second chapter we will examine the key explanations for these differences in

the development of wind power projects in Belgium and other European countries by

means of literature and an analysis of the Belgian situation.

A cross-country comparative study to be published in Renewable and Sustainable

Energy Reviews of Toke, Breukers and Wolsink between Denmark, Spain, Germany,

Scotland, the Netherlands and England determined four institutional variables that

have a crucial influence on the development of wind power (Toke, Breukers, Wolsink,

2008).

These are:

1 The level and the procedures of planning systems and decision-making

2 The attitudes towards landscape and nature (protection organisations)

3 The financial support system for wind power projects

4 The ownership and involvement patterns

These will be explained and analyzed for the Belgian situation in the following points.

2.1 Level and procedures of planning systems and de cision making

Planning systems and the way decisions are made with regards to wind power

projects have a crucial impact on their outcomes. Several aspects of these planning

systems can be determined.

2.1.1 The initiative

Who is responsible for the planning of wind power projects and the designation of

suitable areas for wind turbines?

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In Germany, municipalities are required to designate suitable areas for wind

development. Where municipalities haven’t indicated these areas, developers are

free to develop a wind power scheme anywhere outside the build-up area (Toke,

2008). This is called the Priviligierung or preferential treatment.

In Denmark, local municipalities have also been obliged to allocate zones for wind

power development. During this planning phase, regional authorities, local non-

governmental organisations and utilities have to be involved.

By contrast, in the Netherlands, wind power schemes require pro-active decisions

from local authorities because very often the zoning scheme has to be changed. All is

dependent on the personal opinion and initiative of the local councillors.

This is similar to the Belgian situation where no federal or regional wind power

schemes exist, but very much is dependent on the opinion of the political and

administrative authorities of municipalities and higher levels of governance.

2.1.2 Actors involved in planning and decision-making

Planning regimes can support collaborative practices of decision making. These

collaborative practices where a large number of partners are involved in the planning

and decision making are important since the degree of planning acceptance is largely

a function of the degree of local acceptance. The involvement of local interests from

inside the community aids to avoid opposition from qualitative local oppositional

groups by discussion and adaptation of the project characteristics and helps to

improve local trust in the projects proposed (Toke, Breukers, Wolsink, 2008).

A cross-country analysis of the wind power achievements of the Netherlands,

England and the German state of North Rhine Westphalia found that recently neither

of these cases foster collaborative approaches in their formal planning institutions

(Breukers, Wolsink, 2007). The general trend in planning is to prioritise the ‘common

good’ (fighting climate change) over and above local concerns. This results in

increasing opposition for example in the German case.

20

A successful strategy for the development of wind power is to implement wind power

as good as possible by institutionalising these collaborative approaches in the project

planning and through facilitating local ownership. Knowledge about the different

motives for support as well as motives for opposition will be revealed through this

participation of all relevant actors and should reveal the local environmental,

economic and landscape interests that are relevant at the level of implementation

(Breukers, Wolsink, 2007). These motives for the support as well as the opposition

against wind power projects in Belgium will also be studied in the second qualitative

part of the LACSAWEP-project.

One last concluding remark made by Wolsink is that the implementation of modern,

clean technologies, such as wind power, is hardly possible without institutional

changes. Planning regimes and decision-making practices that really enhance the

implementation processes of renewable energy require a ‘strong’ ecological

modernization. This policy shift where environmental concerns are deeply

incorporated in institutions is characterized by open, democratic decision-making

rather than technocratic and corporatist-style decision-making, enhanced

participation and involvement of all relevant actors rather than planning and decision-

making being carried out by scientific, economic and political elites and by open-

ended project approaches that allow multiple views rather than the imposition of

single, closed-ended proposals by wind project developers following a Decide-

Announce-Defend-strategy (Wolsink, 2007).

Table 2.1 Policy shifts in the implementation of new renewable technologies

Weak ecological modernization Strong ecological modernization

Mainly economical and social policy

targets

Environmental concerns incorporated in

institutions

Technocratic, corporatist-style decision-

making

Open democratic decision-making

Planning and decision-making by

scientific, economic and political elites

Participation and involvement of all actors

Close-ended proposals through DAD-

strategy

Open-ended project proposals open to

debate

21

Source: Wolsink M., Planning of renewables schemes: Deliberative and fair decision-

making on landscape issues instead of reproachful accusations of non-cooperation

(2007), Energy Policy, 35, 2692-2704

Let us now examine the existing procedures in the different regions of Belgium with

regards to wind power developments (Table 2.2).

In Flanders , 2 licenses have to be obtained for wind turbine projects: an

environmental license and a spatial planning license. If the capacity of the project is

not higher than 5 MW, the municipality can decide whether an environmental license

will be granted. Aspects such as sound, safety, blade shade and light reflections of

the wind turbines will be examined, together with a public inquiry. If a project is well

prepared and communicated to the community and the political decision makers, this

license is likely to be granted without major obstacles.

The second spatial planning license is the most difficult license to obtain. Higher

administrative institutions such as the regional administration for spatial planning will

evaluate the spatial impact of the wind project as examined in the localisation or site

note prepared by the wind project developer. For this evaluation some guidelines are

developed in a recently adapted advising legal document of the Flemish government:

Omzendbrief 2006 Afwegingskader en randvoorwaarden voor de inplanting van

windturbines (Vlaamse regering, 2006).

An important guideline for this spatial evaluation is the principle of spatial

concentration or the clustering principle. This is explained as either the concentration

of wind turbines close to already existing centres of industrial activity, proportional to

the size and importance of these centres, also called site sharing, or the spatial

clustering of wind turbines with existing large, linear infrastructures such as rail roads,

motorways, canals, rivers, high voltage power lines which already have important

spatial and visual impacts on the landscape, also called visual impact sharing.

According to these guidelines, the most suitable areas for wind turbine projects are

industrial areas and harbours, areas for small businesses and areas of public utility.

Agricultural areas are only possible if there is already a significant interference of the

22

original spatial functions of these areas by other existing structures such as roads or

canals and the wind turbine project can be clustered with these structures. To make

these areas suitable for wind power projects their locations have to be defined in

special spatial plans on a municipal, provincial and sometimes even regional level, a

procedure which can take several years.

Areas with special landscape or natural features are also excluded from possible

locations.

An interdepartmental regional wind commission with representatives of the

administrative authorities can advice project developers on the feasibility of their

project before the start of their licensing procedure. It also formulates advices on the

requested licenses during this procedure and has a third duty to make a pro-active

selection of suitable sites for large scale wind turbine parks in Flanders.

The realisation of wind power projects in Flanders is subject to complex political and

administrative procedures with just a limited role for the public communities where

these projects will be realized. This has caused the realization of wind power projects

by mainly larger companies or utilities. Some smaller cooperatives, such as

Ecopower, BeauVent and Wase Wind, have nevertheless been able to develop wind

power projects with more participation by the local community resulting in higher local

support for these projects. This will be discussed further when we will examine the

involvement and the ownership of wind power projects in Belgium.

In the Walloon Region , the environmental and town-planning licenses are combined

into one construction and exploitation license, the ‘permis unique’.

The first step in this procedure is the organisation of an information and consultation

meeting for the general public of the municipality where the wind power project will be

realized. During this meeting the public is informed of the project. Important

environmental issues for the future environmental impact assessment will be

presented during this meeting as well as possible solutions to overcome these

potential environmental problems. Finally, the public can express its opinion and

suggestions with regards to this project.

23

In a second step, one document containing all the elements for the spatial planning

and environmental license, such as the environmental impact assessment, has to be

sent to the regional administrations where the project will be evaluated according to

the existing guidelines.

These guidelines are found in the Walloon legal document ‘Cadre de référence pour

l’implantation d’ éoliennes en Région Wallonne’ of 2002.

The principles are also based on the regrouping or clustering principle,as in Flanders,

but the principle of site sharing is also explicitly possible for agricultural regions and

rural housing areas if the wind turbine park has no significant negative impact on

these other rural functions. Because of these possibilities, most of the future wind

power projects in the Walloon Region are planned in large agricultural areas.

The second principle of visual impact sharing makes the clustering of wind turbines

with existing large, linear infrastructures possible as well.

This integration of wind turbine parks in the landscape has to be examined in an

environmental impact assessment where the characteristics of the landscape

involved have to be described, as well as the vulnerability of the landscape to wind

turbines and the possible effects of wind turbines in this landscape.

This impact on the landscape can be minimized according to the characteristics of

this region.

In more urbanised regions, the existing infrastructures can be underlined by the

geometrical formations of wind turbine parks.

In more natural regions, wind turbines should be placed in more ‘natural’, organical

formations, without the use of clear linear formations.

An interadministrative and pluridisciplinary regional wind cell has to serve as a

consulting authority to assure the coherence in the deliverance of the licenses.

This procedure seems to create more clarity and possibilities for wind power projects

due to the construction of the ‘permis unique’.

The involvement of the local community from the beginning of the project also forces

wind power project developers to communicate openly to the local communities.

These collaborative, consulting practices nevertheless haven’t resulted in the

24

development of more locally owned wind power projects set up by farmers and co-

operatives, except for some small initiatives such as Vents d’Houyet/Allons en vent

and Energie 2030. In the nearby future large wind turbine parks will be realized by

large to medium-large companies and utilities mainly in agricultural areas in the

Walloon Region. Apparently, some important incentives for community owned wind

power projects are still lacking.

Table 2.2 Overview of planning regimes and decision-making in Belgium

Belgium

Flanders Walloon Region

Initiative for

planning spatial

planning

Pro-active decisions of local,

provincial and regional

authorities, dependent on

personal opinion and initiative

(e.g. Eeklo)

+ wind commission

Pro-active decisions of local and

regional authorities, dependent on

personal opinion and initiative

Actors involved in

planning and

decision-making

Administrative + political local

(Environmental License) +

regional authorities (Planning L)

Administrative + political regional

authorities (EL + PL) (Permis

unique)

Spatial guidelines Spatial concentration/clustering:

site sharing + visual impact

sharing

Spatial concentration/clustering:

site sharing + visual impact sharing

+ agricultural areas

Local

participation

Public inquiry (EL) Information and consultation

meeting

+ public inquiry

After this first, political, institutional key factor for the explanation of the success of

wind power projects, we will examine the influence of a second, more social,

institutional factor: the attitudes towards the landscape and nature protection and the

organization of their expression. This factor will be studied more into detail in the

second part of the LACSAWEP-project. More specific information on the Belgian

attitudes with regards to wind power and the perception of wind turbines in the

landscape can be found in our future reports.

25

2.2 Attitudes towards the protection of landscape a nd nature

The appreciation of landscape and nature is primarily rooted in the cultural values

that have been attached and the existence of grass-roots initiatives.

In England, the countryside is an important part of the national identity. Strong groups

exist that have landscape protection as a key priority and that can set up national

campaigns that are sceptical of or opposed to wind power such as the Campaign to

Protect Rural England (CPRE) and the Campaign to Protect Rural Wales (CPRW).

Also, groups exist that are specifically dedicated to campaigning against wind power

development, locally and nationally (Toke, 2008).

The opposite situation can be found in Spain where little value is placed on living in

rural areas which results in little landscape protection activity for these areas.

In Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium organisations set up to protect

environmental resources are primarily oriented towards protection of nature rather

than landscape (Toke, 2008). These are generally supportive of wind power, also

following on from a tradition of grass-roots initiatives who campaign against coal and

nuclear industries (Toke, 2008). An example of these organisations supportive of

wind power in Belgium are the regional and local Flemish climate coalitions formed

between environmental, nature, youth and other socio-cultural associations to fight

climate change by opting for renewable energy technologies such as wind power.

Only when important local natural areas are threatened to be seriously affected by

wind power projects, opposition can be organised by these groups, as has happened

for the Wadden Sea in the Netherlands.

A study of the wind power planning outcomes in England and Wales has found

strong associations between the outcome of local authority planning decisions, the

attitudes of local planning officers, the attitudes of parish councils and the attitudes of

landscape protection groups.

The attitudes of people living in the immediate vicinity of proposed wind power

projects are found to have the most important influence on the local decision makers

and these are mainly formed by the local perception of the economic impact of the

26

wind power project. Farmers often look forward to wind power as a possible source of

income, while middle class residents are more concerned about the effects on the

landscape and their house prices.

These objections tend not to materialise if significant positive local economic value is

attached to the wind power project (Toke, 2005).

This impact of the opinion of local, provincial and regional administrative and political

authorities in the licensing procedures in Flanders and the Walloon Region is also not

to be underestimated and will be examined in more detail during the LACSAWEP-

project.

In a survey carried out in 2003 for the Flemish Administration of Natural Resources

and Energy (ANRE, 2003) on the energy attitudes of the Flemish households some

questions were asked about the attitude towards wind power projects.

49 % of the respondents would accept new wind turbine parks in their neighbourhood.

This is 13 % less than a similar survey in 2001. An explanation is the fact that wind

turbine projects are more concrete and the process of attitude formation around this

topic has also started in Flanders.

There was also a significant difference in this attitude between the province of

Limburg (69 % in favour of wind power projects) and the province of Oost-Vlaanderen

(only 38 %). Locations which are estimated as suitable for wind turbine projects are

platforms in the sea, industrial areas, locations by the coast and locations close to

highways with a significant more restrictive attitude of urban respondents compared

to other groups.

Table 2.3 Suitability of locations for wind power developments in Flanders

Location Total score

Large cities

Regional cities

Small cities

Other urban

regions

Rural areas

At the coast +0,46 +0,25 +0,35 +0,50 +0,50 +0,53 On a platform in the sea

+0,73 +0,75 +0,68 +0,76 +0,72 +0,74

In industrial areas +0,62 +0,71 +0,54 +0,62 +0,55 +0,64 Close to highways +0,45 +0,51 +0,33 +0,45 +0,36 +0,50 Close to cities -0,15 -0,24 -0,04 -0,20 -0,27 -0,11 In agricultural areas -0,06 -0,27 +0,13 +0,10 -0,04 -0,06 Close to natural areas

-0,39 -0,49 -0,43 -0,31 -0,35 -0,39

nowhere -0,70 -0,69 -0,60 -0,71 -0,84 -0,68

27

Source: A. Claes, P. Arts, I. Aerts. Enquête Energiezuinig gedrag Vlaamse

huishoudens in 2003: Synthese, Iris Consulting i.o.v. Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap, ANRE, september 2003

Another survey carried out by the facilitator for wind power in the Walloon Region

Apère states that 64 % of the respondents would accept a wind turbine park located

at less than 1000 metres from their house. Of the respondents already living in the

vicinity of wind turbines 72 % affirms that they don’t experience any impact of these

turbines. A last conclusion was the need of all respondents for objective and

extensive communication and information about the local implications of wind turbine

projects. The better this information is dispersed, the more wind turbines will be

accepted in the local communities (Apère, 2005).

If we look at the driving forces behind opposition against wind power projects,

logistical regression analyses of factors that influence wind power planning outcomes

in the UK suggest that the main driving force behind opposition is extremely local in

nature, associated with the parish where the wind power project is planned.

Discourse analysis in this same study demonstrated how campaigners managed their

opposition in order to dispel accusations of ‘NIMBYism’ and to universalize their

support by gaining the legitimacy of landscape protection and by upholding different

environmental values (Haggett, Toke, 2006).

With regards to the organisation of local opposition in Belgium, this opposition is

predominantly organized around negative visual/landscape evaluations of these wind

turbines (e.g. Vent de Raison, le Réseau Molignéole).

These visual evaluations and especially their relationship to the type of landscape in

which wind turbines are sited will be studied in the first part of the LACSAWEP-

project.

28

Table 2.4 Overview of attitudes towards the protection of landscape and nature in

Belgium and neighbouring countries

Belgium Other countries

Relevant actors Local, provincial + regional political

and administrative authorities +

local community

England: Local planning

authorities, local councils,

landscape protection

groups

Importance of

environmental

organisations

Protection of nature rather than

landscape

Grass-roots initiatives reacting

against nuclear industries,

supportive of wind power + climate

coalitions

England: countryside as

important part of the

national identity

Key elements of

attitudes

Visual/landscape

+ to be examined

Visual/landscape

Local perception of

economic impact

Organisation of

opposition

Local opposition around visual

aspects

Local + national campaigns

(CPRE), (CPRW) around

visual aspects

In the following section, a third key institutional factor for wind power developments is

the financial support system. This influences the actors that can be involved in wind

power projects as shown in the fourth factor of local involvement and community

ownership.

2.3 Financial support systems

A third key institutional variable affecting wind power developments is the financial

incentive regime for wind power which makes it a profitable investment.

The type and the stability of this regime are crucial elements in this system.

29

2.3.1 Type

Two basic types of financial support systems are used to promote investments in

wind power: ‘feed-in’ tariffs and more ‘market based’ schemes such as tender-

systems and tradable green electricity certificates.

The system of renewable energy ‘feed-in’ tariffs (REFIT) is used in Germany,

Spain and was used in Denmark until 2001. Fixed prices are paid for a given amount

of electricity and guaranteed for a long period. This ensures predictable stable

outcomes for wind power projects and possibilities for investments for longer time in

the wind power market.

The main criticism of this system is that it maintains fixed price levels that don’t

conform to the traditional market prices (Meyer, 2003).

In the German Renewable Energy Sources Act of March 2000 the choice for this

system was re-affirmed by referring to three reasons.

First, it referred to the polluter pays principle with regards to external costs where

most of the social and ecological follow-up costs associated with conventional

electricity are currently not borne by the operators of such installations but by the

general public. The system of feed-in tariffs merely reduces this competitive

advantage of ‘cleaner’ renewable electricity.

Second, conventional energy sources still benefit from substantial government

subsidies which keep their prices artificially low. The tariffs paid for electricity from

renewable energy sources is only a fraction of this still existing conventional

government support.

Third, this system attempts to break the vicious circle of high unit costs and low

production volumes typical of the first development phase of technologies for the

generation of electricity from renewable sources.

This system led to the formation of the wind power market in Germany, to the entry of

firms and the establishment of an advocacy coalition for the further development of

positive institutional changes for the wind power market (Jacobsson, Lauber, 2006).

By the end of 2001, the wind power capacities of Denmark, Germany and Spain

comprised around 84 % of the EU total.

30

To make this system more dynamic, tariffs should and are being adjusted at frequent

intervals to take into account the technological learning curves of renewable energy

technologies.

The second type of more ‘market based’ schemes , at least at first sight, involves

extra elements of competition between projects designed to bring down the price of

wind power.

A system of renewable portfolio standards of tradable green ele ctricity

certificates (RPS/TGC) is currently in use in England, Scotland, the Netherlands and

Belgium.

Electricity suppliers have to prove by means of certificates that a specific percentage

of the electricity supplied has been produced from renewable energy sources. These

certificates can be pursued from the producers of electricity from these renewable

energy sources for a specific market price.

The uncertainty about these prices increases the risks of investors and tends to

reduce investments in renewable technologies.

These uncertainties can be limited by defining minimum and maximum prices (fines)

for these green certificates adapted to the stage of the development of these

technologies, as in Denmark and Belgium. Since this is a fairly new system it is still

being evaluated (Meyer, 2003).

A second very important element of these financial support systems is the political

stability and the consistency of these regimes.

2.3.2 Stability and consistency of incentive regime

A major factor in investment regimes is the stability of the financial conditions,

especially for wind power projects which are highly dependent on external financial

support regimes.

In the Netherlands, frequent changes in these regimes have undermined their

reliability considerably with lower investments in wind power.

31

In Denmark, new onshore wind power developments have almost ceased after the

termination of the support due to growing uncertainty among potential investors about

future incentive regimes.

The German government has supported, also forced by a stronger wind power

market with its advocacy coalition, the existing incentive regime, with small

adaptations to the level and consistency of financial support. The results are well-

known.

In England, Wales and Scotland a first ‘market based’ tendering system for wind

power projects was not successful because of unviable, unrealistic, offers for wind

power developments. The second system of tradable green certificates was launched

in 2002, the Renewables Obligation (RO), and has resulted in a great increase in the

volume of projected wind power schemes.

In Belgium, renewable energy projects are stimulated primarily by a system of

tradable green certificates with guaranteed minimum prices for different types of

renewable energy technologies. This has stimulated investments in renewable

energy technologies, such as wind power projects. This number of green certificates

is coupled to the regional targets for electricity production from renewable energy

sources.

In Flanders, this target is 6 % by 2010. The minimum price for certificates from

onshore wind power projects is 75 euro/1 000 KWh and a fine of 125 euro for every

missing certificate has been determined.

In the Walloon Region, 7 % of the electricity has to be produced from renewable

energy in 2007, and 12 % in 2012 with a fine of 100 euro for each missing certificate.

There also exist other forms of financial support systems in Belgium such as extra

investment support systems for companies. Due to recent reforms of the Flemish

investment support system, this currently leads to increasing uncertainty and

instability with regards to investments in these future renewable energy projects.

32

Table 2.5 Overview of financial support systems in Belgium and other countries

Belgium Other countries

Type of financial support

system

Renewable portfolio

standards of tradable

green energy certificates

(RPT/TGC)

Germany/Spain/Denmark:

renewable energy ‘feed-in’

tariffs (REFIT)

Stability Stable RPTT/TGC

Unstable Flemish

investment support

Re-affirmed in Germany in

2000 with small

adaptations, abandoned in

Denmark in 2001

Results High annual growth (56 %),

mainly through large

corporations

Wind power market with

majority of community-

owned projects, advocacy

coalitions

This economic institutional factor is closely related to the fourth and last key

institutional factor determining wind power developments: the patterns of ownership

and involvement.

2.4 Patterns of ownership and involvement

The ownership by and involvement of local partners can have an important influence

on the support of these local communities for wind power projects in their municipality.

Several types of ownership with regards to wind power projects exist:

1 Corporate ownership

These are mostly non-local types of ownership by traditional utilities, independent

power producers and non-power large corporations. The financial, technical and legal

aspects of wind power projects are dealt with by the corporate partners. The only

input of the local community is to give its consent to the plans, if needed.

2 Co-operative ownership

33

This type of ownership is more participative and locally based. The local communities

are involved through local decision-making and financial involvement can be assured

through public shares in the wind power projects.

These locally inspired and owned projects may counteract some possible objections

to wind power schemes because of the higher rate of planning acceptance. They can

help improve the prospects of schemes being given planning consent, as stated

below (Toke, 2008).

3 Individual owners/farmers

This type of ownership is less participative than co-operatives because of the

individual ownership of the projects but highly locally based since these projects are

realised on the land of farmers who use the wind turbine as an extra source of

income.

In Germany, early wind power policies supported a practice of locally based project

planning with wind projects representing concrete local political, economic and

environmental goals. The resulting public-participative style of ownership has greatly

improved the political profile of wind power because many individuals that invested in

local wind power schemes became ‘energy experts’ resulting in a strong lobby for

good conditions for wind power in the future (Toke, 2008).

In 2004 50 % of the total wind power capacity of 16 000 MW was owned by individual

farmers who were organised into informal local co-operatives.

40 % of wind power had been established by development companies offering public

shares to high-income earners, less participative than truly public co-operatives, and

10 % of the wind power capacity was owned by local people owning the shares in

public, local wind farm co-operatives or ‘Burgerwindparks’ (citizen wind farms),

onshore and offshore.

A crucial factor in this evolution was the availability of an abundant amount of

information about setting up commercial wind power schemes by local enthusiast, of

low cost consultants and of locally based agents of wind generator manufacturers

(Toke, 2007). Currently, these locally owned citizens’ projects are replaced by

34

companies and investor groups with less local involvement, leading to increasing

local opposition in Germany.

In Denmark, the same evolution has taken place. Wind power co-operatives

developed by wind enthusiasts initiated the large deployment of wind power with

currently more than 100 000 Danish families having shares in wind power co-

operatives. This type of ownership was quickly followed by farmer-owned wind power

projects which currently represent the majority of wind power projects.

This tradition of local energy activism in both Germany and Denmark grew from the

anti-nuclear movements of the 1970’s and 1980’s when environmental NGO’s and

other grass-roots movements organised mass based populist movements to react

against further nuclear developments. These movements also encouraged interest in

alternative energy projects, such as wind power (Toke, 2008).

In the Netherlands 60 % of wind power is owned by farmers, 5 % by co-operatives

and 35 % by utilities and larger companies. Much of the wind power development

that has taken place was favoured by the introduction of community ownership to

reduce planning resistance in densely populated areas.

Other EU-countries such as the UK and Spain have little experience with these local

energy actions and the resulting locally owned renewable energy projects. Wind

power development in these countries is largely a matter of large utilities or power

producing corporations that invest in economically, and not socially or ecologically,

interesting projects.

In Belgium, the wind power market is dominated by projects of large utilities, large

power producing corporations and other companies. The largest wind power project

developer is Aspiravi Plus/Electrawinds, an intermunicipal renewable energy project

developer with over 50 wind turbines and a wind power capacity of over 88 MW,

followed by the utilities and power producing corporations of Electrabel and SPE.

35

These 3 actors have developed a total wind power capacity of 150 MW or 62.5 % of

the total wind power capacity.

The other power producting corporations such as Airenergy, Greenwind and RPC

(Renewable Power Company) and other non-power producing companies such as

Colruyt and Bobbejaanland have a total wind power capacity of over 70 MW and a

share of 30 % of the total wind power capacity.

This means that 92.5 % of the wind power projects in Belgium is owned by private,

mostly non-local economic organisations. This could be a disadvantage with regards

to the future development of the political profile and the local acceptability of future

wind power developments.

Only 8 % or 18 MW of wind power capacity is owned by co-operative organisations

such as Ecopower, Wase Wind, Vents d’Houyet/Allons en Vent and Energie 2030,

with public shares open to local and non-local shareholders.

Currently, there aren’t any wind power projects in Belgium who are organized and

owned by farmers or co-operative organizations of farmers.

Table 2.6 Types of ownership and their share in the total wind power capacity in

Belgium and neighbouring countries

Total wind

capacity

Corporations/ Utilities Co-operations/

Community

ownership

Individual

owners

(farmers)

Germany 20622 MW 8000 MW (40 %) 2000 MW (10%) 10000 MW (50

%) (farmers)

Netherlands 1560 MW 500 MW (35 %) 75 MW (5 %) 900 MW (60 %)

(farmers)

Belgium 240 MW Aspiravi 150 MW

(62.5 %) +

+ 70 MW

(corporations) (30 %)

18 MW (8 %) 0

36

An important conclusion of the type of wind power ownership in these different

countries is that locally inspired and owned projects improve the planning

environment for wind power.

It also improves the prospects of planning consent and the political profile of wind

power.

Table 2.7 Overview of types of ownership in Belgium and neighbouring countries

Belgium Other countries

Type of ownership Corporate (utilities,

corporations, companies)

Germany/Denmark:

Community-based

(Burgerwindparks, farmers)

Origin Limited experience with

local energy activism

Local energy activism from

anti-nuclear movements in

‘70’s and ‘80’s

Results Limited local

participation/support,

Low, unknown political

profile

Large local support

Large financial participation

(Denmark + 100 000

households)

Improved political profile

(Germany: energy experts)

Conditions Limited information on

commercial schemes,

limited experience with

local energy projects,

limited stable political,

economic support

Abundant amount of

information on commercial

schemes, low cost

consultants, locally based

agents of wind generator

manufacturers

Extra local benefits can be achieved by share-holding of the municipality or

individuals in the project, by local taxation of wind farms by local business taxes, by

offering incentives to local energy consumption by means of more readily and more

cheaply green energy provision to locals, by means of economic regeneration where

profits from wind farms are used to stimulate local job creation in sectors other than

electricity generation and by environmental regeneration where these profits are used

to improve the ecological quality of the surrounding land (Szarka, 2006).

37

To stimulate these co-operative wind power schemes started by local enthusiasts,

knowledge and confidence about wind power technology has to be disseminated as

widely as possible, as this has led to success in Germany and Denmark (Toke,

Community Wind Power in Europe and the UK, 2007).

What is needed in these communities to develop community-owned wind power

schemes are skills, resources, time, access to information, liaisons with other

organizations, money and funding, strategic planning, flexibility, knowledge of these

communities and a clear project identity (Hinshelwood, 2001).

In this chapter we examined four key institutional factors that determine the outcome

of wind power developments.

If we compare the Belgian situation of these factors to the situation in our

neighbouring countries, especially compared to Germany, there are still a lot of

factors that can be improved in order to stimulate future wind power developments.

Especially with regards to local collaborative practices in the planning regimes and

the decision-making local communities should be more involved in order to stimulate

the local acceptance. This involvement can be realised through financial participation

of these communities and their members by means of well-prepared co-operative

wind power projects and by improved democratic procedures.

Investment risks for these local initiatives can be reduced by stable and more

predictable incentive regimes.

The formation of attitudes with regards to wind power projects in Belgium and how

developers and authorities can respond to this will be studied more into detail in the

second part of the LACSAWEP-project.

In the first part of the LACSAWEP-project the perception of wind turbines in the

Belgian landscape will be examined through photo-surveys which will result in a

perceptual wind map of Belgium. In the next chapter, we will discuss some wind

maps which have already been developed in our country, in the Netherlands and in

England by means of spatial, environmental and visual/landscape criteria.

38

3 Wind maps in Flanders, the Walloon Region and in the

Netherlands and the UK

In this chapter we will look at different spatial maps for wind power developments that

have already have been developed in Flanders, the Walloon Region and in the

Netherlands and the UK.

These maps which are based on expert interpretations of landscapes or spatial

destinations are used to support administrators and politicians in discussions on wind

power projects and to develop a spatial and environmental policy for renewable

energy projects that is backed by scientific results.

Only maps which have been designed exclusively for the evaluation of wind turbines

will be discussed, although other maps such as bird and landscape atlases are also

being used to evaluate wind turbine locations.

It is our intention to develop a similar wind map for Belgium, not based on expert

opinions but on the individual appreciation of the Belgian landscape by all Belgians, a

unique project.

3.1 Windplan Vlaanderen

A first wind map is the ‘Windplan Vlaanderen’ which has been developed in 2000 by

the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and the Organisatie voor Duurzame Energie Vlaanderen.

This map is developed through a spatial and meteorological analysis of Flanders

(Cabooter Y., Dewilde L., Langie M., 2000).

The results are two maps: a map with an overview of the average wind speeds at

different hub heights (50 and 75 m) and a map with the Flemish territory classified

according to 4 classes of suitability for wind power development.

Class 0 zones are unsuitable for wind power development. These are housing areas

and natural areas where the impact of wind turbines is deemed to be very negative.

Class 1 zones are very suitable for wind power development and have the highest

priority. These are industrial areas or areas with communal purposes where wind

turbines can be situated without any extra impact on the environment.

39

Class 2 zones are suitable for wind power development but with some limitations with

regards to visual and environmental impacts. These zones are agricultural or

recreational areas.

Finally, class 3 zones are also still suitable for wind turbines but only if the

environmental and visual impacts of wind turbine have been thoroughly analyzed

because of the vulnerability and the importance of the landscape of mainly

agricultural areas.

This ‘Windplan Vlaanderen’ is an interesting, policy supporting tool to make a first

assessment of the suitability of a specific area for the development of a wind power

project. During the further development of these projects, extra analyses are needed

to examine the visual, environmental and other impacts of wind turbines on the

location.

An example of the spatial wind map for Leuven can be seen as Map 1 in the annex.

3.2 Inpasbaarheidskaart windturbines West-Vlaandere n

This wind map was developed by Aeolus and 3 E for the Flemish administration of

economy, department natural resources and Energy in 2002 (Aeolus, 3 E, 2002).

It is the result of a landscape study by experts for the province of West-Vlaanderen

where the interaction between these landscapes and wind turbines is examined.

The result is a map of West-Vlaanderen with potential locations for wind turbine parks.

Here, wind turbines can be tolerated or adapted in the landscape, some wind turbine

parks can even accentuate certain landscape features or renew or modernize these

landscapes.

First, landscape structure areas were determined which have typical landscape

features which favour the allocation of wind turbine parks.

These features are:

1 flat, hard infrastructures which have a large-scale, rational and technical

character, with a high intensity of use for work or living such as regional

industrial areas and harbours

40

2 linear, hard infrastructures which have a large-scale, linear and artificial

character such as motorways, railroads and canals

3 positively affirming reliefs where the spatial structure of abiotical landscape

features can be accentuated by wind turbines

4 rational, large-scale polder landscapes where the horizontal, rational pattern

can be emphasized by wind turbines

The next step in the development of the wind map for West-Vlaanderen was the

exclusion of veto-areas because of their visual and landscape protection status and

the exclusion of the class-o areas that can be found on the Windplan Vlaanderen

because of legal spatial restrictions.

The result is the wind map for West-Vlaanderen which can be found as Map 2.

In a third step, a perceptual analysis of the allocation of wind turbines on the resulting

potential locations was executed.

3.3 Carte des contraintes paysagères et environneme ntales pour

l’implantation des éoliennes en région Wallonne

This wind map with the visual and environmental restrictions on wind power

developments in the Walloon Region has been developed in 2004 by the university of

Gembloux (Laboratoires d’Aménagement du Territoire et de Géomatique) and has

been financed by the Walloon Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire, de

l’Urbanisme et de l’Environnement (Cuvelier M., Schaar C. Feltz C. Lejeune P., 2004).

In the first phase of this project a list of criteria and indicators was developed to

assess the environmental and visual impacts of wind power projects in the Walloon

Region.

For every non-visual, environmental criterion, restricting indicators were found

primarily in legal documents to represent the impact of wind turbines on these

features : ecological indicators, 3 aeronautics indicators, 1 acoustical indicator, 1

shade indicator, 3 security indicators, 3 spatial indicators (exclusion of nature areas,

41

park areas, green areas), 5 geological and hydrographical indicators and 1

telecommunications indicator.

For the landscape criteria 15 indicators were determined which were adapted to the

scale and the of the landscape: 2 indicators referring to the patrimonial value of

macro-landscapes, 3 indicators referring to specific uses of forests, 2 indicators to

represent the value of nature parks and large agricultural landscape units, 6

indicators assessing the visual impact on landscape units which have special urban,

(proto-)industrial, rural, structural and monumental patrimonial value and 2 indicators

determining the visual importance of local sites (Zones d’Intérêt Paysager ZIP,

Périmètres d’Intérêt Paysager PIP).

According to the importance of these indicators, 3 classes of restrictions on wind

power developments in specific areas are created:

1 locations with absolute restrictions where wind turbines should be excluded

2 locations with high sensitivity to wind turbine projects where projects

normally are not possible but additional studies can reassess the impacts

of wind turbines

3 sensitive areas where extra attention should be paid to impact assessment

analyses

In the second phase, these indicators and their restrictions are translated into maps

which reflect the sensitivity of a region to wind power developments with regards to

these indicators.

In the third phase: a synthesizing wind map is developed which represents the 3

classes of restrictions of locations to wind power developments combined for all the

indicators.

Wind map 3 a gives an overview of the sensitivity of locations in the Walloon Region

to wind turbine projects according to landscape/visual indicators.

Wind map 3 b is the actual synthesizing wind map of the Walloon Region where the

level of restrictions of locations in the Walloon Region with regards to wind power

developments is determined for all indicators (visual and environmental).

42

Although this wind map is used by authorities to assess the sensitivity of a region to

specific wind power developments, this information has to be complemented by the

Environmental Impact Assessment of each wind turbine project.

3.4 Suitable locations for wind turbines in the Net herlands in “Frisse Wind

door Nederland”

This wind map for wind turbine parks in the Netherlands was developed in 2000 from

discussions between the 12 provincial environmental federations together with

regional and local nature and environmental organisations (Stichting Natuur en Milieu,

2000).

The guidelines for the environmental and visual acceptable choice of suitable

locations for wind turbine parks were the clustering of wind turbines and the

combination with linear infrastructures and industrial areas.

For each province, wind power opportunities were determined and locations for wind

turbine parks were found with a total extra wind power capacity of 1840 MW.

Map 4 a represents the map of the province of Zuid-Holland with possible locations

for wind turbines.

Map 4 b gives an overview of suitable locations for wind turbines in the Netherlands.

3.5 Sensitivity assessment of landscape character a reas in Cornwall and

England and the vulnerability of these areas to the introduction of wind

turbines

The wind map of Cornwall was developed for the Cornwall sustainable energy project

in 2004 by Land use and CAG Consultants (Land use consultants and CAG

Consultants, 2004).

The sensitivity of landscape character areas to wind power developments was

evaluated by means of physical criteria such as the landform, shape and scale of the

landscape, the nature of the skyline, the landscape pattern and the appearance of

foci, the openness, the character of the built environment, the transport network and

43

other special landscape features. These were complemented by perceptual criteria

such as the sense of remoteness, the sense of wildness, the landscape value, the

impact on visual amenities and the intervisibility with adjacent landscapes (Land use

consultants and CAG consultants, 2004, Appendix 2).

Landscape character areas with high to moderate-high sensitivity to wind power

development were excluded from potential locations for wind turbine parks, as well as

already designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB’s), Heritage Coasts

with their scenic qualities and a buffer zone of 7 km around existing wind turbine

parks.

The result was a wind map with character areas with moderate, moderate-low to low

sensitivity to wind power developments.

Another map represents the potentially suitable scales of the wind power

developments in the appropriate landscape character areas (single turbines, small to

large scale clusters of wind turbines).

The resulting wind maps for Cornwall can be found as Map 5.

Map 5 a shows the sensitivity of the different landscape character areas of Cornwall

to wind power developments.

Map 5 b shows the different landscape character areas that have a certain potential

for wind power developments.

Map 5 c shows the relationship between the landform scale and the landscape

pattern (landscape capacity) and the potentially suitable scales of wind turbine

developments.

This last map can also be viewed as the assessment of the landscape capacity of a

specific area for wind turbine developments.

In another study executed by the University of Newcastle on landscape appraisal for

onshore wind development in the North-East Region of England in 2003 (Anderson,

Benson, Scott, 2003), this capacity for wind power is calculated from the sensitivity of

a landscape to wind turbine developments combined with the visibility and the values

attached to this landscape, as shown in the following figure 3.1.

44

Figure 3.1 Evaluation of landscape capacities for wind turbine developments in

England

Source: Anderson, Benson, Scott, 2003

This is an interesting wind map because of the assessment of the sensitivity of

landscapes to wind turbine developments. This assessment, and the previously

discussed wind maps, start from spatial, environmental and visual/landscape criteria

as used by experts. In the LACSAWEP-project it is our aim to come up with a

sensitivity map of Belgian landscapes to wind turbine developments that is based on

the visual appreciation of wind turbines in the landscapes by all the Belgians. This will

be explained in the following reports.

Physical Characteristics

����

Perceptual Characteristics

����

Landscape Sensitivities

�

Visibility

Landscape Values

�

Landscape capacities

+ =

+

+

Combined Landscape

Sensitivities

=

Landscape Character

45

Conclusion

In this first report, we have studied the current situation of wind power in Belgium and

Europe.

In the first chapter we gave an overview of the evolution of wind power in Belgium

and the EU. Compared to the other EU-countries, especially the ‘old’ 15 member

states of the EU, Belgium is located at the bottom of the rankings with regards to

wind power capacity and the production of electricity from renewable energies.

Although this is also related to the specific geographical and spatial situation of

Belgium, scenario’s which take into account these important restrictions still predict

possible wind power developments from 244 MW of wind power capacity currently in

Belgium to 1000 MW of wind power capacity onshore in Flanders by 2020. 8 % of the

total electricity demand in Flanders could be produced by wind power, onshore and

offshore, by 2020.

In the second chapter, we examined the four key institutional explanations for the

different wind power outcomes in Belgium and other EU-countries.

The attitudes of people towards wind power development are highly influenced by

their level of participation in these wind power projects. The higher this participation is,

either financially or politically, the better the involvement of all local interests from

inside the community will be and the better the outcome of a wind power project will

be for all actors.

In Belgium, this local participation still has to be stimulated by developing appropriate

political, economic and social institutions, as has happened in neighbouring countries.

The formation of attitudes towards wind power in Belgium and the possible strategies

of developers and authorities will be studied more into detail in the second research

line of the LACSAWEP-project.

In the third chapter, we looked at some existing wind maps in Belgium and our

neighbouring countries which are used to evaluate the spatial, environmental and

visual/landscape impacts of wind turbines on their environment. These are all expert-

based and include data from different sources.

46

In the first research line of the LACSAWEP-project the actual perception of wind

turbines in the Belgian landscapes will be studied by means of representative photo-

questionnaires. This research will be discussed in future reports.

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